Machine Design - I .

Introduction to Machine Design

Machine Design is :
Introduction of New and Better Machines. & Improving Existing Machines

Subject of machine design deals with the art of designing machines. Mechanical engineering
design is defined as the use of scientific principles, technical information, and in the description
of a machine or a mechanical system to perform specific functions with maximum economy and
efficiency. The description of a mechanical system is in form of drawings or blue prints.

• Classifications of Machine Design

 Adaptive
 Development
 New / Innovative
Adaptive
 Adaptation of existing designs
 Needs no special skills
 Minor alterations / modifications in existing design
Development
 Modification of existing design into new idea
 Requires scientific training and design ability
 Adopting new material or manufacturing process
 Final product differs from original product
New / Innovative
 Creative thinking
 Ability of very high order
 Lots of research

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 1 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

• Types of Design
 Rational – Mathematical formulae based on Principle of Mechanics
 Empirical – Empirical formulae based on practice and experience
 Industrial – Manufacutring aspects
 Industrial – Manufacturing aspects
 Optimum – Best design for given objective function under specified constraints
 System – complex Mechanical System e.g. Car
 Element – Design of any element e.g. Piston, crankshaft
 Computer – Aided – Use of computer systems for modeling, analysis and optimization

• General Procedure in Machine Design

 Identification
 Evolution
 Modification
 Detailing
 Manufacturing
Identification
 Identify the problem
 Understand the need and purpose of the design
Evolution
 Select the possible mechanisms for the desired motion
 Analyze the forces and types of forces on each member
 Select material for each member
 Design of Elements
o Size of each element to withstand the stresses
o Members should resist deflection and deformation
Detailing
 A detailed drawing with complete specification for manufacturing of :
o Each component / element
o Assembly of machine

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 2 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
Modification
• Modification of parts to be done to :

o Facilitate manufacturing

o Reduction of cost

o Agree with past experience

 Flow Chart (General Procedure in Machine Design):

IDENTIFICATION

Selecting of Mechanism

Analysis of Forces

Material Selection

Design of Elements

Modification

• General Considerations in Machine Design

 Types of loads / stresses
 Kinematics of Machine
 Selection of Material
 Form and Size of Parts
 Frictional Resistance and Lubrication of Parts
 Convenient features for operation
 Economical features
 Use of standard parts

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 3 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
 Safety
 Production facilities
 Number of Machines to be made
 Cost
 Assembly

• MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Casting Process
 Sand Mould casting
 Permenant Mould Casting
 Die Casting
 Eg. Gear Box, Glywheel, M/c tool beds

Deformation Process
 Forging, Rolling, Extrusion, Press Working
 Connecting rod, crankshaft, I – beams
Material Removal Process
 Turning, Milling, Shaping, Planing, Grinding
Joining Process
 Bolting, Riveting, Welding

• Design Considerations in Castings:

1. Always keep the stressed areas of the part in compression (fig:1.1)
2. Round all external corners (fig:1.2)

Fig 1.1 Fig 1.2 Fig 1.3

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 4 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

Fig 1.4 Fig 1.5

3. Avoid abrupt changes in cross section (fig:1.3)
4. Avoid concentration of molten metal at junctions (fig 1.4)
5. Avoid very thin sections
6. Shot blast the parts wherever possible
7. Provide adequate draft for removal of part from mould (fig:1.5)

• Design Considerations in Forgings:

1. Component should be able to achieve radial flow of grains (fig:1.6)
2. Parting line should be in one plane (fig:1.7 / 1.8)

Fig 1.6
Fig 1.7

Fig 1.8

Fig 1.9

3. Counter – lock to be provided for parting line not in one plane (fig:1.9)
4. Sufficient draft to be provided
5. Sharp corners should be avoided; fillet and corner radii be given
6. Ribs should not be thin
7. Very thin sections should be avoided

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 5 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

• Design Considerations in Machining:

1. Avoid Machining
2. Specify liberal tolerances
3. Avoid sharp corners
4. Use standard dimensions or stock parts
5. Rigid design to sustain the forces of machining
6. Avoid shoulders and undercuts
7. Avoid hard materials

• Ergonomic Considerations in Machine Design

It is the relationship between man and machine and the application of anatomical, physiological
and psychological principles to solve the problems arising from man-machine relationship.

Greek Word : Ergon – Work and Nomos – Natural Laws

The points considered for ergonomic considerations are :

 Study of Anatomical Factors
 Layout of Instrument and Display panels for accurate perception
 Design of hand levers / wheels
 Energy expenditure in hand and foot operations
 Lighting, noise and climatic conditions in machine environment
The controls used to operate the machines consist of levers, cranks, hand wheels, knobs,
switches, push buttons and pedals. Most of them are hand operated. The ergonomic
considerations in design of controls are as follows:
1. The controls should be easily accessible and logically positioned. The control operation
should involve minimum motions and avoid awkward movements.
2. The shape of the control component, which comes in contact with hands, should be in
conformity with the anatomy of human hands.
3. Proper colours produce psychological effects. The controls should be painted in red
colour in grey background of machine tools to call for attention.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 6 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

• Aesthetic Considerations in Machine Design

Aesthetic is the outward expression of the quality of the product and is the first point of contact
with the user. Although function, costs, safety and the physical aspects may be paramount in the
initial stages ofthe design process, the appearance of product is often a major factor in its
salability.

If the first impression is good but the performance is not good, then the user will be
disappointed. On the other hand, if the appearance itself does not appeal, it leads a user to infer
that even the design is poor.

Some important rules about aesthetics are:

 Appearance should reflect function and in no way distract from efficiency of a product.
 Appearance should not add unnecessarily to the cost unless it is a prime requirement.
 Appearance should reflect quality of the product.
 More pleasing designs
 Functional requirements govern the aesthetics
o Shape of boeing is streamlined due to aerodynamics
o Chromium plating on household appliances is for corrosion resistance rather than
pleasing appearance
 Selection of proper colours

• Red • Danger, Hazard

• Orange • Possible Danger

• Yellow • Caution

• Green • Safety

• Blue • Caution, Cold

• Grey • Dull

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 7 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
Material Properties

• Mechanical Properties of Engineering Materials

The following mechanical properties are of significant importance in selection of material for
structural machine component.

1. Strength: It is the ability of the material to resist, without rupture, to external forces
causing various types of stresses. Depending upon the type of stressed induced by
external stresses induced by external loads, strength is expressed as tensile strength,
compressive strength and shear strength, Yield strength and ultimate tensile strength.
2. Elasticity: It is the ability of the material to regain its original shape and size after the
deformation, when the external forces are removed. All engineering materials are elastic
but the degree of elasticity varies from metal to metal. Steel is perfectly elastic within
elastic limit.
3. Plasticity: It is the ability of the material to retain the deformation produced under the
load on permanent basis. The external forces deform the metal to such an extent that it
cannot fully recover its original dimensions, without fracture. It is one of the most
usefuel engineering properties for applications such as car body, hood and doors, which
are stamped out without fracture.
4. Stiffness: It is defined as the ability of the material to resist deformation under the action
of external load. For a given stress within the elastic limit, the material that deforms the
least is the stiffest. Modulus of elasticity (E), is the measure of stiffness. It is an
important consideration in design of shafts.
5. Resilience: It is the ability of the material to absorb energy when deformed elastically
and to release this energy when unloaded. This property is essential for spring materials.
It is measured by Modulus of Resilience.
6. Toughness: It is the ability of the material to absorb the energy before fracture has taken
place. It is the energy for failure by fracture. This property is essential for machine
components which are required to withstand the impact loads. Tough materials have the
ability to bend, twist and stretch before failure has taken place.
7. Malleability: It is the ability of the material to deform to a greater extent before the sign
of crack when it is subjected to compressive force. It is the ability of the material to be
hammered out into thin sections. Malleable metals can be rolled, forged and extruded
under the action of compressive forces. Malleability increases with the increase in
temperature.
8. Ductility: It is the ability of the material to deform to greater extent before the sign of
crack, when it is subjected to tensile force. Ductile materials can be formed, drawn or
bent. It is measured in terms of percentage elongation in length or reduction in area.
Some metals are soft but weak in tension and tend to tear under tensile loading.
9. Brittleness: It is that property of the material which shows negligible plastic
deformation before fracture takes place. It is opposite to ductility. Cast iron is a brittle
material.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 8 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
10. Hardness: It is the resistance of the material to penetration or permanent deformation. It
indicates resistance to abrasion, scratching, cutting, shaping. Hardness is an important in
selection of material for parts which rub on one another. It is measured by Brinell,
Rockness, Vicker and Shore Scleroscope hardness test.

• Stress – Strain Diagrams

In designing various parts of a machine, it is necessary to know how the material will function.
Very useful information concerning the behavior of material and its usefulness for engineering
applications can be obtained by making a tensile test and plotting a curve showing the variation
of stress with respect to strain.

The test consists of gradually loading a standard specimen of a material and noting the
corresponding values of load and elongation until the specimen fractures. The load is applied
and measured by a testing machine. The stress is determined by dividing the load values by the
original cross – sectional area of the specimen. The elongation is measured by determining the
amount that two reference points on the specimen are moved apart by the action of the machine.
Following information can be obtained from tensile test :
1. Proportional limit
2. Elastic limit
3. Modulus of Elasticity
4. Yield Strength
5. Ultimate Tensile Strength
6. Modulus of Resilience
7. Modulus of Toughness
8. Percentage Elongation
9. Percentage Reduction in Area

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 9 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

U U

Y1 F

Stress – Strain Diagram of Ductile Materials Stress – Strain Diagram of Brittle Materials

1. Proportional Limit: It is defined as “the stress at which the stress – strain curve begins
to deviate from the straight line”. Point P indicates the proportional limit. O to A is
straight line, which represents that the stress is proportional to strain. Beyond A curve
deviates from straight line, indicating that Hooke’s law holds good up to point A.
2. Elastic Limit: It is defined as “the maximum stress without any permanent
deformation”. It is the point after ‘A’ upto ‘E’ wherein the curve is not a deviates from
the proportional straight line. Upto this point the material will regain its initial size and
shape, when the load is removed. It means that the material has elastic properties, hence
this point is called as ‘Elastic Limit’.

U U

Y1 F Y1 F
E E
P Y2 P Y2

Stress – Strain Diagram of Ductile Materials Stress – Strain Diagram of Ductile Materials

3. Yield Point : It is defined as “the maximum stress at which a marked increase in

elongation occurs without increase in load”. Beyond point ‘E’, plastic deformation
occurs and material starts yielding. It is not possible to recover the initial size and shape
of the specimen on the removal of the load. The strain increases at a faster rate up to
point Y 1 . In case of mild steel, it is observed that there is small reduction in the load and
the curve drops down up to point Y 2 immediately after the yielding starts. The points Y 1
and Y 2 are called upper and lower yield points, respectively.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 10 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
4. Ultimate Tensile Strength: It is defined as “the largest stress obtained by dividing the
largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-sectional area of the test
piece”. It is the maximum stress that can be reached in tension test. After yield point,
plastic deformation of the specimen increases. The material becomes stronger due to
strain hardening. Higher and higher load is required to deform the material. The gradual
decrease in the strain of the specimen is followed with the uniform reduction of its cross-
sectional area.
5. Breaking Strength: It is defined as “the stress at the time of fracture”. After point U
there is a localized reduction in cross-sectional area called necking. The cross –sectional
area at the neck decreases rapidly and fracture takes place at the narrowest cross-section
of the neck. The breaking strength is slightly lower than the ultimate tensile strength.
6. Modulus of Resilience: It is the strain energy per unit volume that is required to stress
the specimen in tension test to elastic limit point. It is represented by area under stress-
strain curve from origin to the elastic limit point.
7. Modulus of Toughness: It is the total area under stress-strain curve in tension test,
which also represents the work done to fracture the specimen.
8. Percentage Elongation: It is defined as “the ratio of the increase in the length of the
gauge section, of the specimen, to its original length, expressed in percent”.

 l − l0  where l 0 = original length

Percentage Elongation =   × 100
 l0  l = length after fracture

9. Percentage Reduction in Area: It is defined as “the ratio of decrease in cross-sectional

area of the specimen, after fracture, to the original cross-sectional are, expressed in
percent”.

 A − A where A0 = Original cross-sectional area

Percentage Reduction in Area =  0  × 100
 A0  A = Cross-sectional area of neck

Percentage Elongation and Reduction in Area are considered as an index of quality for the
material.

10. Modulus of Resilience: It is the strain energy per unit volume that is required to stress
the specimen in tension test to elastic limit point. It is represented by area under stress –
strain curve from origin to the elastic limit point.
11. Modulus of Toughness: It is the total area under stress-strain curve in tension test,
which also represents the work done to fracture the specimen.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 11 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

• Stress – Strain Diagram for Brittle Materials:

As shown in the diagram above, it is observed that such materials do not exhibit the yield point.
The deviation of stress-strain curve from straight line begins very early and fracture occurs
suddenly at point U with very plastic deformation and without necking. Therefore, the ultimate
tensile strength is considered as failure criterion is brittle materials.

• Selection of Material
The factors which should be considered while selecting the material for machine component are:
1. Availability: The material should be readily available, in large quantities to meet
requirement.
2. Cost: Cost are of two types : a) Cost of material ; b) Cost of processing the material into
finished goods. It is likely that the cost of material may be low, but the processing may
involve costly manufacturing operations. There is a limiting cost beyond which the
designer cannot, else he has to consider alternative materials.
3. Mechanical Properties: Depending upon the service conditions and the functional
requirement, different mechanical properties are considered and a suitable material is
selected.
 A material for connecting rod should be capable to withstand fluctuating stresses, here
endurance limit is the criteria for selection.
 Piston rings should have hard surface to resist wear due to rubbing action with cylinder
surface and surface hardness is the selection criterion.
 Bearing materials should have low coefficient of friction, whereas, clutch and brake
linings should have high coefficient of friction.
Mechanical properties are the most important technical factor governing the selection of
material.

4. Manufacturing Considerations: In some applications, machinability of material is an

important consideration in selection. The manufacturing processes, such as casting,
forging, extrusion, welding and machining govern the selection of material. Sometimes
an expensive material is more economical than a cheaper one which is difficult to
machine.
 For complex shape, castability is important.
 For fabricated assemblies, weldability is important.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 12 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .

• Factor of Safety
While designing a component, it is necessary to ensure sufficient reserve strength in case of an
accident. This is ensured by taking suitable factor of safety (F.O.S.)
Why to take FOS in the design?
There are number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately in the design analysis, but
the stresses used in the design of a component must be safe so as not to cause failure.

If the component has permanent deformation, cracks or wear then it is considered as failure.
Hence stresses induced in the component should not exceed yield, ultimate, endurance or creep
strength for the material of that component. These stresses are also called as stresses at failure or
critical stresses.

. But there are certain uncertainties which are not possible to evaluate at the design stage suchas;
1. Uncertainty in the magnitude of the external load applied on the component.
2. Variation in the mechanical properties of material like yield or ultimate strength.
3. Variation in the dimensions of the component due to improper workmanship.
4. Assumptions made during design to simplify the calculations which may not be valid
exactly in actual working condition.
5. To meet above mentioned uncertainties, it is necessary to keep some strength in reserve
at the design stage. This is ensured by incorporating a suitable safety margin known as
‘Factor of safety’ in the design calculations.
Factor of Safety is defined as the ‘ratio of critical stress or stress at failure to the design or
permissible stress.
Failure Stress
F.O.S . =
Allowable Stress

Failure Load
F.O.S . =
Working Load

Allowable Stress is a stress value which is used in design to determine the dimensions of
component. It is considered as stress, which the designer expects will not exceeded under
normal operating conditions.

For ductile materials the allowable stress is given by :

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 13 FCRIT, Vashi

Machine Design - I .
S yt
σ=
F .O.S .
For brittle materials the allowable stress is given by :
S ut
σ=
F .O.S .
Factor of safety is taken for number of factors which are difficult to evaluate accurately:
 Uncertainty in the magnitude of external force acting on the component.
 Variation in the properties of materials like yield strength or ultimate strength
 Variations in the dimension of the component due to imperfect workmanship.
 Assumptions made in design analysis, may not be valid under working conditions.

Factors for selection of magnitude of Factor of Safety

1. Effect of Failure : factor of safety is taken high, where failure of machine part may
result in serious accidents.
2. Type of Load : Low for static load and high for impact loading conditions
3. Degree of Accuracy in Force Analysis : When the forces acting on the machine
component are determined precisely, low factor of safety is taken else high F.O.S. is
taken.
4. Material of Component : Low for ductile material and high for brittle materials.
5. Reliability of Component : Factor of safety increases with increasing reliability.
6. Cost of Component : F.O.S. is low for cheap materials.
7. Testing of Machine Element : When machine component can be tested under actual
conditions, low F.O.S. is taken.

Prof. Aqleem Siddiqui 14 FCRIT, Vashi

 Design of Machine Elements - I .

Knuckle Joint

Eye
Tensile Failure Eye
Shear Failure

Pin
Bending Failure
Pin
Shear Failure

Knuckle Joint 1