Anatomy & Physiology Overview: The Respiratory System

The respiratory system is composed of the upper and lower respiratory tracts. Together, the

two tracts are responsible for ventilation (movement of air in and out of the airways). The

upper tract, known as the upper airway, warms and filters inspired air so that the lower

respiratory tract, the lungs, can accomplish gas exchange. Gas exchange involves delivering

oxygen to the tissues through the blood stream and expelling waste gases such as carbon

dioxide during expiration. The respiratory system works in concert with the cardiovascular

system; the respiratory system is responsible for ventilation and diffusion, and the

cardiovascular system is responsible for perfusion.

The upper airway structures consist of the nose, sinuses and nasal passages, pharynx,

tonsils and adenoids, larynx and trachea.

The lower respiratory tract consists of the lungs, which contain the bronchial and

alveolar structures needed for gas exchange.

The cells of the body need energy for their chemical activity that maintains homeostasis.

Most of this energy is derived from chemical reaction which can only take place in the

presence of oxygen (O2). The main waste product of these reactions is carbon dioxide (CO2).

External respiration: Exchange of gases between the blood and the lung

Internal respiration: between blood and cells.

The organ of the respiratory system:

 Nose

 Pharynx

 Larynx

 Trachea

 Two bronchi (one bronchus to each lung)

 Bronchioles and the smaller air passages

 Two lungs and their coverings, the pleura

 Muscle of respiration the intercostal muscles and the diaphragm

Nose & Nasal Cavity

Nasal cavity divided by septum.

The roof is formed by the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone, and the sphenoid bone,

frontal bone & nasal bones

The floor is formed by the roof of the mouth and consist of the hard palate in front and the

soft palate behind. The hard palate is composed of the maxilla and palatine bones and soft

palate consist of involuntary muscle

The medial wall is formed by the septum

The lateral wall is formed by the maxilla, the ethmoid bone and the inferior conchae

The posterior wall is formed by the posterior wall of the pharynx

The nose is lined with ciliated columnar epithelium (ciliated mucus membrane) which

contain mucus that secreting goblet cells.

The anterior nares or nostril are the opening from the exterior into nasal cavity, hair is

present.

The posterior nares are the openings from the nasal cavity into the pharynx
The paranasal sinuses are cavities in the bones of the face and the cranium which contain air.

There are tiny openings between the paranasal sinuses and the nasal cavity. They are lined

with mucus membrane, continuous with nasal cavity.

Main sinus:

Maxillary sinuses in lateral walls

Frontal and sphenoidal sinuses in the roof

Ethmoidal sinuses in the upper part of the lateral wall

Function of sinuses:

Increasing the resonance of speech

To lighten the skull

Respiratory function of nose

The function of nose is warmed, moistened and filtered the air.

Warming

The immense vascularity of the mucosa permits rapid warming as the air flows past. This also

explains the large blood loss when a nosebleed (epistaxis) occurs.

Filtering and cleaning.

Hairs at the anterior nares trap larger particles. Smaller particles such as dust and bacteria

settle and adhere to the mucus. Mucus protects the underlying epithelium from irritation and

prevents drying. Synchronous beating of the cilia wafts the mucus towards the throat where it

is swallowed or expectorated.

Humidification.
This occurs as air travel over the moist mucosa and becomes saturated with water vapour.

Irritation of the nasal mucosa results in sneezing, a reflex action that forcibly expels an

irritant.

Olfactory function in nose

There are nerve endings that detect smell, located in the roof of nose in the area of cribriform

plate of the ethmoid bones and the superior conchae.

The nerve stimulated by chemical substance that given off by odorous materials. The

resultant nerve impulses are conveyed by the olfactory nerves to brain.

Pharynx
Divided into 3 parts:

The nasopharynx

Lies behind the nose above the level of soft palate.

On its lateral walls are the two opening of auditory tubes, one leading to middle ear

On posterior wall, the are pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)

The oropharynx

The oral part of the pharynx lies behind the mouth, extending from below the level of the soft

palate to the level of the upper part of the body of the 3rd cervical vertebra. The lateral walls
of the pharynx blend with the soft palate to form two folds on each side. Between each pair of

folds is a collection of lymphoid tissue called the palatine tonsil.

When swallowing, the soft palate and uvula are pushed upwards, sealing off the nasal cavity

and preventing the entry of food and fluids

The laryngopharynx

The laryngeal part of the pharynx extends from the oropharynx above and continues as the

oesophagus below, with the larynx lying anteriorly.

Functions

Passageway for air and food

The pharynx is involved in both the respiratory and the digestive systems: air passes through

the nasal and oral sections, and food through the oral and laryngeal sections.

Hearing

The auditory tube, extending from the nasopharynx to each middle ear, allows air to enter the

middle ear. This leads to air in the middle ear being at the same pressure as the outer ear,

protecting the tympanic membrane from any changes in atmospheric pressure.

Protection

The lymphatic tissue of the pharyngeal and laryngeal tonsils produces antibodies in response

to swallowed or inhaled antigens.

Speech
acting as a resonating chamber for sound ascending from the larynx, it helps (together with

the sinuses) to give the voice its individual characteristics.

Larynx (voice box)

Position

Links the laryngopharynx and the trachea. It lies in front of the laryngopharynx and the 3rd,

4th, 5th and 6th cervical vertebrae.

The larynx is composed of several irregularly shaped cartilages attached to each other by

ligaments and membranes. The main cartilages are:

The epiglottis

It closes off the larynx during swallowing, protecting the lungs from accidental inhalation of

foreign objects.

Function of larynx

Production of sound and speech

Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a continuation of the larynx and extends downwards to about the

level of the 5th thoracic vertebra where it divides at the carina into the right and left primary

bronchi, one bronchus going to each lung.

Three layer of tissue:

the outer layer

consist fibrous and elastic tissue and encloses the cartilages

the middle layer

consist of cartilages and bands of smooth muscle that wind round the trachea in a helical

arrangement

the inner lining

consist ciliated columnar epithelium contain mucus that secret goblet cell
function

support and patency

Tracheal cartilages hold the trachea permanently open (patent), but the soft tissue bands in

between the cartilages allow flexibility so that the head and neck can move freely without

obstructing or kinking the trachea.

Mucociliary escalator

This is the synchronous and regular beating of the cilia of the mucous membrane lining that

wafts mucus with adherent particles upwards towards the larynx where it is either swallowed

or coughed up.

Cough reflex

Nerve endings in the larynx, trachea and bronchi are sensitive to irritation, which generates

nerve impulses conducted by the vagus nerves to the respiratory centre in the brain stem. The

reflex motor response is deep inspiration followed by closure of the glottis, closure of the

vocal cords. The abdominal and respiratory muscles then contract causing a sudden and rapid

increase of pressure in the lungs. Then the glottis opens, expelling air through the mouth,

taking mucus and/or foreign material with it.

Bronchi and bronchioles

Composed same tissues as trachea

Right bronchus is wider, shorter and more vertical than left bronchus

Functions of air passages not involved in gaseous exchange it control of air entry, the

diameter of respiratory passages may be altered by contraction or relaxation the involuntary

muscle.

Alveoli

Process of gas exchange occur

The exchanges of gases during respiration takes place across two membranes the alveolar and

capillary membrane.

It also defends against microbe. It contains lymphocytes and plasma cells, which produce

antibodies in the presence of antigens, and macrophages and phagocytes

Lungs

Coned shaped

Right lung divided into three lobes

Left lung is smaller as heart is situated left of midline. Divided into 2 lobes.

The divisions between the lobes are called fissures.

Pleura & pleural cavity

The pleura consists of closed sac of serous membrane which contain serous fluid

The lung is invaginated into this sac so it forms two layer:

One adheres to lung

To wall thoracic cavity

The visceral pleura

Adherent to lung that cover lobe and passing into fissure which separates them

The parietal pleura

Adherent to inside of chest wall and thoracic surface of diaphragm

It remains detached from the adjacent structures in the mediastinum and continuous with

visceral pleura round the edge of hilum

The pleura cavity

Two layers of pleura are separated by only thin film serous fluid which allow them to glide

over prevent friction between them. the serous fluid secreted by the epithelial cell of the

membrane.

Muscles of respiration

Intercostal muscles

11 pairs of intercostal muscles that occupy the spaces between the 12 pairs of ribs

Arranged in two layers:

The external intercostal muscles fibres

Extend in downward and forward direction from the lower border of rib above to the upper

border of the rib

The internal intercostal muscle fibres

Extend in downward and backwards direction from the lower border of rib above to the upper

border of the rib, cross the external intercostal muscles fibre

Diaphragm

It separating the thoracic cavity and abdominal cavities.

It consists tendon from which muscle fibre radiate to be attached to lower ribs and sternum

and to the vertebral column by 2 crura.

Respiration mechanism

Mechanism of respiration have two phases, namely inspiration and expiration. Inspiration is the

process of inhaling air into the lungs.

During inspiration, the muscles of diaphragm contract and the diaphragm moves downward. This

results in the increase in the volume of the chest cavity, The air pressure inside the chest cavity

decreases. The oxygenated air present outside the body being at high-pressure flow rapidly into the

lungs. In the lungs, oxygenated air reaches the alveoli. Alveoli are thin walled and are surrounded by

a network of blood capillaries. The oxygen passes through the walls of the alveoli into the blood

present in blood capillaries. The oxygen is then supplied to all the tissues of the body. From the

tissues, the waste product, carbon dioxide is absorbed by blood and carried to the alveoli of lungs for

expiration.

Expiration is the process of exhaling air from lungs. During expiration, the muscles of diaphragm

relax and diaphragm moves upward. This results in the decrease in the volume of the chest cavity. The

air pressure inside the chest cavity increases. This pushes out carbon dioxide outside the body.
 Gas exchange

Diffusion of oxygen2 & co2 depends on difference pressure, e.g., between atmospheric air &

the blood or blood and the tissue

External respiration

 O2 concentration in blood is lower than alveoli. Co2 is high.

 Oxygen from alveoli diffuses to blood. Co2 from blood diffuse to alveoli.

Internal inspiration

 Oxygen concentration in tissue lower than blood. Co2 is high.

 Oxygen in blood diffuses to the tissue. Co2 from tissue diffuse to the blood.