Yashwantrao Chavan

Maharashtra Open University

Digital Art

B. Sc. in Media Graphics and Animation

BMG 104: Typography
 Yashwantrao B.Sc. in Media Graphics
Chavan and Animation
Maharashtra
Open University

BMG 104
TYPOGRAPHY
Index

Unit 1 : Type Technology History and Emergence 1

Unit 2 : Typography 20

Unit 3 : Typographic Design Consideration 43

Unit 4 : In-designs Tutorial For Typographic Designs 63

Unit 5 : Copy Preparation Design & Layout 74

Unit 6 : File and Font Formats 86

BMG 104 : Typography
Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University
Vice Chancellor : Prof. Dr. E. Vayunandan
SCHOOL OF CONTINUING EDUCATION SCHOOL COUNCIL
Dr. Rajendra Vadnere Shri. Ashwin B. Sonone Mr. Rajendra katore
Director Associate Professor Chairman, U. K. Metal Industries
School of Continuing Education Film and Television Institute MIDC, Ambad
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Pune Nashik

Dr. Surya Gunjal Mr. Goyanka Shankar Mr. P. V. Patil

Director Country Head Deputy Director
School of Agricultural Science WOW Factors India Pvt., Ltd. District Vocational & Training Centre
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik New Delhi Nashik

Dr. Jaydeep Nikam Dr. Pramod Khandare Mrs. Jyoti Shetty

Associate Professor Assistant Professor Principal
School of Continuing Education School of Computer Science S. P. More College
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Panvel (E)

Dr. Sunanda More Dr. Abhay Patil Dr. Rucha Gujar

Professor Assistant Professor Assistant Professor
School of Science & Technology School of Health Science School of Continuing Education
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik

Prof. Ram Thakar

Assistant Professor
School of Continuing Education
Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik

DEVELOPED BY EDITOR
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Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik Y.C.M. Open University, Nashik

PRODUCTION

Shri. Anand Yadav

Manager
Print Production Centre
YCMOU, Nashik

 2017, Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik 422 222

First Published : July 2017 Publication No. : 2219
Computerised Type Setting : Revised Edition - Aug. 2017 Perfect Computer, Trimurti Chowk, CIDCO, Nashik.
Cover Design :
Printer :
Published by : Dr. Dinesh Bhonde, Registrar, Yashwantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open University, Nashik 422 222.
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 Unit 1 : Type Technology History
and Emergence

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Unit objectives
1.2 History of Type Technology- The Four Revolutions
1.2.1 Mosaic Form
1.2.2 Gutenberg (ca. 1450-1480) & The Impact of Printing)
1.2.3 Industrial Revolution Steam, Line-casting & Automated Punch-cutting
(start 1870-95; end 1950-65)
1.2.3 Photocomposition (Intertype et. al., start 1950-60, end 1975-85)
1.2.4 Digital (start 1973-83)
1.3 Introduction To Typefaces
1.4 Classification of Typefaces
1.4.1 Serif Type Styles - Old Style
1.4.2 Serif Type Styles - Transitional
1.4.3 Serif Type Styles - Modern
1.4.4 Serifs - Slab Serif
1.4.5 Decorative & Display Fonts
1.4.6 Script, brush & Freehand Fonts
1.4.7 Dingbat
1.5 Early Letterform
1.6 Summary
1.7 Key Terms
1.8 End Questions

1.0 Introduction
There are four main types of communication: written, verbal, nonverbal and visual. Written
communication includes email, signs, letters, magazines, books and anything else transcribed into
typed or handwritten words. Verbal communication is auditory, while nonverbal communication is
body language and gestures.

Typography : 1
1. 1 Unit Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
• Trace the history of type technology
• Identify the different classifications of typefaces
• describe typeface synthesis

1. 2 History of Type Technology - The Four Revolutions

Back in the middle ages books were rare items written by scribes. Originally these scribes
were based in monasteries but by the 12th century there were many working for the university
market.

1.2.1 Mosaic Form

Portray tonality was significant milestone in history of visual art. Change in image which
occurs due to change in light or colour is defined as portray tonality. Visual world of shadows and
light around us is continuum of blended colours. This produces a three dimensional reality of colour
and form. primitive artist did not attempt to express tonality due to lack of technology.
• Gutenberg (ca. 1450-1480) & The Impact of Printing)
• Industrial Revolution Steam, Line-casting & Automated Punch-cutting (start 1870-95;
end 1950-65)
• Photocomposition (Intertype et. al., start 1950-60, end 1975-85)
• Digital (start 1973-83)

1.2.2 Gutenberg (ca. 1450-1480) & The Impact of Printing)

Johannes Gutenberg (February 3, 1468) was a German blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and
publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing
to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important invention of
the second millennium, the seminal event which ushered in the modern period of human history. It
played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment,
and the scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy
and the spread of learning to the masses.
Gutenberg in 1439 was the first European to use the printing press and movable type in Europe.
Among his many contributions to printing are: the invention of a process for mass-producing movable
type;[citation needed] the use of oil-based ink for printing books; adjustable molds; mechanical
movable type; and the use of a wooden printing press similar to the agricultural screw presses of the
period. His truly epochal invention was the combination of these elements into a practical system
that allowed the mass production of printed books and was economically viable for printers and
readers alike. Gutenberg’s method for making type is traditionally considered to have included a
type metal alloy and a hand mould for casting type. The alloy was a mixture of lead, tin, and antimony
that melted at a relatively low temperature for faster and more economical casting, cast well, and
created a durable type.
In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of
mass communication which permanently altered the structure of society. The relatively unrestricted
circulation of information—including revolutionary ideas—transcended borders, captured the masses

Typography : 2
in the Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase
in literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the
emerging middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its people led to the
rise of proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the
detriment of Latin’s status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated
Gutenberg-style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale,
while Western-style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium
for modern bulk printing. The use of movable type was a marked improvement on the handwritten
manuscript, which was the existing method of book production in Europe, and upon woodblock
printing, and revolutionized European book-making. Gutenberg’s printing technology spread rapidly
throughout Europe and later the world.
His major work, the Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible), has been acclaimed
for its high aesthetic and technical quality.

1.2.3 Industrial Revolution Steam, Line-casting & Automated

Punch-cutting (start 1870-95; end 1950-65)
Amazingly, the printing press and the science of typecutting had only minor refinements from
the late 1600s to the late 1800s. Towards the end of this period, the industrial revolution brought
major innovations in printing technology. Rotary steam presses (steam 1814, rotary 1868) replaced
hand-operated ones, doing the same job in 16 per cent of the time; photo-engraving took over from
handmade printing plates.
Typesetting itself was transformed by the introduction of line-casting machines, first Ottmar
Mergenthaler’s* Linotype* (1889), and then the Monotype* machine. Essentially, line-casting
allowed type be chosen, used, then recirculate back into the machine automatically. This not only
introduced a huge labor savings in typesetting, (again, on the order of the 85% reduction in printing
time), but also rendered obsolete the huge masses of metal type created by the previously existing
type foundries.
While typesetting and printing speeds increased phenomenally, so did the speed of
punchcutting*. In 1885, Linn Boyd Benton* (then of Benton, Waldo & Company, Milwaukee)
invented a pantographic device that automated the previously painstaking process of creating punches.
His machine could scale a drawing to the required size, as well as compressing or expanding the
characters, and varying the weight slightly to compensate for the larger or smaller size — this last
being a crude form of the optical scaling done by skilled typographers making versions of the same
font for different sizes.
In optical scaling, the thickest strokes retain the same relative thickness at any size, but the
thinnest strokes are not simply scaled up or down with the rest of the type, but made thicker at small
sizes and thinner at large display sizes, so as to provide the best compromise between art and
readability. (Linn Boyd Benton was also a type designer, and father of the prolific Morris Fuller
Benton*, designer of dozens of faces including New Century Schoolbook. He managed manufacturing
at ATF from 1892 until 1932, the year of his death.) The economic impact of all these advances on
the type industry cannot be overstated. For example, in the United States, the majority of type
foundries escaped a bankruptcy bloodbath in 1892 by merging into a single company, called American
Type Founders (ATF). Ultimately twenty-three companies merged into ATF, making it far and away
the dominant American type foundry.
Also around this time, the “point”* measurement system finally reached ascendancy. In the
earlier days of printing, different sizes of type had simply been called by different names. Thus,
“Brevier” was simply the British name for 8-point type of any style. Unfortunately, these names
were not standardized internationally; 8-point type was called “Petit Texte” by the French and
“Testino” by the Italians. Such a naming system also allowed wonderful confusion, such as “English”

Typography : 3
referring both to blackletter type, and a 14-point size; “English English” was thus a 14-point
blackletter*!
Pierre Simon Fournier* had first proposed a comprehensive point system* in 1737, with later
refinements, but what was ultimately adopted was the later version developed by Francois Ambroise
Didot*. This put approximately 72 points to the inch (and now exactly 72 points to the inch on most
computer-based typesetting systems).

1.2.3 Photocomposition (Intertype et. al., start 1950-60, end

1975-85)
The first photo composition devices (the French “Photon” and Intertype’s Fotosetter) made
their debuts as early as 1944, but didn’t really catch on until the early 1950s. Typeface masters for
photocomposition (Phototypesetting) are on film; the characters are projected onto photo-sensitive
paper. Lenses are used to adjust the size of the image, scaling the type to the desired size. In some
senses this technology was an “improvement,” allowing new freedoms, such as overlapping
characters. However, it also pretty much eliminated optical scaling (see 2.2, above), because in the
rush to convert fonts to the new format, usually only one design was used, which was directly scaled
to the desired size.

1.2.4 Digital (start 1973-83)

The earliest computer-based typesetters were a hybrid between the above-mentioned
photocomposition machines and later pure digital output. They each had their own command language
for communicating with output devices. Although these machines had advantages, they also had
problems. None of these early command languages handled graphics well, and they all had their
own formats for fonts. However, some of these devices are still in service as of 1995, for use in
production environments which require more speed and less flexibility (phone books, newspapers,
flight schedules, etc.).
In the late 1980s PostScript*, developed by John Warnock* Charles Geschke*, gradually
emerged as the de facto standard for digital typesetting. This was due to a variety of reasons, including
its inclusion in the Apple LaserWriter printer and its powerful graphics handling. When combined
with the Macintosh, the first widely used computer with a what-you-see-is-what-you-get display
and PageMaker* (called the first desktop publishing program), the seeds were all sown for the
current dominance of computer-based typesetting.
Landmarks Type Technology and Printing
Landmark Time Period
Woodblock Printing 200
Movable Type 1040
Intaglio 1430
Printing Press 1454
Lithography 1796
Chromolithography 1837
Rotary Press 1843
Flexography 1873
Mimeograph 1876
Hot Metal Typesetting 1886
Offset Press 1903
Screen-printing 1907

Typography : 4
Dye-Sublimation 1957
Phototypesetting 1960s
Photocopier 1960s
Pad Printing 1960s
Laser Printer 1969
Dot Matrix Printer 1970
Thermal Printer 1970s
Inkjet Printer 1976
3D Printing 1986
Stereo Lithography 1986
Digital Press 1993

Check Your Progress

(1) What did Gutenberg invent?
(2) What was the advantage of using metal?
(3) What was used to press the dyed type-area onto the moist paper?
(4) What was Gutenberg by profession?
(5) How the world of printing changed due to Gutenberg’s invention?

1. 3 Introduction To Typefaces
There are many different classifications and sub-classification of typefaces, but the most
common two types you will hear of are: Serif – these typefaces are the more traditional ones. They
are distinguished by a short line or finishing stroke on the end of character strokes and stems (shown
in the anatomy diagram below) and; Sans-serif – as the name suggests, these are distinguished by
their lack of any Serifs. They only became popular in the nineteenth century and are considered
modern as a result.
Typefaces have a long history and a development process which has an impact on their
appearance and function today. It is easy to choose a typeface from a computer drop-down menu,
but this overlooks the fact that until recently, designing and using typefaces was a highly skilled
activity and a craft in itself Roman typefaces are so-called because they were developed from the
carved letterforms used in ancient Rome and therefore have a shape that reflects the way they were
made. Wood block printing involved carving and later, hot metal printing involved the act of drawing
and carving to create the original design template from which the printing blocks were cast. Even
the printed bite of the metal type from a manual typewriter was tangible as a three-dimensional
artefact. Much of this has disappeared with the arrival of desktop publishing software. As well as
this, typefaces have what is known as a “tone of voice”. In other words, their shapes and the way
they are used together have an impact on the message they communicate. Whether they are printed
in bold or italic or placed close together or spaced apart gives them a certain character or quality
which makes their use more or less appropriate in specific contexts.
A font is essentially the design for a set of characters. It’s the combination of typeface and
design characteristics such as size, pitch and spacing. The height of characters in a font is measured
in points, each point being approximately 1/72 inch. The width is measured by pitch, which refers to
how many characters can fit in an inch. Common pitch values are 10 and 12. A font is said to be

Typography : 5
fixed pitch if every character has the same width (this type of font is also called monospace). If the
widths vary depending on the shape of the character, it is called a proportional font.
A font family is a group of fonts that have similarities in design. One member of the font
family may be bold, while another member of the same family may be italic (these characteristics
are also referred to as font style). Families are generally grouped into categories based on design
specifications such as serifs, fonts that resemble handwriting, or even its proportional spacing. The
five generic font families consist of fonts in the categories of serif, sans-serif, cursive, fantasy and
monospace. There are other font families such as Times, Script, Arial and Courier to name but a few
of the more popular families.

1.4. Classification of Typefaces

Most typefaces can be classified into one of four basic groups: those with serifs, those without
serifs, scripts and decorative styles. Over the years, typographers and scholars of typography have
devised various systems to more definitively categorize typefaces – some of these systems have
scores of sub-categories.
A classification system can be helpful in identifying, choosing and combining typefaces. While
four categories are clearly inadequate for design professionals, dozens become self-defeating. We
have put together a somewhat hybrid system of 15 styles, based on the historical and descriptive
nomenclature first published in 1954 as the Vox system – and still widely accepted as a standard
today.

Serif Type Styles

Old Style
Transitional
Modern

Typography : 6
Sans Serif Type Styles
Grotesque
Square
Humanistic
Geometric

Script Type Styles

Calligraphic
Blackletter & Lombardic

Decorative
Grunge
Psychedelic
Graffiti

1.4.1 Serif Type Styles - Old Style

The Old Style (or Garalde) types start to demonstrate a greater refinement—to a large extent
augmented by the steadily improving skills of punchcutters. As a consequence the Old Style types
are characterised by greater contrast between thick and thin strokes, and are generally speaking,
sharper in appearance, more refined. You can see this, perhaps most notably in the serifs: in Old
Style types the serifs on the ascenders are more wedge shaped (figure1.1).

Another major change can be seen in the stress of the letterforms (figure 1.2) to a more
perpendicular (upright) position. You may remember our old friend, the lowercase e of the Humanist
(Venetian) types, with its distinctive oblique (sloping) crossbar; with Old Style types we witness the
quite sudden adoption of a horizontal crossbar (figure 1.3). I spent quite a time trying to discover
why the lowercase e should change so dramatically. After searching high and low, and opening just
about every type book I own, I decided to post the question on Typophile. Space doesn’t permit to
recount the entire tale here, but for those interested in such details, then head on over to the Typophile
e crossbar thread.

Typography : 7
1.4.2 Serif Type Styles - Transitional
The typefaces of this period are called Transitional, as they represent the initial departure from
centuries of Old Style tradition and immediately predate the Modern period.

Transitional Characteristics
A greater contrast between thick and thin stokes.
Wider, gracefully bracketed serifs withflat bases.
larger x-heightVertical stress in rounded strokesthe height of capitals matches that of ascenders.
Numerals are cap-height and consistent in size.
Typography has always been intrinsically linked to technology, a fact most dramatically
illustrated by the introduction of the Transitional designs. By the beginning of the 18th century,
printing technology had not changed significantly from the time of Gutenberg and was crude by
contemporary standards. Presses were made mostly of wood and were incapable of applying even
pressure from type to paper. Papers were, of course, hand-made and had uneven thicknesses and
coarse surfaces, and printing inks were incapable of rendering dense solids.

1.4.3 Serif Type Styles - Modern

the “Modern” Typeface, also known as Didone, is not new. In the eighteenth century
improvements in paper quality combined with more advanced printing methods brought about changes
in how typefaces were created.
Modern is the term used to categorize fonts created at that time or in the style of that time.
Modern fonts are recognizable by their thin, long horizontal serifs, and clear-cut thick/thin transitions
in the strokes. The stress is vertical, i.e. there is no slant on the letters.

Typography : 8
Modern Characteristics
extreme contrast in weight variation.
unbracketed hairline serifs.
small x-height.
vertical stress
Baskerville’s types, compared with their Old Style (or Garalde) predecessors, are marked by
high contrast between thick and thin strokes, so much so that one commentator declared Baskerville
was “blinding the nation.” The Moderns or Didones take this contrast to further extremes (just
about as far as one can take them).
The first Modern typeface is attributed to Frenchman Firmin Didot (son of François-Ambroise
Didot), and first graced the printed page in 1784. His types were soon followed by the archetypal
Didone from Bodoni. The Italian type designer, punch cutter and printer Giambattista Bodoni (what
a great name! [1740-1813]) drew his influence from the Romains du Roi (with its flat, unbracketed
serifs) and the types of John Baskerville (high contrast), for whom he showed great admiration.

1.4.4 Serifs - Slab Serif

The impact of the Industrial Revolution brought profound changes to printing and typography
in the 19th century. Manufacturing and mass production of consumer goods had two major effects
on print communication: the creation of new kinds of print media and the emergence of more
functional type designs for commercial purposes.

Slab Serif Characteristics

minimal variation of thick and thin strokes
heavy serifs with squared-off ends
large x-heights.
vertical stress in rounded strikes
For three and a half centuries, typography and printing had been concerned exclusively with
the publishing of books. By the early 1800s, the impact of the Industrial Revolution propelled the
printing industry in a new direction. The advent of industrial manufacturing created a need to promote
the sale of ready-made goods and, as the technology of industry became more complex, manufacturers
required a more literate workforce. In addressing these needs, the commercial, or job, printer emerged.
New print media, magazines and newspapers, proliferated with great appeal to the masses. Print
advertising emerged in these media as an effective way to sell products to the masses.
The impact of technology on printing, paper manufacturing, and mechanical typesetting created
a demand for a new style in type design that was compatible with mass-production.

Typography : 9
 The advent of print journalism and advertising demanded types that were not only readable,
but bold and distinctive enough to catch the reader’s attention.
This was the era of Slab Serif, or Egyptian typefaces.

Sans Serif
The early 20th century saw continued technological advancement in printing and typesetting,
flourishing of advertising and print journalism, and a contemporary movement in type design,
influenced by the European Bauhaus and De Stijl design movements. For new generation of designers
and typographers, the notion emerged of the typographic character as an expressive design element.
Very much a backlash against the typographic excesses of the 19th century, the new design direction
sought a basic letterform which was suitable for contemporary communication.
Sans Serif Characteristics
little or no variation between thick and thin strokes
lack of serifs
larger x-height
no stress in rounded strokes
Geometric : Geometric sans-serif typefaces are based on geometric shapes. Note the optically
circular letter “O” and the simple, single-story construction of the lowercase letter “a”. Geometric
sans-serif fonts have a very modern look and feel. Of these four sans-serif categories, geometric
fonts tend to be the least useful for body text. e.g. Century Gothic

Humanist : Is the most calligraphic of the sans-serif typefaces, with some variation in line
width and more legibility than other sans-serif fonts.

Grotesque : These are the first commercially popular sans serif typefaces. Contrast in stroke
weight is most apparent in these styles, there is a slight “squared” quality to many of the curves, and
several designs have the “bowl and loop” lowercase g common to Roman types. In some cases the
R has a curled leg, and the G usually has a spur. This category also includes more modern, sans serif
designs patterned after the first grotesques. Stroke contrast is less pronounced than earlier designs,
and much of the “squareness” in curved strokes has been rounded. Normally the most obvious
distinguishing characteristic of these faces is their single bowl g and more monotone weight stress.

Typography : 10
 Square : These designs are generally based on grotesque character traits and proportions, but
have a definite and, in some instances, dramatic squaring of normally curved strokes. They usually
have more latitude in character spacing than their sans serif cousins, and tend to be limited to
display designs.

Clarendon Serifs : This category includes the typefaces patterned after the Clarendon type
styles first released in the mid 19th century. Clarendons were designed as bold faces to accompany
text composition. Their stroke contrast is slight, and serifs tend to be short to medium length. Later,
many of these designs were released at larger point sizes as display types. Character stroke weight
that is more obvious, and serifs that tend to be longer than earlier designs, mark more current
interpretations of this style.

Type Writer Typefaces

Monospaced typefaces were born from the limitations of mechanical typewriters. When the
typist pressed a key, the carriage moved the paper the same distance each time, so it was easier to
return to a previous printing point to make corrections and do tabulation work. The terms “typewriter”
and “monospace” have a common genesis but are not interchangeable. We can find typefaces created
for the machine with different character widths, and some monospaced typefaces designed today
have no aesthetic or historical link to typewriters.
Ad for the Olivetti Graphika, “the first manually operated standard typewriter with proportional
spacing.” Source: The Economist, Nov. 23, 1957.

Typography : 11
 Proportional type was widely used in electric and electronic machines. But even before the
appearance of the IBM Selectric in 1961, manufacturers had already made a few trials for the use of
proportional fonts in mechanical models. For instance, A.M. Cassandre and Imre Reiner designed
two typefaces that included four different widths for the Olivetti Graphika. And W.A. Dwiggins
worked on the design of proportional type for Remington Rand. However, these first attempts were
not successful; it wasn’t until the arrival of the electric models that fonts with several character
widths had a visible presence in typewriters. The new printing devices — the golf ball and, later on,
the daisy wheel in electronic machines — also introduced the possibility of using several fonts in
the same machine, so the typist could create richer typographic compositions.
Every company had its own font library with a significant range of styles that fulfilled users’
varying needs. In America, the National Office Machine Dealer Association periodically published
the Blue Book, a catalog with type samples and other information about the industry.

1.4.5 Decorative & Display Fonts

Decorative and display fonts became popular in the 19th century and were used extensively on
posters and advertisements. This style of type and lettering could be artistic and eye-catching in a
way that wasn’t considered previously. William Morris launched the Arts and Crafts movement and
as part of the experimentation and innovation of the time, developed the Troy typeface. Throughout
the 20th and now into the 21st century, decorative fonts continued to be used in advertising and
posters. There are hundreds if not thousands of display fonts available for download. The thing to
remember about decorative typefaces is that they are only powerful when their use is limited.

Decorative fonts

Typography : 12
Fat Face Typeface
The Slab Serif or Egyptian is also home to further subsets of typeface styles, like the Fat Faces
which are fundamentally Didones (or Moderns) on steroids. Take a Modern style typeface, give its
thicker strokes even more weight, triangulate some of those serifs, and you have a Fat Face. You
might be familiar with types like Poster Bodoni. Bodoni is of course a Modern style type but,
carrying all that extra weight, it’s a Fat Face. The Fat Face, then, is basically an Obese Didone.
As some commentators remarked, the Didones were parodies of Baskerville‘s types, then the
Fat Face types are parodies of parodies. The first Fat Face was designed by Robert Thorne (c. 1800),
who was also responsible for coining the term Egyptian to describe what is generally known today
as the Slab Serif.

Wood Type
Wood has been used for letterforms and illustrations dating back to the first known Chinese
wood block print from 868 CE. The forerunner of the block print in China was the wooden stamp.
The image on these stamps was most often that of the Buddha, and was quite small. Provided with
handles to facilitate their use, they were not unlike the modern rubber-stamps of today. In Europe,
large letters used in printing were carved out of wood because large metal type had a tendency to
develop uneven surfaces, or crack, as it cooled.
In America, with the expansion of the commercial printing industry in the first years of the
19th century, it was inevitable that someone would perfect a process for cheaply producing the large
letters so in demand for broadsides. Wood was the logical material because of its lightness, availability,
and known printing qualities.

Typography : 13
1.4.6 Script, brush & Freehand Fonts
Script fonts are typefaces with a personal touch, like calligraphy and handwriting fonts. They
are perfect for invitations, greeting cards, headlines or very short, expressive texts. They range from
classic, flowing scripts for elegant designs to light-hearted types with rounded forms for a fresh,
peppy look. Script fonts are especially popular in advertising as a contrast to the neutral fonts used
so often today.

Casual scrip
Casual script fonts have been steadily gaining in popularity. They look as though handwritten,
but more like printing or very informal script than traditional calligraphy. Their original,
unconventional characters are perfect for occasions like Valentine’s Day, birthday, greeting cards or
eye-catching headlines. In advertising or on posters, these fonts are just the thing for funky modern
products

Calligraphy
The graceful flowing forms are what lend calligraphic script fonts their elegance and energy.
They are ideal for traditional-looking or refined applications like formal invitations and tasteful
letterhead

Classic
Classic script fonts are distinguished by their timeless character and touch of class. Use them
for personal or formal occasions like weddings, baptisms and graduations or on menus and place cards.

Typography : 14
Retro
The advertising fonts of the 1950s and 1960s are back in style again and very popular among
designers. The friendly and lively brush and script fonts not only have a welcome, eye-catching
appearance, but also represent a perfect contrast to the more sober flair of the contemporary slab serif
or square sans fonts.

1.4.7 Dingbat
In typography, a dingbat (sometimes more formally known as a printer’s ornament or printer’s
character) is an ornament, character, or spacer used in typesetting, often employed for the creation
of box frames. The term continues to be used in the computer industry to describe fonts that have
symbols and shapes in the positions designated for alphabetical or numeric characters.

Check Your Progress

(1) What was Fat Face intended for?
(2) Why wood types were used ?
(3) What is dingbat typeface ?
(4) How sans serif fonts are categorised ?

1.5 Early Letterform

The alphabet: it is made up of 26 symbols, each one representing a specific sound made in
human speech. Each one of these symbols has a history, having evolved over thousands of years.

Typography : 15
Earlier incarnations did not represent sounds but were actually pictures, depicting their subject.
Still others were symbols for ideas.

Pictographs
Sometime in our prehistory, people began to communicate using visuals. The first were simple
drawings of the concrete objects that existed around the writer. These are called pictographs.

Ideographs
The more people got used to writing, the more they found they needed to express. They needed
to be able to express ideas and abstractions. So the symbols originally meant to describe a literal
object came to have multiple associations or meanings. The symbol for “ox” came to mean “food”
as well. Often, symbols would be combined to signify ideas. The major disadvantage to this system
is that the user ends up with thousands of characters, making it hard to learn and write the language.

Blackletter typeface
The Blackletter typeface (also sometimes referred to as Gothic, Fraktur or Old English) was
used in the Guthenburg Bible, one of the first books printed in Europe. This style of typeface is
recognizable by its dramatic thin and thick strokes, and in some fonts, the elaborate swirls on the
serifs. Blackletter typefaces are based on early manuscript lettering.
They evolved in Western Europe from the mid twelfth century. Over time a wide variety of
different blackletters appeared, but four major families can be identified: Textura, Rotunda,
Schwabacher and Fraktur

Typography : 16
 While Gutenberg used blackletters for his bible and books, this signaled a new era in typefaces
used for printing. Blackletters are difficult to read as body text and Roman and Italic faces were
easier to print with movable type. For these reasons, in the 1500’s, blackletter became less popular
for printing in many countries except Germany and the German speaking countries.

Typography : 17
 Germany continued to use Blackletters until the early twentieth century. In the 1920’s it was
considered to be antiquated by German designers and publishers and fell out of favor and was
replaced by the “New Typography” of sans serif typefaces. In 1933 Hitler declared the new typography
to be un-German and declared Fraktur to be “Volk”, i.e. the people’s font. The Nazis continued to
use Fraktur extensively until 1941 when it was replace with more readable fonts. Some people
associate all blackletters as Nazi fonts but this is clearly an uneducated view and wipes out several
hundred years of the typefaces’ history. Check out the Eye Magazine article on the meaning of type
for more on this topic.

Application of Blackletter
As already mentioned, these typefaces are not easy to read in body text so they are best used
for headings, logos, posters and signs. If you’ve received a certificate, diploma or degree there is a
strong chance some or all of the text was set in Blackletter. Other familiar sightings include newspaper
nameplates where it may be considered the font lends gravitas to the publication.

1.6 Summary
• There have been four revolutions in the world of typography - Gutenberg, Industrial
Revolution, Photo Composition and digital. Gutenberg invented the famous Gutenberg
Printing Press from the technology of the screw type wine presses of the Rhine Valley.
The Gutenberg Press was an innovative printing machine that used replaceable/ moveable,
wooden or metal letters.
• The industrial revolution brought about major innovations in printing technology. The
innovation of line-casting allowed the type to be selected, used, and then re-circulate
back into the machine automatically, labour cost and printing time were vastly reduced.
• A major landmark during this period was the point system in measuring type. Then came
the photocomposition or phototypesetting, which was a way of setting type by
photographing characters on film and then the printing plates are created from those
films.

Typography : 18
 • It was primarily the introduction of apple laser writer, a PostScript desktop printer, and
PageMaker for the Mac that brought about the advent of the desktop publishing revolution.
Aldus Corporation founder Paul Brainerd, coined the phrase, Desktop Publishing.
• A typeface is a group of multiple or single fonts, in various sizes, designed with artistic
unity, each one consisting of a corresponding set of characters. A typeface generally
consists of an alphabet, numbers and punctuation marks, it may also consist of symbols,
or may consist of entirely symbols, like the mathematical symbols or symbols for map
making. The two terms typeface and font are often used in the same context; both of
them had clearly different definitions prior to the invention of Desktop Publishing.
• Carolingian minuscule was most importantly legible, uniform and with rounded shapes.
Some of the rules that we now take for granted like capital letters and spaces between
words had become standard in Carolingian minuscule. This was done to achieve a cultural
standard across the whole Carolingian Empire.
• The wood type answered demands of display advertising during the industrial revolution.
It is literally carved from wood and not made from metal, cut perpendicular to the grain.
large dosplay type is cut from cured and polished end grain maple slabs. Script typefaces
are based on handwriting, but often this is handwriting with either a flexible steel nib
pen, or a broad edged pen, and is thus unlike modern handwriting.
• Art deco ( Dingbats ) is defined by long and thin forms, curving surfaces and geometric
patterning.
• Many recent serif typefaces attributes were combined with that of any or all historical
styles. Often, practitioners experiment with distinctive serif styling, sharp angular features
and fanciful modulations.
• The grunge typography is one of the most recent waves in typography. It began after the
advent of the musical movement in Seattle.

1.7 Key Terms

• Typeface : A group of multiple or single fonts, in various sizes, designed with artistic
unity, each consisting of corresponding set of characters.
• Serifs : Classifications of typefaces that have characteristics at the end of the strokes.
• Photocomposition : A way Of setting type by photographing character on film and then
printing plates are created from those films.
• Black letter : The term given to an offspring of carolingian minuscule, with a clearly
distinguishable form, used widely in the 14th and 15th centuries.

1.8 End Questions

(1) What are the four revolutions is typography? Name them and give brief explanation about
each of them.
(2) What made revolutionary change in the speed of punch cutting?
(3) What was another major achievement during the Industrial revolution?
(4) Describe the various types of letterforms, with a note on the forms of blackletter.
(5) Explain fat face and wood typeface in detail.
(6) Write a long note on art deco.

Typography : 19
 Unit 2 : Typography

Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Unit objectives
2.2 Typography Through The Ages
2.3 Concepts In Typography
2.4 Typographic Building Blocks
2.5 Elements of Font
2.6 Key Typographic Terms
2.7 For Choosing Typefaces
2.8 Summary
2.9 Key Terms
2.10 End Questions

2.0 Introduction
Typography, type-founding and typeface design began as closely related crafts in mid-15th-
century Europe with the introduction of movable type printing at the junction of the medieval era
and the Renaissance. Handwritten letterforms of the mid-15th century embodied 3000 years of
evolved letter design, and were the natural models for letterforms in systematized typography. The
scribal letter known as textur or textualis, produced by the strong gothic spirit of blackletter from
the hands of German area scribes, served as the model for the first text types.
Typography is more than just what fonts you use. Typography is everything that has to do with
how text looks – such as font size, line length, color, and even more subtle things like the whitespace
around a text. Good typography sets the tone of your written message and helps to reinforce its
meaning and context.

2.1 Unit Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to explain:
• Basics of Typography
• Typographic elements in font anatomy
• Letter spacing and fonts basics
• Typographic terms

Typography : 20
2.2 Typography Through The Ages
Like any other creative pursuit, the design of letterforms is determined by the prevailing cultural
climate and thus in a state of constant flux. Typography now functions as a kind of weathervane for
the zeitgeist, with typographic analysis a leading design issue. Indeed, as designers have sought to
express themselves and define their time, type has increasingly come to have its own intentions,
beyond those of verbal communication. From its first printed appearance in the West, type drew on
existing forms, with the results then impacting on future designs. The letters printed in Renaissance
Europe by Johann Gutenberg were a direct interpretation of the ornate gothic handwriting of the
day; black-letter, in movable, reusable hot metal. Black-letter would also influence the first italic
type cut by Francesco Griffo, which was largely informed by 16th century Italian handwriting. But
it was the renewed interest in classic Greco-Roman culture, rather than technological development,
that would see our standard roman alphabet find its definitive printed expression.
Let us look at the three landmarks in the history of typology:
(1) Woodblock
(2) Movable
(3) Mechanical

Wood Block Printing

The earliest woodblock printed fragments to survive are from China and are of silk, printed
with flowers in three colours from the Han Dynasty (before AD 220). It is clear that woodblock
printing developed in Asia several centuries before Europe. The Chinese were the first to use the
process to print solid text, and equally that, much later, in Europe the printing of images on cloth
developed into the printing of images on paper (woodcuts). It is also now established that the use in
Europe of the same process to print substantial amounts of text together with images in block-books
only came after the development of movable type, which was developed by Bi Sheng (990–1051)
during the Northern Song Dynasty of China, about four hundred years later.
In China, an alternative to woodblock printing was a system of reprography since the Han
Dynasty using carved stone steles to reproduce pages of text. The three necessary components for
woodblock printing are the wood block, which carries the design cut in relief; dye or ink, which had
been widely used in the ancient world; and either cloth or paper, which was first developed in
China, around the 3rd century BC or 2nd century BC. Woodblock printing on papyrus seems never
to have been practised, although it would be possible.

Technique
The wood block is carefully prepared as a relief pattern, which means the areas to show ‘white’
are cut away with a knife, chisel, or sandpaper leaving the characters or image to show in ‘black’ at
the original surface level. The block was cut along the grain of the wood. It is necessary only to ink
the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable
print. The content would of course print “in reverse” or mirror-image, a further complication when
text was involved. The art of carving the woodcut is technically known as xylography, though the
term is rarely used in English.
For colour printing, multiple blocks are used, each for one colour, although overprinting two
colours may produce further colours on the print. Multiple colours can be printed by keying the
paper to a frame around the woodblocks. Movable

Typography : 21
Movable types
The invention of mass printing practices changed our world and the print invention is regarded
by many as the invention of the millennium.Before Gutenberg, books were either copied out by
hand on scrolls and paper, and even a small book could take months to complete, or printed from
hand-carved wooden blocks, each block printing a whole page, a part of a page or even individual
letters. But the wood work was extremely time-consuming and the carved letters or blocks were
very fragile and the susceptibility of wood to ink gave such blocks a limited lifespan. Moreover, the
hand-carved letters were different.
Gutenberg is generally credited with the invention of practical movable type. He made metal
moulds, by the use of dies, into which he could pour hot liquid metal, in order to produce separate
letters as the same shape as those written by hand. These letters were similar, more readable, and
more durable than wooden blocks. Such letters could be arranged and rearranged many times as the
printer wished to create different pages from the same letters.
Gutenberg also introduced the use of printing press to press the type against paper. For this he
used a hand press used in his times by wine industry. Ink was rolled over the raised surfaces of the
hand-set letters held within a wooden frame, and the frame was then pressed against the paper. The
press enabled sharp impressions on both sides of a sheet of paper and many repetitions. After a page
was printed, the type could be reused for printing other pages. Gutenberg introduced his invention
around 1450.
Gutenberg’s name does not appear on any of his work, but he is generally accredited with the
world’s first book printed by movable type. The 42 line Bible (the number of lines per page), also
known as the Gutenberg Bible or the Mainz Bible (for the place where it was produced). It took
Gutenberg at least two years to complete his first book.

Casting
The matrix is inserted into the bottom of a device called a hand mould. The mould is clamped
shut and molten type metal alloy consisting mostly of lead and tin, with a small amount of antimony

Typography : 22
for hardening, is poured into a cavity from the top. Antimony has the rare property of expanding as
it cools, giving the casting sharp edges. When the type metal has sufficiently cooled, the mould is
unlocked and a rectangular block approximately 4 centimetres long, called a sort, is extracted.
Excess casting on the end of the sort, called the tang, is later removed to make the sort the precise
height required for printing, known as “type height”.

Typesetting
Modern, factory-produced movable type was available in the late 19th century. It was held in
the printing shop in a job case, a drawer about 2 inches high, a yard wide, and about two feet deep,
with many small compartments for the various letters and ligatures. The most popular and accepted
of the job case designs in America was the California Job Case, which took its name from the

Pacific coast location of the foundries that made the case popular. Traditionally, the capital
letters were stored in a separate drawer or case that was located above the case that held the other
letters; this is why capital letters are called “upper case” characters while the non-capitals are “lower
case”. Compartments also held spacers, which are blocks of blank type used to separate words and
fill out a line of type, such as em and en quads (quadrats, or spaces. A quadrat is a block of type
whose face is lower than the printing letters so that it does not itself print.). An em space was the
width of a capital letter “M” – as wide as it was high – while an en space referred to a space half the
width of its heigh Individual letters are assembled into words and lines of text with the aid of a
composing stick, and the whole assembly is tightly bound together to make up a page image called
a forme, where all letter faces are exactly the same height to form a flat surface of type. The forme
is mounted on a printing press, a thin coating of viscous ink is applied and impressions made on
paper under great pressure in the press. “Sorts” is the term given to special characters not freely
available in the typical type case, such as the “@” mark.

Mechanical Presses
A printing press is a device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a print
medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring the ink. Typically used for texts, the invention
and spread of the printing press was one of the most influential events in the second millennium
revolutionizing the way people conceive and describe the world they live in, and ushering in the
period of modernity.

Typography : 23
 The printing press was invented in the Holy Roman Empire by the German Johannes Gutenberg
around 1440, based on existing screw presses. Gutenberg, a goldsmith by profession, developed a
complete printing system, which perfected the printing process through all of its stages by adapting
existing technologies to the printing purposes, as well as making groundbreaking inventions of his
own. His newly devised hand mould made for the first time possible the precise and rapid creation
of metal movable type in large quantities, a key element in the profitability of the whole printing
enterprise.
The printing press spread within several decades to over two hundred cities in a dozen European
countries. By 1500, printing presses in operation throughout Western Europe had already produced
more than twenty million volumes. In the 16th century, with presses spreading further afield, their
output rose tenfold to an estimated 150 to 200 million copies. The operation of a press became so
synonymous with the enterprise of printing that it lent its name to an entire new branch of media, the
press.
In Renaissance Europe, the arrival of mechanical movable type printing introduced the era of mass
communication which permanently altered the structure of society: The relatively unrestricted
circulation of information and (revolutionary) ideas transcended borders, captured the masses in the
Reformation and threatened the power of political and religious authorities; the sharp increase in
literacy broke the monopoly of the literate elite on education and learning and bolstered the emerging
middle class. Across Europe, the increasing cultural self-awareness of its peoples led to the rise of
proto-nationalism, accelerated by the flowering of the European vernacular languages to the detriment
of Latin’s status as lingua franca. In the 19th century, the replacement of the hand-operated Gutenberg-
style press by steam-powered rotary presses allowed printing on an industrial scale, while Western-
style printing was adopted all over the world, becoming practically the sole medium for modern
bulk printing.

Check Your Progress

(1) What is typography?
(2) When was the movable type in wood introduced?
(3) What were the two technologies prevailing in printing in Asia?

Typography : 24
2.3 Concepts In Typography

Type design
Type design is the art and process of designing typefaces. It is often used synonymously with
the term “font design”; technically, font design is the rendering of a typeface design into an entire
available family of keyboardable characters, while typeface design is the shaping of individual
glyphs, albeit with an eye to the eventual incorporation as a font. For the purposes of this article, the
term typeface design will include the design of fonts.

A typeface differs from other modes of graphic production such as handwriting and drawing in that
it is the mechanical storage and dispensation of alphanumeric characters. Each of the characters is
stored in a master archetype form and then a user, by means of hand picking (handset metal type), a
keyboard (linotype and desktop publishing) or other means (voice recognition) selects individual
characters to “set” into the text.

Typeface
In typography, a typeface (also known as font family) is a set of one or more fonts each
composed of glyphs that share common design features. Each font of a typeface has a specific
weight, style, condensation, width, slant, italicization, ornamentation, and designer or foundry (and
formerly size, in metal fonts). For example, “ITC Garamond Bold Condensed Italic” means the
bold, condensed-width, italic version of ITC Garamond. It is a different font from “ITC Garamond
Condensed Italic” and “ITC Garamond Bold Condensed,” but all are fonts within the same typeface,
“ITC Garamond.” ITC Garamond is a different typeface from “Adobe Garamond” or “Monotype
Garamond.”
The art and craft of designing typefaces is called type design. Designers of typefaces are
called type designers and are often employed by type foundries. In digital typography, type designers
are sometimes also called font developers or font designers.
Every typeface is a collection of glyphs, each of which represents an individual letter, number,
punctuation mark, or other symbol. The same glyph may be used for characters from different
scripts, e.g. Roman uppercase A looks the same as Cyrillic uppercase À and Greek uppercase alpha.
There are typefaces tailored for special applications, such as map-making or astrology and
mathematics. The term typeface is frequently confused with the term font. Before the advent of
digital typography and desktop publishing, the two terms had more clearly understood meanings.

Typography : 25
Type Family
In computer science, a type family associates data types with other data types, using a type-
level function defined by an open-ended collection of valid instances of input types and the
corresponding output types.
Type families are a feature of some type systems that allow partial functions between types to
be defined by pattern matching. This is in contrast to data type constructors, which define injective
functions from all types of a particular kind to a new set of types, and type synonyms (a.k.a. typedef),
which define functions from all types of a particular kind to another existing set of types using a
single case. Type families and type classes are closely related: normal type classes define partial
functions from types to a collection of named values by pattern matching on the input types, while
type families define partial functions from types to types by pattern matching on the input types. In
fact, in many uses of type families there is a single type class which logically contains both values
and types associated with each instance. A type family declared inside a type class is called an
associated type.
In typography, a typeface (also known as font family) is a set of one or more fonts each
composed of glyphs that share common design features. Each font of a typeface has a specific
weight, style, condensation, width, slant, italicization, ornamentation, and designer or foundry (and
formerly size, in metal fonts).

Type Measurement
A standard system of measurement within typography came about in the late 19th century.
Prior to that, different type foundries had different ways of measuring their own type. So, mixing
type from various foundries was quite difficult. What’s unusual for younger typographers today is
not so much the measurement system, but that a few terms from these metal type days and are still
used today. “Leading” just doesn’t seem like the logical choice now to you whippersnappers. But,
I appreciate this. The nostalgia of the vocabulary helps to instill that there’s a long history to this
fine craft. And, Peatah’s mission is to promote the artistry of type—no matter what the technology.

of

1 inch = 6 picas = 72 points

With that brief explanation, let’s start with some of the basic terms and descriptions Point size
is a measurement that would include room for all the caps, ascenders and descenders measurements
at the left. You can see from the short (but enlarged) section of a pica ruler the normal inch
measurement on one side and the numbers on the opposing side are picas. Then, the smallest tick
marks represent 2 points each. So, there are 12 points in each pica, and 6 picas per inch. Picas and
points are used for measuring all things type, plus more. The next image down shows that points are
also used to measure the weight of lines, or rules.

Point
In typography, the point is the smallest unit of measure. It is used for measuring font size,
leading, and other items on a printed page. The size of the point has varied throughout the history of
printing. Since the 18th century, the point’s size has varied from 0.18 to 0.4 millimeters. Following
the advent of desktop publishing in the 1980s and 1990s, digital printing has largely supplanted the

Typography : 26
letterpress printing and has established the DTP point (desktop publishing point) as the de facto
standard. The DTP point is defined as 1D 72 of an international inch (about 0.353 mm) and, as with
earlier American point sizes, is considered to be 1D 12 of a pica.

Picas
The pica is a typographic unit of measure corresponding to approximately 1D 6 of an inch, or
1D 72 of a foot. One pica is further divided into 12 points.

To date, in printing three pica measures are used:

• The French pica of 12 Didot points (also called cicéro) generally is: 12 × 0.376 = 4.512 mm
(0.1776 in).
• The American pica of 0.16604 inches (4.217 mm). It was established by the United States
Type Founders’ Association in 1886.[1][2] In TeX one pica may be defined as 12D
72.27 of an inch.
• The contemporary computer pica is exactly 1D 6 of a inch or 1D 72 of a foot, i.e.
4.233 mm or 0.166 inches.
Publishing applications such as Adobe InDesign and QuarkXPress represent pica measurements
with whole-number picas left of a lower-case p, followed by the points number, for example: 5p6
represents 5 picas and 6 points, or 5 1D 2 picas.
The pica is also used in measuring the font capacity and is applied in the process of copy
fitting. The font length is measured there by the number of characters per pica (cpp). As books are
most often printed with proportional fonts, cpp of a given font is usually a fractional number. For
example, an 11-point font (like Helvetica) may have 2.4 cpp, thus a 5-inch (30-pica) line of a usual
octavo-sized (6×8 in) book page would contain around 72 characters (including spaces)

Ems and Ens

An em is a unit in the field of typography, equal to the currently specified point size. For
example, one em in a 16-point typeface is 16 points. Therefore, this unit is the same for all typefaces
at a given point size.
Typographic measurements using this unit are frequently expressed in decimal notation (e.g.,
0.7 em) or as fractions of 100 or 1000 (e.g., 70/100 em or 700/1000 em).
The name em was originally a reference to the width of the capital M in the typeface and size
being used, which was often the same as the point size.

Incorrect and alternative definitions

Although the size of the em ultimately depends on the point size, or height of the metal body
of a letter, it is also used as a measure of horizontal spacing relative to the type size, with vertical
spacing being measured in picas or points. One em was traditionally defined as the width of the
capital M in the current typeface and point size, because the M was commonly cast the full-width of
the square blocks, or em-quads (also mutton-quads), which are used in printing presses.

En Dash
The en dash, n dash, n-rule, or “nut” (–) is traditionally half the width of an em dash. In
modern fonts, the length of the en dash is not standardized, and the en dash is often more than half
the width of the em dash. The widths of en and em dashes have also been specified as being equal to
those of the upper-case letters N and M respectively, and at other times to the widths of the lower-
case letters.

Typography : 27
2.4 Typographic Building Blocks

Characters
Characters are the basic symbols that are used to write or print a language. For example, the
characters used by the English language consist of the letters of the alphabet, numerals, punctuation
marks and a variety of symbols (e.g., the ampersand, the dollar sign and the arithmetic symbols).
Characters are fundamental to computer systems. They are used for input (e.g., through the
keyboard or through optical scanning) and output (e.g., on the screen or on printed pages), writing
programs in programming languages, as the basis of some operating systems (such as Linux) which
are largely collections of plain text (i.e., human-readable character) files and for the storage and
transmission of non-character data (e.g., the transmission of images

Special Characters
There are many special, symbols and operators that are used in typography, general written
and typed text beyond the straightforward characters found on a QWERTY keyboard.
Many of these special symbols or typographical symbols are in common use, although many
are not so well used.
Below is a list, table or chart of some of the more commonly used special symbols and characters
that can be found.

Explanation / Example Of Typographical Symbols

‘
Left single quote
Used in typography, books magazines, etc.
’
Right single quote
Used in typography, books, magazines, etc.
“
Left double quote
Used in typography, books magazines, etc.
“
Right double quote
Used in typography, books, magazines, etc.
†
Dagger
The dagger is most comonly used in typography to indicate a footnote, when the more usually
used asterisk has already been used.
‡
Double dagger
The double dagger is most commonly used in typography to indicate a footnote, when the
asterisk and single dagger have already been used.
‰
Per mil sign

Typography : 28
 A per mil, per mille, or per mill is a tenth of a percent or one part per thousand, i.e. 1/1000. It
has a Latin derivation and literally means ‘for (every) thousand’
™
Trade mark
Used to indicate that the preceding word or phrase is a trade mark of a company. It is a mark
used to promote or brand goods, but not one that is registered.
®
Registered trade mark
This form of trademark is registered and the owner is able to commence legal proceedings for
trademark infringement to prevent unauthorised use of that trademark.
©
Copyright
By using the © symbol, the owner asserts his ownership of the material. Generally it is used in the
form: © 2012 Fred Bloggs
!
Service mark
The Service Mark, ! is a symbol commonly used in the United States to provide notice of a
service mark. This typographical symbol has some legal force, and is typically used for service
marks not yet registered with the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Once registered they use the
registered trade mark sign, ®.
!
Sound recording copyright
The sound recording copyright typographical symbol, ! is used to indicate copyright in a sound
recording (phonogram). The use of the symbol originated in United States copyright law and is now
specified internationally in the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms.
§
Section sign
The section sign §, is also known as the ‘double S’ sectional symbol. It is a typographical
character used mainly to refer to a particular section of a document. It is widely used within legal
documents and contracts. It can sometimes be seen duplicated as §§, it is read as the plural “sections”
(§§ 9 - 13),
£
General currency sign
The currency sign, £ is a character used in typography to denote a currency when the symbol
for that particular currency is not available.
ª
Female ordinal
º
Male ordinal
«
Left double angle quote
Can be used instead of the double quote “ or single quote ‘ .
»

Typography : 29
Right double angle quote
Can be used instead of the double quote “ or single quote ‘ .
‹
Left single angle quote
Can be used instead of the double quote “ or single quote ‘ .
›
Right single angle quote
Can be used instead of the double quote “ or single quote ‘ .
¿
Inverted question mark
The Inverted question, ¿ is a punctuation mark used to begin interrogative and exclamatory
sentences in written Spanish or other related languages.
¡
Inverted exclamation mark
The Inverted exclamation mark, ¡ is a punctuation mark used in typography to begin interrogative
and exclamatory sentences in written Spanish or other related languages.
¶
Paragraph sign, pilcrow
The paragraph sign ¶ is used in typography to indicate the end of a paragraph. It is normally
not used in completed text. It is current widely used in word processing programmes in the page
mark-up modes to mark the presence of a carriage return control character at the end of a paragraph.

Typography : 30
Components of Typographic Characters
Beak
A sharp spur, found particularly at the top of letters in some 20th centry Romans. Definition:
A beak is a type of decorative stroke at the end of the arm of a letter, connected to the arm by the
terminal. Similar to a spur or serif, it is usually more pronounced.

Bowl : The fully closed, rounded part of a letter. Definition: In typography, the curved part of the
character that encloses the circular or curved parts (counter) of some letters such as d, b, o, D, and
B is the bowl. Some sources call any parts of a letter enclosing a space a bowl, including both parts

Cap Line : A line marking the height of uppercase letters within a font.

Counter : The open space in a fully or partly closed area within a letter. Definition: In
typography, the enclosed or partially enclosed circular or curved negative space (white space) of
some letters such as d, o, and s is the counter.

Typography : 31
 Descender : The part of the letters that extends below the baseline. Definition: The portion of
some lowercase letters, such as g and y, that extends or descends below the baseline is the descender

Ascender : An upward vertical stroke found on the part of lowercase letters that extends above the
typeface’s x-height. Definition: In typography, the upward vertical stem on some lowercase letters,
such as h and b, that extends above the x-height is the ascender.

Baseline : The invisible line where all characters sit. Definition: In typography, the baseline is
the imaginary line upon which a line of text rests.

Aperture : The partially enclosed, somewhat rounded negative space in some characters.
Definition: The aperture is the partially enclosed, somewhat rounded negative space in some
characters such as n, C, S, the lower part of e, or the upper part of a double-storey

Typography : 32
 Axis : An imaginary line drawn from top to bottom of a glyph bisecting the upper and lower
strokes is the axis. Definition: An imaginary line drawn from top to bottom of a glyph bisecting the
upper and lower strokes is the axis.

Ear : A small stroke extending from the upper-right side of the bowl of lowercase g; also
appears in the angled or curved lowercase r. Definition: Typically found on the lower case g, an ear
is a decorative flourish usually on the upper right side of the bowl.

Letter-spacing
In typography, letter-spacing, usually called tracking by typographers, refers to a consistent
degree of increase (or sometimes decrease) of space between letters to affect density in a line or
block of text.
Letter-spacing should not be confused with kerning. Letter-spacing refers to a uniform
adjustment to the spacing of a word or block of text affecting its density and texture. Kerning is a
spacing adjustment of one or more specific pairs of adjacent characters that, because of the relationship
of their respective shapes, would appear to be badly spaced if spaced normally. A classic example is
a capital V next to a capital A, which need to be brought closer together.
In its original meaning with metal type, a kern meant having a letter stick out beyond the metal
slug it was attached to, or cutting off part of the body of the slug to allow (other similarly-trimmed)
letters to overlap. So a kern in that sense could only bring letters closer together (negative spacing),
though of course it was possible to add space between letters. Digital kerning can go in either
direction. Tracking can similarly go in either direction, though with metal type one could only
adjust groups of letters further apart (positive spacing).
Letter-spacing adjustments are frequently used in news design. The speed with which pages
must be built on deadline does not usually leave time to rewrite paragraphs that end in split words or
that create orphans or widows. Letter-spacing is increased or decreased by modest (usually
unnoticeable) amounts to fix these unattractive situations.

Letter-spacing with fixed spaces

Letter-spacing may also refer to the insertion of fixed spaces, as was commonly done in hand-
set metal type to achieve letter-spacing. This is a more mechanical method which relies less upon
spacing and kerning tables resident in each typeface and accessed and used when letter spacing is
applied universally. Fixed spaces include a hair space, thin space, wordspace, en-space, and em-
space. An en-space is equal to half the current point size, and an em-space is the same width as the
current point size.

Changing Character Spacing

Kerning is the amount of space between each individual character that you type. Sometimes
the space between two characters is larger than others, which makes the word look uneven.

Typography : 33
 You can use the Font dialog box to change the kerning setting for selected characters. Kerning
works only with OpenType/TrueType or Adobe Type Manager fonts. You can expand or condense
character spacing to create a special effect for a title, or re-align the position of characters to the
bottom edge of the text—this is helpful for positioning the copyright or trademark symbols. In
addition, you can set text formatting for OpenType/TrueType fonts that include a range of ligature
settings (where two or three letters into a single character), number spacing and forms, and stylistic
sets (added font sets in a given font). Many of these options are based on specifications from font
designers.

2.5 Elements of Font

A font is a collection of characters and symbols that share a common design. The three major
elements of this design are referred to as typeface, style, and size.

Typeface
The term typeface refers to specific characteristics of characters and symbols in the font, such
as the width of the thick and thin strokes that compose the characters and the presence or absence of
serifs. A serif is the short cross line at the ends of an unconnected stroke. A font or typeface without
serifs is usually called a sans-serif font.

Style
The term style refers to the weight and slant of a font. Font weights can range from thin to
black. The following is a list of possible weights for fonts (from lightest to heaviest):
Thin
Extralight
Light
Normal
Medium
Semibold
Bold
Extrabold
Heavy
Three terms categorize the slant of a font: roman, oblique, and italic.

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 The characters in a roman font are upright. The characters in an oblique font are artificially
slanted. The slant is achieved by performing a shear transformation on the characters from a roman
font. The characters in an italic font are truly slanted and appear as they were designed. For more
information on shearing, see Coordinate Spaces and Transformations.

Size
The font size is an imprecise value. It can generally be determined by measuring the distance
from the bottom of a lowercase g to the top of an adjacent uppercase M, as shown in the following
illustration.

A font’s size is specified in units called points. A point is .013837 of an inch. Following the
point system devised by Pierre Simon Fournier, it is common practice to approximate a point as 1/
72 inch.

Hierarchy
Web designers often establish typographic hierarchy by using the tags <h1>, <h2>, and so on.
Hierarchy isn’t size alone, but has more to do with the prominence of your typographic elements
relative to each other.
This could be achieved by using a different typeface, a contrasting color, white space or size.
Achieving good hierarchy should generally start with a sketch where you layout what your
most important visual element is down to your least important element.
The most important element doesn’t have to be larger, it just needs to take more prominence
over the other elements. Ask yourself what you want the viewer to read first. This doesn’t have to be
what is actually first in your layout – it just needs to be the focal point.

In this example, the home page of thisisdare.com, what is the focal point? “DARE” right? In
this case, the focal point is achieved with size and color, but where does your eye go next? I’d say it
goes to the bottom to find out what DARE is. The hierarchy here is achieved by color and contrast
despite its order in the composition.

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 What if the about us text were black rather than orange? The color isn’t being used just for its
aesthetic quality or to match the word DARE, it’s being used intentionally to create hierarchy and
lead the viewer’s eye to where it should go next.

2.6 Key Typographic Terms

Glyph

A glyph is the smallest unit in a font that has any meaning. Glyphs include letters, numerals,
punctuation, and other characters.
If you plan to design a website that will display text in languages other than English, you
should make sure that your typeface of choice has all the glyphs you will need.

Font

Also known as ‘typeface,’ font is a broad term that encompasses the style, size, and weight of
the text. Examples of well-known fonts include the sans-serif font Arial and the serif font Times
New Roman.
Your choice of font influences the way readers perceive your website. Different fonts have
different personalities, so they have a subtle (but meaningful) effect on the way readers experience
your message.

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Stem

A stem is the main stroke of a letter and is often vertical.

Ligature

A ligature describes two or more letters combined into one glyph. For example, æ.
If your site is going to display text that requires ligatures, you should make sure that you
choose a typeface that supports them.

Vertex

A vertex is where two strokes meet at the bottom of a glyph, such as in the letters v and w.

Shoulder

A shoulder is a stroke that makes an ‘arch’ shape within a glyph. For example, in the letters n,
m, and h.

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Terminal

The terminal is the end of any stroke without a serif and is often a ball or tapered shape.
Artful terminals are one way to add interest to a sans-serif font.

Display Font

Display font refers to a type of font made to be read at large sizes. They are well-suited for
headings and subheadings.

Contrast

Contrast is the perceived difference in appearance between fonts. Contrast is specific to context,
but common ways to contrast fonts include size, weight, family, and mood.
As it concerns web design, proper contrast between the fonts in your page copy makes the text
easier to read.

Hyphen

A small, narrow horizontal line that does the following:

• Creates compound words (“en-dash”, for example).
• Groups numbers (as in a phone number).
• Connects two parts of a word that break across a line (more common in print).
Your keyboard includes a key for this character.

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Alignment

Alignment describes the text’s position relative to the margin (whether of a page, screen, or
other division of text).
In WordPress, there are three possible alignments: Align left, Align center, and Align right. Left
alignment is the default, and it suits text in any language that is read from left to right.

Justified

Justified describes text that is aligned so that its left and right edges are flush with both the left
and right margins.

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Pro
Support additional languages including Central European and Cyrillic and/or Greek

2.7 For Choosing Typefaces

Choosing a typeface can be tricky. The beauty and complexity of type, combined with an
inexhaustible supply of options to evaluate, can make your head spin. But don’t be baffled — and
don’t despair. While there are no easy-to-follow rules on how best to choose a typeface, there are
many tried-and-true principles you can quickly learn and apply to make an appropriate typeface
choice. If you work systematically through the options below, you’ll have a winning typeface choice
in no time. Let’s get started.
Perhaps the hardest part of breaking down the typeface selection process is understanding
which parts are more subjective and which parts are more objective. After reading and digesting
your client’s text, it is easier to start with the objective aspects of typeface selection because they —
by default — make subjective decisions for us. There are no fixed positions on the spectrum from
subjective to objective. However, we know that legibility is more easily quantifiable than a mood.
Let’s start with the two most objective attributes — legibility and readability.

Legibility
It may seem at first glance that legibility and readability are the same thing, but they are not.
Legibility refers to the design of the typeface, as in the width of the strokes, whether or not it has
serifs, the presence of novel type design elements etc. It is easy to tell one letterform from another
in a legible typeface. For instance, decorative typefaces have low legibility because they are primarily
meant to be seen at a glance, rather than read at length. Conversely, typefaces designed for novels or
newspapers have very high legibility. You need to design a specific, overall legibility based on the
function of the text.

Consider this example where the left block of text is set in Tobin Tax, a decorative serif
typeface. Compare it to the same text set in Sabon, a classic and highly-legible serif typeface.
Where does your typeface choice fall between these two extremes?

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 • Choose typefaces with generous spacing.
• Tight tracking causes the eye to fill in visual gaps between the various shapes that make
up different letterforms, thus slowing down the time it takes to both recognize letterforms
and word and sentence structures. Generous spacing allows the eyes to proceed as fast as
the cognitive skills of the reader will permit.
• Choose typefaces with a tall x-height.
• A “short” x-height decreases legibility of certain letters. The apertures, or openings, of
similar lowercase letters like “c” and “e” are distinguished with greater ease if the x-
height is generous. The x-height shouldn’t be “high”. The font size, weight and width
must just be chosen according to the x-height of the font. Sure, at first glance one typeface
with a larger x-height might look more legible than another, but the the latter is just set
too small (or too bold or too condended). In addition, a large x-height only helps a few
letters like e, s, a (with double-storey shape). Other characters (with descenders, diacritical
marks) suffer from a larger x-height.

Readability
How your typeface is set, combined with the basic legibility of the typeface, yields a certain
level of readability. Readability is the dynamic interaction of the type style, size, tracking, leading,
color and other properties all combined into one overall impression. They add up to a certain
typographic style which has a quantifiable degree of readability. For instance, you could use a style
that has an intentionally low readability that is part of the message. Or you could focus on designing
a high readability because your message is complicated, and you don’t want your type style to
hinder the audiences’ understanding in any way. In most cases, communication comes before style,
so resolve readability first.
Let’s take our previous example of Sabon and alter the readability. On the left, we have taken
the text and decreased the font size, altered the tracking and leading, lightened the color, and set the
block to full justification. It’s now a mess with unattractive text rivers. On the right, we’ve left the
unaltered for an obvious comparison. Changing several independent factors, as you can see, can add
up to quite a difference.

Design Intent
It’s very helpful to consider the design intent of the typeface. Many popular typefaces have
detailed write-ups and reviews, so it’s really inexcusable to not know at least something about your
choice. If a typeface was designed for signage, like Cooper Black, it probably isn’t going to work
well set as the body copy of a book. That might be an obvious example, but don’t miss the subtleties
in your own choices. Again, it only takes a few seconds to look something up, or flip open a decent
typography book to get some basic facts, and you’ll be wiser for it.

Aesthetics
Typeface should conform to the aesthetics expected by the audience for which the design is
intended. For instance, if you are designing a piece for a bank, setting their logo or the text for an ad
campaign in Souvenir might be a little too light hearted and free-spirited — not qualities one would
want to associate with people who manage your money. However, the stately and stable-minded
Bembo might be a better choice for this situation. The more you match the gist of the typeface to the
gist of your topic, the easier success will come.
In this example, we’ve created two combinations of typefaces. The first one, Lithos and
Souvenir, create an aesthetic more suited to a children’s museum than a bank. The second combination
is composed of Clarendon and Bembo, which fits the topic like a well-tailored banker’s suit.

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2.8 Summary
The history of typography has its origins going back to the first punches and dyes to create
currency and steel in olden times. the basic elements of typography are at leas as old as civilisation
and earliest writing systems- a sequence of key progresses that were gradually drawn together as
systematic craft.
Type designing is the art of designing the typeface. Type designing is categorised into typeface,
type style, type family and type measurement.
In typography, letter- spacing, is also known as tracking, it points the space amid a group of
letters to influence concentration in a line or block. Letter- spacing can be confused with kerning.
Letter spacing comprises the complete spacing of a word influencing the complete texture and
density. Kerning is used for regulation of spacing amid two specific characters for correcting visual
uneven spacing.
A font is specific typeface which contains numerals, letters, punctuations and other symbols.
Font families are group of linked fonts different only in weight, width, orientation, etc.

2.9 Key Terms

• Typography : The style and technique of arranging the type, its design and modification
of type glyphs.
• Type Designing : The art of designing the typeface.
• Picas : Used for measuring the weight of the typesetting
• Points : Are like full stops used for scaling height of typesetting.
• Ligatures : Pairs of characters that are re- designed as a single character.

2.10 End Questions

(1) What are considered to be the three landmarks in typology?
(2) What are picas?
(3) Write a short notes on special characters.
(4) Explain typefaces in detail.
(5) What do you understand by type measurement?
(6) Explain what is point? What are different ways of measuring available ?
(7) Define various font types. How is font different from typefaces ?
(8) What are the points to remember while selecting typefaces?

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 Unit 3 : Typographic Design Consideration

Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Unit objectives
3.2 Typographic measurements
3.3 Hanging punctuation
3.4 Ligatures
3.5 Typographic hierarachy- size
3.6 Typographic hierarachy- weight
3.7 Steps to achieve Typographical hierarachy
3.8 Summery
3.9 Key terms
3.10 End Questions

3.0 Introduction
First introduced more than two hundred years ago, the point system has been universally used
for the last hundred years for expressing the size of type. With the adoption of personal computers
from the 1980s, this system has been carried over to computer-assisted editing, typesetting, and
design.

3. 1 Unit Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
• Learn about typographic measurements.
• Describe hanging punctuation.
• Explain ligatures.
• Discuss importance of size and weight in typographic herichery.

3. 2 Typographic Measurments
There is no direct relationship between nominal size and visual size, as typefaces differ greatly
in the proportion of the body size (which is used as the nominal size) allocated to the x height (which

Typography : 43
constitutes the principal visual size).This dimension is expressed in a non-standard unit, the
“typographic point,” which has no coherent relationship to either the inch or the millimetre.
However, the basic idea of the point system – to generate different type sizes by multiplying a
single minimum unit calculated by dividing a base measurement unit such as one French Royal inch
– was not Divot’s invention, but Fournier’s. In Fournier’s system, an approximate French Royal
inch (pounce) is divided by 12 to calculate 1 ligne, which is then divided by 6 to get 1 point. Divot
just made the base unit (one French Royal inch) identical to the standard value defined by the
government.

In Didot’s point system:

1 point = 1D 6 ligne = 1D 72 French Royal inch = 15 625D 41 559 mm d” 0.375 971 510
4 mm, however in practice mostly: 0.376 000 mm, i.e. + 0.0076%.
Both in Didot’s and Fournier’s systems, some point sizes have traditional names such
as Cicero (before introduction of point systems, type sizes were called by names such as Cicero, Pica,
Ruby, Long Primer, etc.).
1 Cicero = 12 Didot points = 1D 6 French Royal inch = 62 500D 13 853 mm d” 4.511 658 124
6 mm, also in practice mostly: 4.512 000 mm, i.e. + 0.0076%.
The Didot point system has been widely used in European countries. An abbreviation for it
that these countries use is “dd”, employing an old method for indicating plurals. Hence “12 dd”
means twelve didot points.

Fig.3.1 Fournier’s point system

Measure
Definition
The measurement of a line’s length (including lines that do not contain characters - like a
partial line) that is designated in picas. The length of a line is termed a “column measure” if the text
is set in columns.
Measure (or sometimes “The Measure”) in typography is the length of a line of text. For a
single-column design measure should ideally lie between 40 and 80 characters. Many typographers
consider the perfect measure to be 65 characters. If the lines are too short then the text becomes
disjointed, if they are too long the content loses rhythm as the reader searches for the start of each
line. Punctuation should preferably hang outside the measure.

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 Fig 3.2 measure

Leading
DEFINATION
Leading is the space between the baseline of one line of type and the baseline of the next line
of type. It is usually expressed in points.
The greater the leading, the further apart the lines of type are spaced. Changing the leading of
text affects its appearance and readability. Some fonts read better with increased leading due to
long ascenders and descenders. There is no one formula for figuring how much leading to use in a
document. Although a column of 10 point type might look just fine with 12 point leading, a 24 point
script with elaborate descenders might need 30 or more points of leading to look right. Spacing out
a section of text is easy to do by increasing the leading. This airy treatment of text calls attention to
it and should be used only when the design calls for it. Changing the leading arbitrarily within an
otherwise-consistent section of text is likely to distract the reader and is usually a symptom of poor
design. It is possible to use such a small amount of leading that the descenders of one line touch the
ascenders of the line beneath it. In this case, it is best to increase the leading a little for legibility.Some
software may use the term line spacing while others still refer to leading.
Word processing software often has the option to use single, double or even triple spacing, or
to specify specific leading in points or other measurements. Some software has a feature called auto
leading which calculates leading automatically. Programs that offer automated leading calculate
leading based on the text size.

Fig 3.3leading

Point
History
The point was first established by the Milanese typographer, Francesco Torniella da
Novara (c.1490 – 1589) in his 1517 alphabet, L’Alfabeto. The construction of the alphabet is the
first based on logical measurement called “Punto,” which corresponds to the ninth part of the height
of the letters or the thickness of the principal stroke.

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Definition
The measuring tool for default or lower distance between the lines is is called point.

Fig 3.4 point size

If the designer feels it must have seat lead always-with some extra bit of interline spacing, then
one may choose the inclusion of minimal leading in a given reading. Then in that case, it will be a
part of the base point size, it has no capital with no lower case-ascender. Here in this example even
if a font has similar point size, as shown in the figure 3.5

fig.3.5 Arial and Bernhard Fashion BT

Height of font
Font size

Fig,3.6 The height of the font .

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 The font size or text size is the overall size (generally height) of a font shown on a screen or
printed on a page. A font is typically measured in a point (pt) size, which is the vertical measurement
of the lettering. There are approximately 72 (72.272) points in one inch or 2.54 cm. In the picture to
the right, is an example of font sizes 6pt to 84pt.as shown in the figure3.6.
Although points are the traditional measurement of fonts, with computers and other screen
displays font sizes are also measured as pixels (px) and in pica (pc).
The font size may also be measured in em space, which is the width of the font generally equal
to the point size.

The em quad (square)

In typography, a quad (originally quadraf) was a metal spacer used in letterpress typesetting.
The term was later adopted as the generic name for two common sizes of spaces in typography,
regardless of the form of typesetting used. An em quad is a space that is one em wide; as wide as the
height of the font. An en quad is a space that is one en wide: half the width of an em quad.

Fig 3.7 EM-quad

Check Your Progress

(1) What is typographic unit?
(2) What is point?
(3) How did Didot get its name?

3.3 Hanging Punctuations

Hanging punctuation or exdentation is a way of typesetting punctuation marks and bullet points,
most commonly quotation marks and hyphens, so that they do not disrupt the ‘flow’ of a body of text
or ‘break’ the margin of alignment.
Hanging punctuation is a type of text formatting that is used to preserve the look of text in
certain situations. When punctuation marks such as quotation marks would offset the beginning of
a line that is part of a selection of specially-formatted text, hanging punctuation can be used to
maintain the appearance of the text. Such a use is referred to as “hanging” punctuation because it is
placed outside of the formatted text; though it requires the line it appears on to be offset into the
block’s margin by one character, the text itself appears to remain intact because the first letter is in
the same position it would be in if the quotation marks weren’t present.

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 There are the four types of the hanging punctuation,

Without hanging bullets

The body of type is ruined visually, when you do not hang the punctuation.

Fig.3.8 without hanging bullets

With hanging bullets

The hanging punctuation gives an intermediate flow to the on the left hand side. The characters,
bullets, or numbers in gutter, highlights the list, and this depiction of list is visually clear and more
sophisticated.

Fig 3.9 with hanging bullets

Without no hanging punctuations

The one thing that can easily spoil legibility is badly typeset quotes. The hindrance in the flow
of text spoils the overall graphic effects as well.

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 Fig 3.10 without any hanging punctuations

With hanging punctuation

The marks for the quotations should be hung ,because this helps in uninterrupted flow of
reading.

Fig 3.11 with hanging punctuation

Check Your Progress

(1) What are hanging punctuations?
(2) Explain without no hanging punctuations?

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3.4. Ligatures
Two or more letters blended into one character are known as ligatures. Two or more letters
combined into one character make a ligature. In typography some ligatures represent specific sounds
or words such as the AE or æ diphthong ligature.

Fig. 3.12 standard ligatures

A standard ligature is functional in nature, and is created to solve the problem of characters
that crash when set next to each other. The most common standard ligatures are the “f”-ligatures:
“fi,” “fl” and sometimes “ff,” “ffi,” “ffl,” and occasionally more.

Fig.3.13 Examples of f and I ligatures

Primarily ligatures are used to improve readability, as the tittle on ‘i’ (the dot) tends to clash
with the terminal of ‘f’, which can be quite obtrusive. As you can see in the image below, an
extended terminal in ‘f’ can also cause gaps in between the letters. With ligatures, all of this can be
fixed. To improve readability there are standard ligatures and contextual ligatures.

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Digraphs
A digraph such as ll in Spanish or Welsh, are not ligatures in the general case as the two letters
are displayed as separate glyphs: although written together, when they are joined in handwriting
or italic fonts the base form of the letters is not changed and the individual glyphs remain separate.
Like some ligatures discussed above, these digraphs may or may not be considered individual letters
in their respective languages. Until the 1994 spelling reform, the digraphs ch and ll were considered
separate letters in Spanish for collation purposes.
The difference can be illustrated with the French digraph œu, which is composed of the
ligature œ and the simplex letter u.
Dutch 3, however, is somewhat more ambiguous. Depending on the standard used, it can be
considered a digraph, a ligature or a letter in itself, and its upper case and lower case forms are often
available as a single glyph with a distinctive ligature in several professional fonts (e.g. Zapfino). Sans
serif uppercase 2 glyphs, popular in the Netherlands, typically use a ligature resembling a U with a
broken left-hand stroke.

Fig 3.14 uppercase IJ Glyph looking like you

Check Your Progress

1. What is a ligature?
2. What is a diagraph?

3.5 Typographic Hierarchy- Size

Typographic refers how to distinct, faces and size and weights of the size are appear in a
document. To keep the hierarchy simple we will only look the two most important characteristic i.e
weight and size.

Typography : 51
 If we look at old scripts as they known that they are too old styles ,they look so same as in the u’s
amd m’s look alike too p’s and y’s look the same, and so on.

Fig 3.15 letter size

Advent of the scale

The classic typographic scale is a harmonious progression of font sizes, like the notes of a
musical scale. Because the classic typographic scale is a scale, it must obey the scaling property:
if x is a size in the scale, then r * x must also be a size in the scale, where r is the ratio of the scale.
This ratio is a defining property of the scale. We can use this property to continue the classic
typographic scale to much larger font sizes.

Fig 3.16 letter size scale

3.6 Typographic Hierarchary-weight

Typeface weight, and the choice of weight, is perhaps one area of typography that to most
designers is simply a matter of choice. That choice is dictated by answering a design problem which
is aesthetically, or content, motivated. What many designers do not realise is that there are rules
which should govern the choice of weight - a typographic pecking order - which when followed,
aids the designer’s typesetting and can produce stunning results.

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Solving the design problem
Let’s start by addressing the root of the decision to set type in different weights - solving a
design problem. I mentioned that this problem stems from two main areas :
(1) An aesthetic problem. This is where the designer sets type differently to add style or solve
some kind of visual or compositional issue.
(2) A content problem. The designer needs to set a different weight because the content dictates it.
The language of the content may dictate special typographic treatment, the tone of voice may
be different, it may be a quote, it may be a structural device such as folios.

C.1 Decorative bullets

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C.2 Periodic table of Typefaces

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 C.3 Fonts

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C.4 Font Ornaments

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C.5 Punctuation Marks

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C.6 Ligaturs

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Continued ligatures

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C.7 Proof Readers Mark

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History
I like these history bits, they really are informative. To research where the rules came from and
why they should be followed goes a long way to ensuring they are used.
Uppercase and Lowercase, and the relationship between them, have been around for over
twelve hundred years. Small Caps, ornamentals and arabic figures were early additions to the roman.
Italics were a strange bunch to begin with. They didn’t associate themselves with lower case
roman, as we usually see today, but with roman caps and small caps. It’s only in recent times that
usage of italic, within roman, was deemed to be typographically correct.
Some of the newest additions to the weights of typefaces came with bold, and condensed, as
late as the early nineteenth century. These were generally used in place of italics and small caps.
Bold typefaces have now become a standard way of differentiating in typesetting, particularly on
screen where italics are a little more difficult to read.
A type family with all of these weights forms a balanced series which is no only historically
accurate but creates harmonious typography. If the setting of copy was reversed, so italics were used
as body copy, Caps was used as pull-quotes and bold was used as access structure (folios, running
heads etc) not only would the body of text look terrible, it was also be very difficult to read.

3.7 Steps To Achive Typographycal Hierarachy

The most critical components in attaining good hierarchy is the total and complete designing
of your document. After arranging all the components, the designers need to prioritize the information
that is to be shared with the users. Here are some steps to achieve a balance in typographical hierarchy.
Here are some of the points to achieve typographical hierarchy.
• Choose the primary typeface intelligently
• Use of contrasting typeface
• Vary the size
• Use all caps
• Italics
• Incorporate small caps

Check Your Progress

(1) What does typographic hierarchy means?
(2) What are the point sizes?
(3) What are the different size for a font on the scale?

3.8 Summery
• The units of the dimensions used in the typography are called typographic units.
• Typographic measurements points to the width of of the column or block of text that
extends from the the left-hand margin to the right-hand margin.
• The marks of punctuation should be hung outside the measure.
• The measuring tool for the default or lowest distance between the lines is called a Point;
this refers to the line when the leading is not there.

Typography : 61
 • The height needed for a block which is too be casted is conviently known as the font
height. Usually the height of the block is little bit harder than the character.
• Hanging punctuations is a term referring to the position of the position of the glyphs for
creating false impression of a consistent edge of text. With the in caption of desktop and
publishing and creating body text very simple ,fast and cost effective.
• Two or more letters blended into one character is known as ligature. In typography some
of the ligatures stand for precise word stand for AE diphthong ligature or some are used
basically to make the page book more elegant ,like the Scala Sans and Gill Sans are vital
to the typeface and hence should be used.
• Typography hierarachy means how distinct faces, sizes and weights of typeface appear
in a document. European typographers designed an array of type size.
• A family of type with all the Typographical weights form a stable series which is
harmonious to balance well.

3.9 Key Terms

• Typographic Measurments : A column or block of text that extends from the left hand
margin to the right hand margin.
• X-hight : a comparative unit of length which is the resultant of lower case letters which
do not have descenders..
• Line Height : the space between the bottom lines of two successive lines of text.
• Hanging [Unctuation] : A term that refers to the position of the glyphs for creating false
impression of a consistent edge of text.

3.10 End Questions

(1) Define typographic measurement.
(2) Write a short note on the usage of ligatures in print.
(3) Explain typographical hierarchy in detail.
(4) Explain how hanging punctuations are handled.
(5) What are ligatures ? How are Digraphs different from ligatures?

Typography : 62
 Unit 4 : In-designs Tutorial
For Typographic Designs

Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Unit objectives
4.2 Simple Text Typing
4.3 Simple Formatting
4.4 Simple Table
4.5 Complex Formatting
4.6 Graphic Creation
4.7 Summery
4.8 Key Terms
4.9 End Questions

4.0 Introduction
InDesign is the best Adobe tool for creating traditional and expertly crafted typography.
Designers often are quick to jump over to Illustrator or Photoshop if they want to create more
unique and contemporary text effects. However, with a little know-how you can create cutting-edge,
creative text effects without ever having to leave InDesign.
This tutorial shows you how to create five striking typographic effects using tools and tricks
available to you in InDesign. You can follow these tutorials individually, then tweak the steps to
make your own unique styles.
In this tutorial we’ll create the inside pages for a short, eight-page section of a book, the much-
loved classic Moby Dick by Herman Melville. You will learn how to create Masters with page
numbers and running headers, thread text throughout the book, choose appropriate sizing and fonts,
and apply Styles to the text.

4. 1 Unit Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Gain Insights and practical tips in simple Formatting I application Such as Notepad and
Ms -word
• Recapitulate the basic design principles
Typography : 63
4.2 Simple Text Typing
SimpleText allows editing including text formatting (underline, italic, bold, etc.), fonts, and
sizes. It was developed to integrate the features included in the different versions of Teach Text that
were created by various software development groups within Apple.
The key improvement between SimpleText and Teach Text was the addition of text styling.
SimpleText could support multiple fonts and font sizes, while Teach Text supported only a single
font per document. Adding text styling features made SimpleText WorldScript-savvy, meaning that
it can use Simplified and Traditional Chinese characters. Like Teach Text, SimpleText was also
limited to only 32 kB of text in a document, although images could increase the total file size beyond
this limit. SimpleText style information was stored in the file’s resource fork in such a way that if
the resource fork was stripped (such as by uploading to a non-Macintosh server), the text information
would be retained.
It can be considered similar to Windows’ WordPad application. In later versions it also gained
additional read only display capabilities for PICT files, as well as other Mac OS built-in formats
like Quick draw GX and QTIF, 3DMF and even QuickTime movies.

Fig.4.1 Example of a Notepad text File

SimpleText is replaced by the more powerful Text Edit application, which reads and writes
more document formats as well as including word processor-like features such as a ruler and spell
checking. Text Edit’s styled text format is RTF, which is able to survive a single-forked file system
intact.

4.3 Simple Formatting

The next important step is to formatting the document. notepad is very good for this step as it
does not let you do formatting because you do not need to add text accompaniments to the baseline
formatting.
• Set Up Your Page
• Inserting Images
• Line Spacing
• Formatting Text
• Inserting Symbols
• Click and Type

Typography : 64
Set Up Your Page
To see the entire Word document, choose View > Print Layout. This is the easiest way to view
your document the way it will look when you print. Word presets the margins around the page where
you can’t type, but you can adjust them. You can access and change the margin settings by choosing
File > Page Setup > Margins tab. By default, Word sets the top and bottom margins at one inch and
the left and right margins at 1¼ inch.

Fig.4.2 Set Up Your Page

The Margins tab option includes a feature that lets you change the margins on your page.
You can alter these values to make the margins wider or narrower. However if you decrease
them too much you may get an error message saying the margins are outside the printable area
when you click OK. Most printers can’t print to the edges of the paper so you can’t make the
margins too small – the width of this non-printing area is different for every printer. If you get that
error message, click Fix to have Word adjust the margins for you
If you need a page that’s wider than it is tall – called landscape orientation – this is the place to
change the orientation setting. When you do, the page on the screen will change rotation, but you
still put the paper into the printer as usual. Word takes care of printing it correctly for you.

Line Spacing
If you’re writing an essay or a document that needs to have larger-than-normal spacing between
lines, use the line spacing options. Locate the Line Spacing button on the Formatting toolbar. From
the dropdown list of options you can choose from single spacing (1.0) through 1.5, 2.0, 2.5 and 3.0,
which is triple line spacing. As with any tool in Word, if you want to apply this to text you have
already typed you should first select the text and then set the desired line spacing.

Formatting Text
You’ll find many of the options for formatting text in Word in the toolbar. You can, for example,
select a piece of text and choose a font from the Font dropdown list and a size from the Font Size

Typography : 65
dropdown list. Font sizes are measured in points and 72 points equals one inch. People typically use
an 11- or 12-point font size for text in documents like letters and reports
From the toolbar you can also select Bold, Italics and Underline font styles. For additional
formatting options, choose Format > Font > Font tab. Here you can, for example, create a shadow or
small capitals font effect. From the Character Spacing tab you can adjust the spacing of the characters
to stretch them wider apart or to make them closer together.
For example, to make letters spaced father apart, from the Spacing dropdown list choose
Expanded and set the amount of extra space between characters. Check the Preview box to see what
the result will look like. You must, of course, select any text that you want to apply the additional
spacing to before you adjust its spacing.

Inserting Symbols
If you need special symbols a trademark symbol, a checkbox or another character for which
there is no key on the keyboard choose Insert > Symbol. Select a font to use – this can be the font
you are using for your document or you can choose, for example, the Wingdings font that contains
a range of handy graphical characters. Click the symbol you want to use, click Insert and then click
Close

Fig.4.3 Inserting Symbols

Inserting Images
By default Word treats images the same as the characters you type so you can’t move images
around the way you might expect. If you choose Insert > Picture > Clipart or From File and insert a
picture into your document it will be stuck in its current position and difficult to move.
To change this behaviour so you can move the picture, click on the picture to display the
Picture toolbar. If it doesn’t appear, choose View > Toolbars > Picture to display it. Click the Text
Wrapping dropdown list and choose something other than In line with text. For example, Square is
a good choice.

Typography : 66
Word formatting screen shot
Word offers four possible paragraph alignment options.
(Click for larger image).
When you do this, the sizing handles around the image change shape to hollow circles and you can
now easily drag the image around the page. You can also rotate the image by dragging the green
rotate handle

Fig.4.4 Inserting Images

Click and Type

Microsoft Word has a handy feature that lets you position the typing point anywhere on the
page. To do this, point to where you want to start typing, double click and type. If you click on the
right edge of the page, your text will be aligned neatly along the right page margin, if you click in the
middle it will be cantered, and if you click on the left it will be left aligned (the text will be ragged
down the right edge of the page).
You can also control the alignment of text for any text using the Align Left, Center, Align
Right and Justify buttons on the Formatting toolbar. Simply click in a line or paragraph of text and
select the alignment option. Alignment is something that affects an entire paragraph and cannot be
controlled line by line

Check Your Progress

1. What’s a table got to do with positioning text?
2. How to format your table for this document
3. What was used to press the dyed type-area onto the moist paper?
4. What was Gutenberg by profession?
5. How the world of printing changed due to Gutenberg’s invention?

Typography : 67
4.4 Simple Table
Data like sales or financial information, telephone lists, and other similar information can be
effectively and quickly structured with the table feature. table are an extremely powerful tool which
can aid in organizing as well as formatting compound documents with very little work.
We’re creating the sample document and our next challenge is to position text on the page
rather than just creating paragraphs of body text.

How to create a table to hold your text

Fig.4.5 Inserting Images How to create a table to hold your text

Figure 1: The Insert Table dialog box in Word 2002 (earlier versions will look a little different)
Position the Insertion Point (or cursor) where you want the table. For our sample document, that
will be in the paragraph below the heading “Information about this document”.
In recent versions of Word, from the main menu, choose Table > Insert > Table. In older
versions of Word, from the main menu, choose Table > Insert. You’re now at the Insert Table dialog
(Figure 1).
You need two columns and three rows.
If you have a recent version of Word, make sure that you have selected Fixed Column Width,
and that it is set to Auto. This is because, for this purpose, we need to decide for ourselves how wide
the columns will be.

Typography : 68
Table got to do with positioning text
When you hear “table” you’re probably thinking of something that looks like this:
Budget Actual Variance
Salaries and wages $20,000 $19,345 $655
Stationery $3,000 $3,125 ($125)
Rent and cleaning $5,200 $5,250 ($50)
Other expenses $1,800 $750 $1,050
Total expenses $30,000 $28,470 $1,530

Fig.4.6 Table got to do with positioning text

Yes, that’s a table. But if we had only text in the table, and took out the borders, we could use
a table to position our text on the page.
There are two huge advantages of arranging text in a table. The first is that it is really easy to change
the widths of the columns, which will determine how far left or right our text is positioned on the
page. The second is that text wraps within a cell of the table. You don’t have to work out how much
text will fit on one line, and how much should go to the next. Word will do that for you.

Your new table : Borders and Gridlines

There are two kinds of lines you will see around the cells of tables. Some are borders (Figure4.7).
Borders are seen when you print the document. You can change the borders, their thickness, colour
and style. Or you can delete them.

Figure 2: A new table with borders

Figure 4.8: A new table without borders, but showing Gridlines.

Other lines you will see are Gridlines (Figure 4.8). These are like the Text Boundaries that
show you where your margins are. Gridlines don’t print. Gridlines show you where the table is, so
you know where to type your text. If you don’t see any kind of lines in your table, choose Table >
Show Gridlines (or Table > Gridlines in earlier versions of Word).
Sometimes, when Word inserts a new table, the table will have borders around all the cells
(it depends on what version of Word and how your machine is set up). Sometimes it won’t have
borders, but you will still be able to see the gridlines. As you can see from these screenshots (Figures
4.7 and 4.8), it’s sometimes difficult to tell which is which.

The appropriate style to the text in the table

All of this text is Body Text. We can apply the style to the whole table at once.

Typography : 69
 To do that, click anywhere within the Table. In later versions of Word, choose Table > Select
> Table. In earlier versions of Word, Table > Select Table.
That will select (highlight) the whole table.
To apply the Body Text style, from the Formatting Toolbar, click in the Styles box, and choose
Body Text from the drop-down list.

Move the table horizontally, and change the column widths

You can drag the vertical gridlines to change the horizontal position of the table, and to change
the column widths.
When your mouse hits the sweet spot, the cursor changes to a double-headed arrow. You can
now click and drag left or right to change the width of the column.
Click once anywhere within your table. (Make sure no text is highlighted.) Hover your mouse
over any of the vertical gridlines (the left of the table, the right of the table, or the one between the
columns).
When you hit the sweet spot, the cursor will change to a double-headed arrow pointing left and
right . When you see that, click and drag to the left or right.
You can use this to manipulate your table to get the columns just the way you want them.

4.5 Complex Formatting

In complex formatting, we will learn about the important aspects of alignment. Most word
processing programs give you the capability to change the text alignment of a block of text. This
setting determines how the text is displayed horizontally on the page. The four primary types of text
alignment include left aligned, right aligned, cantered, and justified
• Left Aligned
• Right Aligned
• Cantered
• Justified
(1) Left Aligned - This setting is often referred to as “left justified,” but is technically called
“flush left.” It is typically the default setting when you create a new document. Left aligned
text begins each line along the left margin of the document. As you type, the first word that
does not fit on a line is placed at the left margin on the next line. This results in a straight
margin on the left and a “ragged edge” margin on the right
(2) Right Aligned - This setting is also called “right justified,” but is technically known as “flush
right.” It aligns the beginning of each line of text along the right margin of the document. As
you type, the text expands to the left of the cursor. If you type more than one line, the next line
will begin along the right margin. The result is a straight margin on the right and a “ragged
edge” margin on the left. Right justification is commonly used to display the company name
and address near the top of a business document.
(3) Cantered - As the name implies, centered text is placed in the center of each line. As you type,
the text expands equally to the left and right, leaving the same margin on both sides. When you
start a new line, the cursor stays in the center, which is where the next line begins. Centered
text is often used for document titles and may be appropriate for headers and footers as well.
(4) Justified - Justified text combines left and right aligned text. When a block of text is justified,
each line fills the entire space from left to right, except for the paragraph indent and the last
line of a paragraph. This is accomplished by adjusting the space between words and characters
Typography : 70
 in each line so that the text fills 100% of the space. The result is a straight margin on each side
of the page. Justified text is commonly used in newspapers and magazines and has become
increasingly popular on the Web as well

Fig.4.6 Complex Formatting

In most word processors, the text alignment options are typically located in the program’s
primary toolbar. They are often displayed as a row of four icons, which include the left, cantered,
right, and justified alignment options. These options may also be available in the program’s Format
menu. You can either select the appropriate setting before you begin typing, or select a block text
and choose the text alignment to apply the new setting. If you want to apply a new text alignment to
an entire document, use the Edit ’! Select All command, then select the alignment you want to use.
Click the “Page Layout” tab and then click the small arrow button in the corner of the Paragraph
section on the ribbon, which opens the Paragraph window.
Click into the Alignment drop-down menu under the General section. Choose another option,
such as “Right” or “Centered,” as Word’s default line alignment is left.

4.6 Graphic Creation

Adding or inserting image and graphics to the document is another important factor of designing.
A line is smudge linking two points.it is a way of reaching from point A to point B that gives any line
its distinguishing character and appearance .they can be short or long curved or straight. You can
have horizontal diagonal or vertical lines. They can also be solid dashed, thin, or of variable width.
After line, shapes are one of the primary elements of designing. Whether in combination or
alone, they can express global meanings and can act as a guide to the eye and also organize the given
information. There are three primary types of shapes: geometric, abstract and natural.
The list that follows provides a brief description of each of the possibilities:
• Picture: You can insert your digital pictures into your Office documents. The Office
applications support a number of different file formats including Windows Bitmap (.bmp),
Graphics Interchange Format (.gif), Joint Photographic Experts Group (.jpg), Portable
Network Graphics (.png), and Tagged Image File Format (.tif).
• Clip Art: Each Office application has access to an installed library of clip art images.
Additional clip art can be downloaded from Microsoft.com as you work in a particular
application. Microsoft.com provides you with a seemingly unending library of clip art
images. Static clip art is referred to as an illustration. The Clip Art library also provides
animated GIF images, which are referred to as videos; however, GIF images are just a
layering of static images that provide the appearance of motion. The Clip Art gallery also
includes photographs and audio files.

Typography : 71
 • Shapes: The ability to insert different drawn shapes into an Office application has been
around nearly as long as the Office applications. A Shapes gallery provides a number of
different shape categories that make it easy to add lines, rectangles, stars, and even callouts
to your Office documents. Shapes can also be edited and combined to provide you with
all sorts of possibilities.
• SmartArt: This graphic type was a huge addition to the Office applications when it was
introduced with the release of Office 2007. Office 2010 provides additional SmartArt
diagrams and makes it easier to edit SmartArt diagrams.
• Screenshot: This tool provides you with the ability to take a snapshot of the Windows
desktop and/or any windows open on the desktop. This can be particularly useful if you
want to visually document the steps required to use in a particular feature in one of the
Office applications (or any application open on the Windows desktop). You can also use
it to capture the screen of messaging platforms such as Skype or the wall on your Facebook
page.
• WordArt: WordArt was actually created using a separate WordArt application for a number
of the Office suite releases and was inserted into a document as an object such as clip art
or a digital image. WordArt attributes can now be assigned to text in place, allowing you
much greater flexibility in converting text to WordArt using the WordArt gallery.
The commands used to insert the various graphic types such as pictures, clip art, or shapes are
provided on the Ribbon’s Insert tab in each of the Office applications such as Word or PowerPoint.
You can even insert pictures, clip art, and shapes into your Outlook emails; the Ribbon provided by
the message window provides the various commands for inserting graphics on the Insert tab
After line, shapes are one of the primary elements of designing. Whether in combination or
alone, they can express global meanings and can act as a guide to the eye and also organize the given
information. There are three primary types of shapes: geometric, abstract and natural

Check Your Progress

(1) What’s a table got to do with positioning text?
(2) How to format your table for this document
(3) What was used to press the dyed type-area onto the moist paper?
(4) What was Gutenberg by profession?
(5) How the world of printing changed due to Gutenberg’s invention?

4.7 Summary
Design essentially about communicating through which words and images become effective
and powerful mediums for information exchange.
The first step in typographic design is to just put in the contents in a computer application such
as Notepad or MS word.
Simple formatting includes paying attention to heading and choosing fonts. It also includes
line spacing to enhance readability.
Tables are a powerful tool in organising documents. They can be enhanced by adding borders
and shading.
Alignment is a component of complex formatting. It adds the element of synchronicity in the
document.
Adding images in graphics o the document is another tool of designing text.

Typography : 72
4.8 Key Terms
• Simple formatting : the process of converting a Notepad document into a Word document.
• Alignment : The technique of lining up text in a document.
• Line : A smudge linking two points. There are horizontal, diagonal and vertical lines.

4.9 End Questions

(1) Check out all types of advertising material and various lengths, width and forms of lines.
Check out how they slant curve or remain straight. Check out the various shapes they form.
Use any combination of these lines to create your own image.
(2) Correct the text document and apply whatever concept you think need to be applied. Also,
insert some graphics wherever required.
(3) Create a document applying all the concepts that we have dealt with so far, like tables, bullet
and graphics.

Typography : 73
 Unit 5 : Copy Preparation Design & Layout

Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Unit objectives
5.2 Copy Preparation
5.2.1 Creating a professional document
5.2.2 Dividing copy into different sections
5.2.3 Maintaining uniformity of style
5.2.4 Typesetting instructions
5.3 The Printers Point System
5.4 Principles Of Design
5.5 Margins
5.6 Layouts For Dtp And Printing
5.7 Facetypes And Their Classifications
5.8 Proofreading
5.9 Summery
5.10 Key Terms
5.11 End Questions

5.0 Introduction
There are four main types of communication: written, verbal, nonverbal and visual. Written
communication includes email, signs, letters, magazines, books and anything else transcribed into
typed or handwritten words. Verbal communication is auditory, while nonverbal communication is
body language and gestures.

5. 1 Unit Objectives
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Explain Copy preparation
• Discuss the printers point system
• Discribe the principles of design
• Design the margins

Typography : 74
 • Identify the layouts for DTP and printing
• Understand the different symbols of proofreading

5. 2 Copy Preparation
In typography, a term originally used to refer to the proper preparation of manuscript copy for
typesetting. To a large extent, “copy preparation” still refers to typewritten sheets, 8H x 11, typed
double-spaced and neatly marked with typographic instructions. In recent years, however, copy is
no longer rekeyboarded by the typesetting operator (keyboarder). Copy is increasingly prepared on
personal computers with word processing capabilities, and the information is input to the typesetting
process electronically. The originator thus has the benefit of sophisticated editing and correction
prior to releasing the material for typesetting. An important attribute will be consistency of preparation,
since the conversion of the electronic data to typesetting input will require a match-up of specific
occurrences of indents, word spaces, returns, and other code and character combinations in order to
change typewriter-oriented copy into typography.
• Creating a professional document
• Dividing copy into different sections
• Mainting uniformity of style
• Typesetting instructions
• Publishing with Elsevier: copy prepration
• File construction

5.2.1 Creating a professional document

Technical communicators must take data and convert it into information; this process is known
as visulazation, or visual communications. Because of the widespread use of digital media, modern
technical communicators must also now think about visualization as it relates to digital forms and
documents. Stuart K. Card, Jock D. Mackinlay, and Ben Shneiderman, editors of the book Readings
in Information Visualization: Using Vision to Think, define visualization as the: “use of computer-
supported, interactive, visual representations of data to amplify cognition”.Though many forms and
documents will still have a paper copy for distribution, most forms and documents are now utilized
online in some fashion; this is why there is such focus on the computer-supported representations
for maximal cognition. Brumberger defines visual communication as: “designing print, Web, and
multimedia documents…creating visual displays of information/data, generating other visual
material…and any other communication tasks which rely on visual language”.
Human-centered design focuses on ensuring that the audience will comprehend the information
being presented. It is: “how a frustrated and confused subject...comprehends a critical message in a
crowded and noisy environment”. The goal of human-centered design is “to make information
accessible” and “to give form to data”.
Luke Wroblewski, senior director of Project Ideation and Design at Yahoo! Inc., and author
of Web Form Design: Filling in the Blanks, also has some human-centered design ideas for web
forms and documents. He says: “because people want what’s on the other side of a web form, their
general tendency is to jump right in, start answering questions and hope to get it done quickly”. As
a result, he recommends designing a clear path to completion for the form or document. He also
mentions messaging without proper priority, like hard-to-find error messages, and unconnected
primary actions that can similarly cloud the steps people need to take in order to get through a
form. For a web form to have human-centered design, information must be structured “in a logical
pattern from start to finish”

Typography : 75
5.2.2 Dividing copy into different sections
In concurrent programming, concurrent accesses to shared resources can lead to unexpected
or erroneous behavior, so parts of the program where the shared resource is accessed is protected.
This protected section is the critical section or critical region. It cannot be executed by more than
one process. Typically, the critical section accesses a shared resource, such as a data structure, a
peripheral device, or a network connection, that would not operate correctly in the context of multiple
concurrent accesses
The simplest method to prevent any change of processor control inside the critical section is
implementing a semaphore. In uni processor systems, this can be done by disabling interrupts on
entry into the critical section, avoiding system calls that can cause a context switch while inside the
section, and restoring interrupts to their previous state on exit. Any thread of execution entering any
critical section anywhere in the system will, with this implementation, prevent any other thread,
including an interrupt, from being granted processing time on the CPU—and therefore from entering
any other critical section or, indeed, any code whatsoever—until the original thread leaves its critical
section..

5.2.3 Maintaining uniformity of style

Sentence spacing is the horizontal space between sentences in typeset text. It is a matter of
typographical convention. Since the introduction of movable-type printing in Europe, various
sentence spacing conventions have been used in languages with a Latin alphabet. These include a
normal word space (as between the words in a sentence), a single enlarged space, and two full
spaces.
Until the 20th century, publishing houses and printers in many countries used additional space
between sentences. There were exceptions to this traditional spacing method—some printers used
spacing between sentences that was no wider than word spacing. This was French spacing—a term
synonymous with single-space sentence spacing until the late 20th century. With the introduction of
the typewriter in the late 19th century, typists used two spaces between sentences to mimic the style
used by traditional typesetters. While wide sentence spacing was phased out in the printing industry
in the mid-twentieth century, the practice continued on typewriters. and later on computers. Perhaps
because of this, many modern sources now incorrectly claim that wide spacing was created for the
typewriter.
The desired or correct sentence spacing is often debated but many sources now say additional
space is not necessary or desirable. From around 1950, single sentence spacing became standard in
books, magazines and newspapers, and the majority of style guides that use a Latin-derived alphabet
as a language base now prescribe or recommend the use of a single space after the concluding
punctuation of a sentence. However, some sources still state that additional spacing is correct or
acceptable. The debate continues on the World Wide Web. Many people prefer double sentence
spacing for informal use because that was how they were taught to type. There is a debate on which
convention is more readable; the few recent direct studies conducted since 2002 have produced
inconclusive results.

5.2.4 Typesetting instructions

Typesetting is the composition of text by means of arranging physical types or the digital
equivalents. Stored letters and other symbols (called sorts in mechanical systems and glyphs in digital
systems) are retrieved and ordered according to a language’s orthography for visual display.
Typesetting requires the prior process of designing a font (which is widely but erroneously confused
with and substituted for typeface). One significant effect of typesetting was that authorship of works
could be spotted more easily, making it difficult for copiers who have not gained permission.

Typography : 76
 Check Your Progress
(1) How was the copy preparation done,prior to the advent of desktop publishing software?
(2) Is there any difference in the usage of en dash and em dash?
(3) Why should the copy be divided into sections?

5. 3 The Printers Point System

In typography, the point is the smallest unit of measure. It is used for
measuring font size, leading, and other items on a printed page. The size of the point has varied
throughout the history of printing. Since the 18th century, the point’s size has varied from 0.18 to
0.4 millimeters. Following the advent of desktop publishing in the 1980s and 1990s, digital
printing has largely supplanted the letterpress printing and has established the DTP point (desktop
publishing point) as the de facto standard. The DTP point is defined as 1D 72 of an international
inch (about 0.353 mm) and, as with earlier American point sizes, is considered to be 1D 12 of a pica.
In metal type, the point size of the font described the height of the metal body on which
the typeface’s characters were cast. In digital type, letters of a font are designed around an imaginary
space called an em square. When a point size of a font is specified, the font is scaled so that its em
square has a side length of that particular length in points. Although the letters of a font usually fit
within the font’s em square, there is not necessarily any size relationship between the two, so the
point size does not necessarily correspond to any measurement of the size of the letters on the
printed page.

French points
The Truchet point, the first modern typographic point, was 1/144 of a French inch or 1/1728 of
the royal foot. It was invented by the French clergyman Sébastien Truchet. During the metrication
of France amid its revolution, a 1799 law declared the meter to be exactly 443.296 French lines long.
At 9000 lines or 16 inches per foot, this established a length to the royal foot of 9000/27706 or ca.
325 mm, which made the Truchet point equal to 15625/83118mm or about 187.986 µm, although it
has also been cited as exactly 188 µm.
The Fournier point established by Pierre Simon Fournier was about 11/864 French inches or
(by 1799) 345 µm. This is very close to the present international point, but Fournier’s point did not
achieve lasting popularity despite being revived by the Monotype Corporation in 1927. It became
standard in Belgium
The Didot point established by François-Ambroise Didot in the 18th century was twice
Truchet’s and thus 1/864 of the royal foot, i.e. by 1799 15625/41559mm or ca. 375.971 µm.
Approximations were subsequently employed, largely owing to the Didot point’s unwieldy
conversion to metric units. (The divisor of its conversion ratio has the prime
factorization of 3×7×1979.) Values included Hermann Berthold’s 376 µm point and Jan
Tschichold’s 375.94 µm (266 points to 100 mm). Due to the definition in TeX of 1157 dd = 1238 pt,
the slightly larger 376.065 µm became a common value.
Tex also supports a new Didot point (nd) at 3/8mm or 375 µm, and cites a 1978 redefinition
for it. The French National Print Office adopted a point of 2/5mm or 400 µm exactly and continues
to use this measurement today. Japanese[6] and German[7] standardization bodies instead opted for a
metric typographic base measure of exactly 1/4mm or 250 µm. It is called Q in Japanese after the
initial letter of quarter millimetre. Due to demand by Japanese typesetters, CSS adopted Q in 2015.
The Didot point has been mostly replaced by the DTP point in Europe and throughout the
world.

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American points
A typographic or printer’s foot contains 72 picas or 864 points. The Metric Act of 1866
established a legal ratio of 1200 : 3937 between the foot and the meter. This is 0.0002% more than
304.8 mm, the length of the international foot established by the 1959 International Yard and Pound
Agreement.
The Hawks point was established by Nelson Hawks in 1879, based on a printer’s foot reduced
by 0.375% from the standard foot of his time. It had a value of 0.013837 in (about 0.35146 mm). A
variant was proposed to be exactly 83 picas or 996 points in 350 mm (ca. 0.351405622 mm/pt),
giving it a value around 0.013848867 in.
The Johnson point was established by Lawrence Johnson in the mid-1800s based on a printer’s
foot 249D 250 as large as the standard foot (11.952 inches or 0.996 foot). It thus had a value of
0.01383 inch. The 15th meeting of the Type Founders Association of the United States (ATA) approved
the “Johnson pica” as its official standard in 1886, hence the alias ATA point. Following the 1959
standardization of the foot, this meant the American printer’s foot was 303.5808 mm exactly and its
point became 351.36 µm.
This size was approximated by Donald Knuth for the default unit of his TeX computer
typesetting system and is thus sometimes known as the TeX point, which is 351.45980 µm or exactly
1
D 72.27 of the modern inch, and exactly 800D 803 of the PostScript point (bp in TeX).[14][not in citation given]
Like the French Didot point, the traditional American printer’s point was largely replaced by
the DTP point system.

Desktop publishing point

The desktop publishing point (DTP point) or PostScript point is defined as 1D 72 or 0.0138 of
the international inch, making it equivalent to 352.7 µm. Twelve points make up a pica, and six
picas make an inch. A separate typographic or printer’s foot is not needed anymore.
This specification was developed by John Warnock and Charles Geschke when they
created Adobe PostScript. It was adopted by Apple Computer as the standard for the display
resolution of the original Macintosh desktop computer and the print resolution for
the LaserWriter printer.
In 1996, it was adopted by W3C for Cascading Stylesheets (CSS) where it was later related at
a fixed 4:3 ratio to the pixel due to a general (but wrong) assumption of 96 px/in screens.

Point-size names
Fonts originally consisted of a set of moveable type letterpunches purchased from a type
foundry. As early as 1600, the sizes of these types—their “bodies acquired traditional names in
English, French, German, and Dutch, usually from their principal early uses. These names were
used relative to the others and their exact length would vary over time, from country to country, and
from foundry to foundry. For example, “agate” and “ruby” used to be a single size “agate ruby” of
about 5 points;metal type known as “agate” later ranged from 5 to 5.8 points. The sizes were gradually
standardized as described above. Modern Chinese typography uses the following names in general
preference to stating the number of points. In ambiguous contexts, the
word hào (t _†, s ÷S, lit. ”number”) is added to the end of the size name to clarify the meaning.
Note that the Chinese font sizes use American points; the Continental systems traditionally
used the Fournier or Didot points. The Fournier points, being smaller than Didot’s, were associated
with the names of the Didot type closest in size rather than identical in number of points.

Typography : 78
 Check Your Progress
(1) What is a point?
(2) What is the representation of pica while measuring?
(3) What is the equivalent of a foot according to the metric act 1866?
(4) What will be the equivalent to 5 points in pica?
(5) What system units did the monotype machines work on?

5.4. Principles of Design

Color
• Colors play a large role in the elements of design with the color wheel being used as a
tool, and color theory providing a body of practical guidance to color mixing and the
visual impacts of specific color

Uses
• Color can aid organization to develop a color strategy and stay consistent with those
colors.
• It can give emphasis to create a hierarchy to the piece of art.
• It is also important to note that color choices in design change meaning within cultural
contexts. For example, white is associated with purity in some cultures while it is associated
with death in others.

Attributes
• Hue
• Values, tints and shades of colors that are created by adding black to a color for a shade
and white for a tint. Creating a tint or shade of color reduces the saturation.
• Saturation gives a color brightness or dullness, and by doing this it makes the color more
vibrant than before.
The three primary hues which cannot be created by mixing are red, yellow and blue. In practice,
however, a more practical set of “double primaries” is utilized to allow for creating more intense
saturation of colors. One author recommending this double primary system of color mixing is Michael
Wilcox in his book : BLUE AND YELLOW DON’T MAKE GREEN.

Shape
A shape is defined as a two or more dimensional area that stands out from the space next to or
around it due to a defined or implied boundary, or because of differences of value, color, or texture. All
objects are composed of shapes and all other ‘Elements of Design’ are shapes in some way.

Categories
• Mechanical Shapes or Geometric Shapes are the shapes that can be drawn using a ruler
or compass. Mechanical shapes, whether simple or complex, produce a feeling of control
or order.
• Organic Shapes are freehand drawn shapes that are complex and normally found in nature.
Organic shapes produce a natural feel.

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Texture

The tree’s visual texture is represented here in this image.

Meaning the way a surface feels or is perceived to feel. Texture can be added to attract or repel
interest to an element, depending on the pleasantness of the texture.[5]

Types of texture
• Tactile texture is the actual three-dimension feel of a surface that can be touched. Painter
can use impasto to build peaks and create texture.
• Visual texture is the illusion of the surfaces peaks and valleys, like the tree pictured. Any
texture shown in a photo is a visual texture, meaning the paper is smooth no matter how
rough the image perceives it to be.
Most textures have a natural touch but still seem to repeat a motif in some way. Regularly
repeating a motif will result in a texture appearing as a pattern.

Space
In design, space is concerned with the area deep within the moment of designated design, the
design will take place on. For a two-dimensional design, space concerns creating the illusion of a
third dimension on a flat surface:
• Overlap is the effect where objects appear to be on top of each other. This illusion makes
the top element look closer to the observer. There is no way to determine the depth of the
space, only the order of closeness.
• Shading adds gradiation marks to make an object of a two-dimensional surface seem
three-dimensional.
• Highlight, Transitional Light, Core of the Shadow, Reflected Light, and Cast Shadow
give an object a three-dimensional look.
• Linear Perspective is the concept relating to how an object seems smaller the farther
away it gets.
• Atmospheric Perspective is based on how air acts as a filter to change the appearance of
distant objects.

Form
Form may be described as any three-dimensional object. Form can be measured, from top to
bottom (height), side to side (width), and from back to front (depth). Form is also defined by light
and dark. It can be defined by the presence of shadows on surfaces or faces of an object. There are
two types of form, geometric (man-made) and natural (organic form). Form may be created by the
combining of two or more shapes. It may be enhanced by tone, texture and color. It can be illustrated
or constructed.

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Unity/harmony
According to Alex White, author of The Elements of Graphic Design, to achieve visual unity
is a main goal of graphic design. When all elements are in agreement, a design is considered unified.
No individual part is viewed as more important than the whole design. A good balance between
unity and variety must be established to avoid a chaotic or a lifeless design.

Methods
• Perspective: sense of distance between elements.
• Similarity: ability to seem repeatable with other elements.
• Continuation: the sense of having a line or pattern extend.
• Repetition: elements being copied or mimicked numerous times.
• Rhythm: is achieved when recurring position, size, color, and use of a graphic element
has a focal point interruption.
• Altering the basic theme achieves unity and helps keep interest.

Balance
It is a state of equalized tension and equilibrium, which may not always be calm.

Type

The top image has symmetrical balance and the bottom image has asymmetrical balance
• Symmetry
• Asymmetrical balance produces an informal balance that is attention attracting and
dynamic.
• Radial balance is arranged around a central element. The elements placed in a radial
balance seem to ‘radiate’ out from a central point in a circular fashion.

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 • Overall is a mosaic form of balance which normally arises from too many elements
being put on a page. Due to the lack of hierarchy and contrast, this form of balance can
look noisy but sometimes quiet.

Hierarchy
A good design contains elements that lead the reader through each element in order of its
significance. The type and images should be expressed starting from most important to the least
important.

Scale/proportion
Using the relative size of elements against each other can attract attention to a focal point.
When elements are designed larger than life, scale is being used to show drama.

Dominance/emphasis
Dominance is created by contrasting size, positioning, color, style, or shape. The focal point
should dominate the design with scale and contrast without sacrificing the unity of the whole.

Similarity and contrast

Planning a consistent and similar design is an important aspect of a designer’s work to make
their focal point visible. Too much similarity is boring but without similarity important elements
will not exist and an image without contrast is uneventful so the key is to find the balance between
similarity and contrast.

Similar environment
There are several ways to develop a similar environment:
• Build a unique internal organization structure.
• Manipulate shapes of images and text to correlate together.
• Express continuity from page to page in publications. Items to watch include headers, themes,
borders, and spaces.
• Develop a style manual and adhere to it.

Check Your Progress

(1) Why should you align text on a page?
(2) What elements can be used to creating contrast in designing?
(3) What is harmony?
(4) What do you understand by pattern ?

5.5 Margins
In typography, a margin is the area between the main content of a page and the page edges.[1] The
margin helps to define where a line of text begins and ends. When a page is justified the text is
spread out to be flush with the left and right margins. When two pages of content are combined next
to each other (known as a two-page spread), the space between the two pages is known as
the gutter.[2] (Any space between columns of text is a gutter.) The top and bottom margins of a page
are also called “head” and “foot”, respectively. The term “margin” can also be used to describe the
edge of internal content, such as the right or left edge of a column of text.[3] Marks made in the
margins are called marginalia.

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. The following are some thumb rules regarding the margins that can assert the designers in
breaking away from only the defaults but still putting all the functions required:-
Margin Rule #1 : Steer clear of using equal margins on all the sides of a publication. The
inside margin needs to be smaller than the outside margins in face publications .The margin at the
bottom is larger than others.
Margin Rule #2 : In page face publications on every page that outside margin should be twice
the inside margin.
Margin Rule #3 : Although all the designers should not let the formulas restrict them from
finding the right proportion of margin to printing area they can certainly aid a comfortable starting
point.

Check Your Progress

(1) What ia a margin?
(2) How should the margins progress as per the rules?

5.6 Layouts For Dtp and Printing

Page layout is the part of graphic design that deals in the arrangement of visual elements on
a page. It generally involves organizational principles of composition to achieve specific
communication objectives.[1]
The high-level page layout involves deciding on the overall arrangement of text and images,
and possibly on the size or shape of the medium. It requires intelligence, sentience, and creativity,
and is informed by culture, psychology, and what the document authors and editors wish to
communicate and emphasize. Low-level pagination and typesetting are more mechanical processes.
Given certain parameters - boundaries of text areas, the typeface, font size, and justification preference
can be done in a straightforward way. Until desktop publishing became dominant, these processes
were still done by people, but in modern publishing they are almost always automated. The result
might be published as-is (as for a residential phone book interior) or might be tweaked by a graphic
designer (as for a highly polished, expensive publication).
Beginning from early illuminated pages in hand-copied books of the Middle Ages and
proceeding down to intricate modern magazine and catalog layouts, proper page design has long
been a consideration in printed material. With print media, elements usually consist
of type (text), images (pictures), and occasionally place-holder graphics for elements that are not
printed with ink such as die/laser cutting, foil stamping or blind embossing

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 Desktop publishing combines a personal computer and WYSIWYG page layout software to
create publication documents on a computer for either large scale publishing or small scale
local multifunction peripheral output and distribution. Desktop publishing methods provide more
control over design, layout, and typography than word processing. However, word processing software
has evolved to include some, though by no means all, capabilities previously available only with
professional printing or desktop publishing.
The same DTP skills and software used for common paper and book publishing are sometimes
used to create graphics for point of sale displays, promotional items, trade show exhibits, retail
package designs and outdoor signs. Although what is classified as “DTP software” is usually limited
to print and PDF publications, DTP skills aren’t limited to print. The content produced by desktop
publishers may also be exported and used for electronic media. The job descriptions that include
“DTP”, such as DTP artist, often require skills using software for producing e-books, web content,
and web pages, which may involve web design or user interface design for any graphical user
interface..

5.7 Facetypes and Their Classifications

In typography, a typeface (also known as font family) is a set of one or more fonts each
composed of glyphs that share common design features. Each font of a typeface has a specific
weight, style, condensation, width, slant, italicization, ornamentation, and designer or foundry (and
formerly size, in metal fonts). For example, “ITC Garamond Bold Condensed Italic” means the
bold, condensed-width, italic version of ITC Garamond. It is a different font from “ITC Garamond
Condensed Italic” and “ITC Garamond Bold Condensed,” but all are fonts within the same typeface,
“ITC Garamond.” ITC Garamond is a different typeface from “Adobe Garamond” or “Monotype
Garamond.” (These are all alternative updates or digitisations of the typeface Garamond, originally
created in the 16th century.) There are thousands of different typefaces in existence, with new ones
being developed constantly.
The art and craft of designing typefaces is called type design. Designers of typefaces are
called type designers and are often employed by type foundries. In digital typography, type designers
are sometimes also called font developers or font designers.
Every typeface is a collection of glyphs, each of which represents an individual letter, number,
punctuation mark, or other symbol. The same glyph may be used for characters from different scripts,
e.g. Roman uppercase A looks the same as Cyrillic uppercase À and Greek uppercase alpha. There
are typefaces tailored for special applications, such as map-making or astrology and mathematics.
The term typeface is frequently confused with the term font. Before the advent of digital
typography and desktop publishing, the two terms had more clearly understood meanings.

5.8 Proofreading
A proof is a typeset version of copy or a manuscript page. They often contain typos introduced
through human error. Traditionally, a proofreader looks at an increment of text on the copy and then
compares it to the corresponding typeset increment, and then marks any errors (sometimes called line
edits) using standard proofreaders’ marks.Unlike copy editing, proofreading’s defining procedure
is to work directly with two sets of information at the same time. Proofs are then returned to
the typesetter or graphic artist for correction. Correction-cycle proofs will typically have one
descriptive term, such as bounce, bump, or revise unique to the department or organization and
used for clarity to the strict exclusion of any other. It is a common practice for all such corrections,

Typography : 84
no matter how slight, to be sent again to a proofreader to be checked and initialed, thus establishing
the principle of higher responsibility for proofreaders as compared to their typesetters or artists.

Check Your Progress

(1) What ia proofreading?
(2) What are the requirements while planning the page layout?

5.9 Summary
• Today is the ers of DTP production and computerized page layout the job of creating or
designing a document seems to have become simple.
• Designing is an arrangement of single or multiple rudiments and principles for a purpose.
Being aware of those principles of designing is the primary step taken towards the creation
of appleaing visual compositions
• The point is the normal unit for scaling the font size and leading. This was incredibaly
promoted by Charles geschke and john Warnock the creators of adobe postscript and
hence is sometimes refered to as postscript point.
• During the dyas of metal type the height of the metal body was depicted by the point size
of font and then the facetype characters were set. Whereas in digital type the text boby is
just as visualized design space but it is the base out of which this type is scaled.

5.10 Key Terms

• Design : The arrangement of single or multiple rudiments and principles
• Balance : A sense of stability attained by symmentry or asymmentry
• Contrast : The opposition to line or form
• Margin : The space which surrounds the matter of a page

5.11 End Questions

(1) That are the elements of copy preparation?
(2) Write short notes on proofreading.
(3) What are Margins? Talk about the rules that should be allowed while providing margins, in
detail.
(4) Explain the different principles of design, in detail.
(5) What do you understand by various Printers Point system?

Typography : 85
 Unit 6 : File and Font Formats

Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Unit Objectives
6.2 File Formats
6.3 File Format Extensions
6.4 Font Formats
6.5 Font File Extensions
6.6 Summary
6.7 Key Terms
6.8 End Questions

6.0 Introduction
In this unit, we shall take a look at files and fonts. We will also talk about different kinds of
extensions used for files and what special extensions are allocated for the font file. A file can be
seen as a collection of data that is relates to each other. For example, one stores the records for each
student in a file. Then, every record would contain fields for stand –alone data items, such as student
name, roll number, student’s address and grades, and so on. By giving similar data in the same fields
for every record or every row, to ensure that all records are constant, the file will be readily available
for analysis and operation by a computer program.
The applications supported by Windows can use three kinds of technologies for displaying
font as well as to print it: Vector, Raster and TrueType. The marks for every character or symbol
represent the differentiation amongst these fonts and it is mostly stored in its own corresponding
font resource file.

6.1 Unit Objectives

After going through this unit, you will be able to:
• Understand file and font formats
• Understand file and font Format extensions

Typography : 86
6.2 File Formats
A file format is a standard way that information is encoded for storage in a computer file. It
specifies how bits are used to encode information in a digital storage medium. File formats may be
either proprietary or free and may be either unpublished or open.
Some file formats are designed for very particular types of data: PNG files, for example,
store bitmapped images using lossless data compression. Other file formats, however, are designed
for storage of several different types of data: the Ogg format can act as a container for different
types of multimedia including any combination of audio and video, with or without text (such
as subtitles), and metadata. A text file can contain any stream of characters, including possible control
characters, and is encoded in one of various character encoding schemes. Some file formats, such
as HTML, scalable vector graphics, and the source code of computer software are text files with
defined syntaxes that allow them to be used for specific purposes.

Specifications
File formats often have a published specification describing the encoding method and enabling
testing of program intended functionality. Not all formats have freely available specification
documents, partly because some developers view their specification documents as trade secrets,
and partly because other developers never author a formal specification document, letting precedent
set by other programs define the format. If the developer of a format doesn’t publish free specifications,
another developer looking to utilize that kind of file must either reverse engineer the file to find out
how to read it or acquire the specification document from the format’s developers for a fee and by
signing a non-disclosure agreement. The latter approach is possible only when a formal specification
document exists. Both strategies require significant time, money, or both; therefore, file formats
with publicly available specifications tend to be supported by more programs.

Patents
Patent law, rather than copyright, is more often used to protect a file format. Although patents
for file formats are not directly permitted under US law, some formats encode data using
patented algorithms. For example, using compression with the GIF file format requires the use of a
patented algorithm, and though the patent owner did not initially enforce their patent, they later
began collecting royalty fees. This has resulted in a significant decrease in the use of GIFs, and is
partly responsible for the development of the alternative PNG format. However, the patent expired
in the US in mid-2003, and worldwide in mid-2004.

Identifying file type

Different operating systems have traditionally taken different approaches to determining a
particular file’s format, with each approach having its own advantages and disadvantages. Most
modern operating systems and individual applications need to use all of the following approaches to
read “foreign” file formats, if not work with them completely.

Filename extension
One popular method used by many operating systems, including Windows, Mac OS X, CP/
M, DOS, VMS, and VM/CMS, is to determine the format of a file based on the end of its name—
the letters following the final period. This portion of the filename is known as the filename extension.
For example, HTML documents are identified by names that end with .html (or .htm), and GIF
images by .gif. In the original FAT filesystem, file names were limited to an eight-character identifier
and a three-character extension, known as an 8.3 filename. There are only so many three-letter
extensions, so, often any given extension might be linked to more than one program. Many formats
still use three-character extensions even though modern operating systems and application programs

Typography : 87
no longer have this limitation. Since there is no standard list of extensions, more than one format
can use the same extension, which can confuse both the operating system and users.
One artifact of this approach is that the system can easily be tricked into treating a file as a
different format simply by renaming it—an HTML file can, for instance, be easily treated as plain
text by renaming it from filename.html to filename.txt. Although this strategy was useful to expert
users who could easily understand and manipulate this information, it was often confusing to less
technical users, who could accidentally make a file unusable (or “lose” it) by renaming it incorrectly.
This led more recent operating system shells, such as Windows 95 and Mac OS X, to hide the
extension when listing files. This prevents the user from accidentally changing the file type, and
allows expert users to turn this feature off and display the extensions.
Hiding the extension, however, can create the appearance of two or more identical filenames
in the same folder. For example, a company logo may be needed both in .epsformat (for publishing)
and .png format (for web sites). With the extensions visible, these would appear as the unique
filenames “CompanyLogo.eps” and “CompanyLogo.png”. On the other hand, hiding the extensions
would make both appear as “CompanyLogo”.
Hiding extensions can also pose a security risk. For example, a malicious user could create
an executable program with an innocent name such as “Holiday photo.jpg.exe”. The “.exe” would
be hidden and a user would see “Holiday photo.jpg”, which would appear to be a JPEG image,
unable to harm the machine save for bugs in the application used to view it. However, the operating
system would still see the “.exe” extension and thus run the program, which would then be able to
cause harm to the computer. The same is true with files with only one extension: as it is not shown
to the user, no information about the file can be deduced without explicitly investigating the file.
Extensions can be spoofed. Some Word macro viruses create a Word file in template format and
save it with a .DOC extension. Since Word generally ignores extensions and looks at the format of
the file these would open as templates, execute, and spread the virus. To further trick users, it is
possible to store an icon inside the program, in which case some operating systems’ icon assignment
for the executable file (.exe) would be overridden with an icon commonly used to represent JPEG
images, making the program look like an image. This issue requires users with extensions hidden to
be vigilant and never let the operating system choose with what program to open a file not known to
be trustworthy (which contradicts the idea of making things easier for the user). This represents a
practical problem for Windows systems where extension-hiding is turned on by default.

Internal metadata
A second way to identify a file format is to use information regarding the format stored inside
the file itself, either information meant for this purpose or binary strings that happen to always be in
specific locations in files of some formats. Since the easiest place to locate them is at the beginning,
such area is usually called a file header when it is greater than a few bytes, or a magic number if it
is just a few bytes long.

File header
The metadata contained in a file header are usually stored at the start of the file, but might be
present in other areas too, often including the end, depending on the file format or the type of data
contained. Character-based (text) files usually have character-based headers, whereas binary formats
usually have binary headers, although this is not a rule. Text-based file headers usually take up more
space, but being human-readable, they can easily be examined by using simple software such as a
text editor or a hexadecimal editor.
As well as identifying the file format, file headers may contain metadata about the file and its
contents. For example, most image files store information about image format, size, resolution
and color space, and optionally authoring information such as who made the image, when and where
it was made, what camera model and photographic settings were used (Exif), and so on. Such

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metadata may be used by software reading or interpreting the file during the loading process and
afterwards.
File headers may be used by an operating system to quickly gather information about a file
without loading it all into memory, but doing so uses more of a computer’s resources than reading
directly from the directory information. For instance, when a graphic file manager has to display
the contents of a folder, it must read the headers of many files before it can display the appropriate
icons, but these will be located in different places on the storage medium thus taking longer to
access. A folder containing many files with complex metadata such as thumbnail information may
require considerable time before it can be displayed.
If a header is binary hard-coded such that the header itself needs complex interpretation in
order to be recognized, especially for metadata content protection’s sake, there is a risk that the file
format can be misinterpreted. It may even have been badly written at the source. This can result in
corrupt metadata which, in extremely bad cases, might even render the file unreadable. A more
complex example of file headers are those used for wrapper (or container) file formats.

Magic number
One way to incorporate file type metadata, often associated with Unix and its derivatives, is
just to store a “magic number” inside the file itself. Originally, this term was used for a specific set
of 2-byte identifiers at the beginning of a file, but since any binary sequence can be regarded as a
number, any feature of a file format which uniquely distinguishes it can be used for
identification. GIF images, for instance, always begin with the ASCII representation of
either GIF87a or GIF89a, depending upon the standard to which they adhere. Many file types,
especially plain-text files, are harder to spot by this method. HTML files, for example, might begin
with the string <html> (which is not case sensitive), or an appropriate document type definition that
starts with <!DOCTYPE HTML>, or, for XHTML, the XML identifier, which begins with <?xml.
The files can also begin with HTML comments, random text, or several empty lines, but still be
usable HTML.
The magic number approach offers better guarantees that the format will be identified correctly,
and can often determine more precise information about the file. Since reasonably reliable “magic
number” tests can be fairly complex, and each file must effectively be tested against every possibility
in the magic database, this approach is relatively inefficient, especially for displaying large lists of
files (in contrast, file name and metadata-based methods need check only one piece of data, and
match it against a sorted index). Also, data must be read from the file itself, increasing latency as
opposed to metadata stored in the directory. Where file types don’t lend themselves to recognition
in this way, the system must fall back to metadata. It is, however, the best way for a program to
check if the file it has been told to process is of the correct format: while the file’s name or metadata
may be altered independently of its content, failing a well-designed magic number test is a pretty
sure sign that the file is either corrupt or of the wrong type. On the other hand, a valid magic number
does not guarantee that the file is not corrupt or is of a correct type.
So-called shebang lines in script files are a special case of magic numbers. Here, the magic
number is human-readable text that identifies a specific command interpreter and options to be
passed to the command interpreter.
Another operating system using magic numbers is AmigaOS, where magic numbers were called
“Magic Cookies” and were adopted as a standard system to recognize executables in Hunk executable
file format and also to let single programs, tools and utilities deal automatically with their saved
data files, or any other kind of file types when saving and loading data. This system was then
enhanced with the Amiga standard Datatype recognition system. Another method was
the FourCC method, originating in OSType on Macintosh, later adapted by Interchange File
Format (IFF) and derivatives.

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External metadata
A final way of storing the format of a file is to explicitly store information about the format in
the file system, rather than within the file itself.
This approach keeps the metadata separate from both the main data and the name, but is also
less portable than either file extensions or “magic numbers”, since the format has to be converted
from filesystem to filesystem. While this is also true to an extent with filename extensions—for
instance, for compatibility with MS-DOS’s three character limit—most forms of storage have a
roughly equivalent definition of a file’s data and name, but may have varying or no representation of
further metadata.
Note that zip files or archive files solve the problem of handling metadata. A utility program
collects multiple files together along with metadata about each file and the folders/directories they
came from all within one new file (e.g. a zip file with extension .zip). The new file is also compressed
and possibly encrypted, but now is transmissible as a single file across operating systems by FTP
systems or attached to email. At the destination, it must be unzipped by a compatible utility to be
useful, but the problems of transmission are solved this way.

Mac OS type-codes
The Mac OS’ Hierarchical File System stores codes for creator and type as part of the directory
entry for each file. These codes are referred to as OSTypes. These codes could be any 4-byte sequence,
but were often selected so that the ASCII representation formed a sequence of meaningful characters,
such as an abbreviation of the application’s name or the developer ’s initials. For instance
a HyperCard ”stack” file has a creator of WILD (from Hypercard’s previous name, “WildCard”)
and a type of STAK. The BBEdit text editor has a creator code of R*ch referring to its original
programmer, Rich Siegel. The type code specifies the format of the file, while the creator code
specifies the default program to open it with when double-clicked by the user. For example, the user
could have several text files all with the type code of TEXT, but which each open in a different
program, due to having differing creator codes. This feature was intended so that, for example,
human-readable plain-text files could be opened in a general purpose text editor, while programming
or HTML code files would open in a specialized editor or IDE, but this feature was often the source
of user confusion as which program would launch when the files were double-clicked was often
unpredictable. RISC OS uses a similar system, consisting of a 12-bit number which can be looked
up in a table of descriptions—e.g. the hexadecimal number FF5 is “aliased” to PoScript, representing
a PostScript file.

Mac OS X uniform type identifiers (UTIs)

A Uniform Type Identifier (UTI) is a method used in Mac OS X for uniquely identifying
“typed” classes of entity, such as file formats. It was developed by Apple as a replacement for
OSType (type & creator codes).
The UTI is a Core Foundation string, which uses a reverse-DNS string. Some common and
standard types use a domain called public (e.g. public.png for a Portable Network Graphics image),
while other domains can be used for third-party types (e.g. com.adobe.pdf for Portable Document
Format). UTIs can be defined within a hierarchical structure, known as a conformance hierarchy.
Thus, public.png conforms to a supertype of public.image, which itself conforms to a supertype
of public.data. A UTI can exist in multiple hierarchies, which provides great flexibility.
In addition to file formats, UTIs can also be used for other entities which can exist in OS X,
including:
• Pasteboard data
• Folders (directories)
• Translatable types (as handled by the Translation Manager)

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 • Bundles
• Frameworks
• Streaming data
• Aliases and symlinks

OS/2 extended attributes

The HPFS, FAT12 and FAT16 (but not FAT32) filesystems allow the storage of “extended
attributes” with files. These comprise an arbitrary set of triplets with a name, a coded type for the
value and a value, where the names are unique and values can be up to 64 KB long. There are
standardized meanings for certain types and names (under OS/2). One such is that the “.TYPE”
extended attribute is used to determine the file type. Its value comprises a list of one or more file
types associated with the file, each of which is a string, such as “Plain Text” or “HTML document”.
Thus a file may have several types.
The NTFS filesystem also allows storage of OS/2 extended attributes, as one of the file forks,
but this feature is merely present to support the OS/2 subsystem (not present in XP), so the Win32
subsystem treats this information as an opaque block of data and does not use it. Instead, it relies on
other file forks to store meta-information in Win32-specific formats. OS/2 extended attributes can
still be read and written by Win32 programs, but the data must be entirely parsed by applications.

POSIX extended attributes

On Unix and Unix-like systems, the ext2, ext3, ReiserFS version 3, XFS, JFS, FFS,
and HFS+ filesystems allow the storage of extended attributes with files. These include an arbitrary
list of “name=value” strings, where the names are unique and a value can be accessed through its
related name.

PRONOM unique identifiers (PUIDs)

The PRONOM Persistent Unique Identifier (PUID) is an extensible scheme of persistent, unique
and unambiguous identifiers for file formats, which has been developed by The National Archives
of the UK as part of its PRONOM technical registry service. PUIDs can be expressed as Uniform
Resource Identifiers using the info:pronom/ namespace. Although not yet widely used outside of
UK government and some digital preservation programmes, the PUID scheme does provide greater
granularity than most alternative schemes.

MIME types
MIME types are widely used in many Internet-related applications, and increasingly elsewhere,
although their usage for on-disc type information is rare. These consist of a standardised system of
identifiers (managed by IANA) consisting of a type and a sub-type, separated by a slash—for
instance, text/html or image/gif. These were originally intended as a way of identifying what type
of file was attached to an e-mail, independent of the source and target operating systems. MIME
types identify files on BeOS, AmigaOS 4.0 and MorphOS, as well as store unique application
signatures for application launching. In AmigaOS and MorphOS the Mime type system works in
parallel with Amiga specific Datatype system.
There are problems with the MIME types though; several organisations and people have created
their own MIME types without registering them properly with IANA, which makes the use of this
standard awkward in some cases.

File format identifiers (FFIDs)

File format identifiers is another, not widely used way to identify file formats according to
their origin and their file category. It was created for the Description Explorer suite of software. It is
composed of several digits of the form NNNNNNNNN-XX-YYYYYYY. The first part indicates
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the organisation origin/maintainer (this number represents a value in a company/standards
organisation database), the 2 following digits categorize the type of file in hexadecimal. The final
part is composed of the usual file extension of the file or the international standard number of the
file, padded left with zeros. For example, the PNG file specification has the FFID of 000000001-31-
0015948 where 31 indicates an image file, 0015948 is the standard number and 000000001 indicates
the ISO Organisation.

File content based format identification

Another but less popular way to identify the file format is to examine the file contents for
distinguishable patterns among file types. The contents of a file are a sequence of bytes and a byte
has 256 unique permutations (0–255). Thus, counting the occurrence of byte patterns that is often
referred as byte frequency distribution gives distinguishable patterns to identify file types. There
are many content-based file type identification schemes that use byte frequency distribution to build
the representative models for file type and use any statistical and data mining techniques to identify
file types.

File Structure
There are several types of ways to structure data in a file. The most usual ones are described
below.

Unstructured formats (raw memory dumps)

Earlier file formats used raw data formats that consisted of directly dumping the memory
images of one or more structures into the file.
This has several drawbacks. Unless the memory images also have reserved spaces for future
extensions, extending and improving this type of structured file is very difficult. It also creates files
that might be specific to one platform or programming language (for example a structure containing
a Pascal string is not recognized as such in C). On the other hand, developing tools for reading and
writing these types of files is very simple.
The limitations of the unstructured formats led to the development of other types of file formats
that could be easily extended and be backward compatible at the same time.

Chunk-based formats
In this kind of file structure, each piece of data is embedded in a container that somehow
identifies the data. The container’s scope can be identified by start- and end-markers of some kind,
by an explicit length field somewhere, or by fixed requirements of the file format’s definition.
Throughout the 1970s, many programs used formats of this general kind. For example, word-
processors such as troff, Script, and Scribe, and database export files such as CSV. Electronic
Arts and Commodore-Amiga also used this type of file format in 1985, with their IFF (Interchange
File Format) file format.
A container is sometimes called a ”chunk”, although “chunk” may also imply that each piece
is small, and/or that chunks do not contain other chunks; many formats do not impose those
requirements.
The information that identifies a particular “chunk” may be called many different things, often
terms including “field name”, “identifier”, “label”, or “tag”. The identifiers are often human-readable,
and classify parts of the data: for example, as a “surname”, “address”, “rectangle”, “font name”, etc.
These are not the same thing as identifiers in the sense of a database key or serial number (although
an identifier may well identify its associated data as such a key).
With this type of file structure, tools that do not know certain chunk identifiers simply skip
those that they do not understand. Depending on the actual meaning of the skipped data, this may or
may not be useful (CSS explicitly defines such behavior).

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This concept has been used again and again by RIFF (Microsoft-IBM equivalent of IFF), PNG,
JPEG storage, DER (Distinguished Encoding Rules) encoded streams and files (which were originally
described in CCITT X.409:1984 and therefore predate IFF), and Structured Data Exchange Format
(SDXF).
Indeed, any data format must somehow identify the significance of its component parts, and
embedded boundary-markers are an obvious way to do so:
• MIME headers do this with a colon-separated label at the start of each logical line. MIME
headers cannot contain other MIME headers, though the data content of some headers
has sub-parts that can be extracted by other conventions.
• CSV and similar files often do this using a header records with field names, and with
commas to mark the field boundaries. Like MIME, CSV has no provision for structures
with more than one level.
• XML and its kin can be loosely considered a kind of chunk-based format, since data
elements are identified by markup that is akin to chunk identifiers. However, it has formal
advantages such as schemas and validation, as well as the ability to represent more
complex structures such as trees, DAGs, and charts. If XML is considered a “chunk”
format, then SGML and its predecessor IBM GML are among the earliest examples of
such formats.
• JSON is similar to XML without schemas, cross-references, or a definition for the meaning
of repeated field-names, and is often convenient for programmers.
• Protocol buffers are in turn similar to JSON, notably replacing boundary-markers in the
data with field numbers, which are mapped to/from names by some external mechanism.

Directory-based formats
This is another extensible format, that closely resembles a file system (OLE Documents are
actual filesystems), where the file is composed of ‘directory entries’ that contain the location of the
data within the file itself as well as its signatures (and in certain cases its type). Good examples of
these types of file structures are disk images, OLE documents and TIFF images.

6.3 File Format Extensions

Raster (or Bitmap) files store images as a group of pixels.
• ASE – Adobe Swatch
• ART – America Online proprietary format
• BLP – Blizzard Entertainment proprietary texture format
• BMP – Microsoft Windows Bitmap formatted image
• BTI – Nintendo proprietary texture format
• CD5 – Chasys Draw IES image
• CIT – Intergraph is a monochrome bitmap format
• CPT – Corel PHOTO-PAINT image
• CR2 – Canon camera raw format; photos have this on some Canon cameras if the
quality RAW is selected in camera settings
• CUT – Dr. Halo image file
• DDS– DirectX texture file
• DIB – Device-Independent Bitmap graphic

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• DjVu – DjVu for scanned documents
• EGT – EGT Universal Document, used in EGT SmartSense to compress PNG files to yet
a smaller file
• Exif – Exchangeable image file format (Exif) is a specification for the image format
used by digital cameras
• GIF – CompuServe’s Graphics Interchange Format
• GPL – GIMP Palette, using a text representation of color names and RGB values
• GRF – Zebra Technologies proprietary format
• ICNS – format for icons in macOS. Contains bitmap images at multiple resolutions and
bitdepths with alpha channel.
• ICO – a format used for icons in Microsoft Windows. Contains small bitmap images at
multiple resolutions and sizes
• IFF (.iff, .ilbm, .lbm) – ILBM
• JNG – a single-frame MNG using JPEG compression and possibly an alpha channel
• JPEG, JFIF (.jpg or .jpeg) – Joint Photographic Experts Group; a lossy image format
widely used to display photographic images
• JP2 – JPEG2000
• JPS – JPEG Stereo
• LBM – Deluxe Paint image file
• MAX – ScanSoft PaperPort document
• MIFF – ImageMagick's native file format
• MNG – Multiple-image Network Graphics the animated version of PNG
• MSP – a format used by old versions of Microsoft Paint; replaced by BMP in Microsoft
Windows 3.0
• NITF – A U.S. Government standard commonly used in Intelligence systems
• OTB – Over The Air bitmap, a specification designed by Nokia for black and white images
for mobile phones
• PBM – Portable bitmap
• PC1 – Low resolution, compressed Degas picture file
• PC2 – Medium resolution, compressed Degas picture file
• PC3 – High resolution, compressed Degas picture file
• PCF – Pixel Coordination Format
• PCX – a lossless format used by ZSoft’s PC Paint, popular for a time on DOS systems.
• PDN – Paint.NET image file
• PGM – Portable graymap
• PI1 – Low resolution, uncompressed Degas picture file
• PI2 – Medium resolution, uncompressed Degas picture file; also Portrait Innovations
encrypted image format
• PI3 – High resolution, uncompressed Degas picture file
• PICT, PCT – Apple Macintosh PICT image
• PNG – Portable Network Graphic (lossless, recommended for display and edition of
graphic images)
• PNM – Portable anymap graphic bitmap image

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 • PNS – PNG Stereo
• PPM – Portable Pixmap (Pixel Map) image
• PSB – Adobe Photoshop Big image file (for large files)
• PSD, PDD – Adobe Photoshop Drawing
• PSP – Paint Shop Pro image
• PX – Pixel image editor image file
• PXM – Pixelmator image file
• PXR – Pixar Image Computer image file
• QFX – QuickLink Fax image
• RAW – General term for minimally processed image data (acquired by a digital camera)
• RLE – a run-length encoding image
• SCT – Scitex Continuous Tone image file
• SGI, RGB, INT, BW – Silicon Graphics Image
• TGA (.tga, .targa, .icb, .vda, .vst, .pix) – Truevision TGA (Targa) image
• TIFF (.tif or .tiff) – Tagged Image File Format (usually lossless, but many variants exist,
including lossy ones)
• TIFF/EP (.tif or .tiff) – Tag Image File Format / Electronic Photography, ISO 12234-2;
tends to be used as a basis for other formats rather than in its own right.
• VTF – Valve Texture Format
• XBM – X Window System Bitmap
• XCF – GIMP image (from Gimp’s origin at the eXperimental Computing Facility of
the University of California)
• XPM – X Window System Pixmap
• ZIF – Zoomable/Zoomify Image Format (a web-friendly, TIFF-based, zoomable image
format)

6.4 Font Formats

• Portable Compiled Format (PCF)
• Glyph Bitmap Distribution Format (BDF)
• Server Normal Format (SNF)
• DECWindows Font (DWF)
• Sun X11/NeWS format (BF, AFM)
• Microsoft Windows bitmapped font (FON)
• Amiga Font, ColorFont, AnimFont
• ByteMap Font (BMF)
• PC Screen Font (PSF)
• Packed bitmap font bitmap file for TeX DVI drivers (PK)
• FZX a proportional bitmap font for the ZX Spectrum

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Outline font formats
Type 1 and Type 3 fonts
Type 1 and Type 3 fonts were developed by Adobe for professional digital typesetting.
Using PostScript, the glyphs are outline fonts described with cubic Bezier curves. Type 1 fonts
were restricted to a subset of the PostScript language, and used Adobe’s hinting system, which used
to be very expensive. Type 3 allowed unrestricted use of the PostScript language, but didn’t include
any hint information, which could lead to visible rendering artifacts on low-resolution devices (such
as computer screens and dot-matrix printers).

TrueType fonts
TrueType is a font system originally developed by Apple Inc. It was intended to replace Type
1 fonts, which many felt were too expensive. Unlike Type 1 fonts, TrueType glyphs are described
with quadratic Bezier curves. It is currently very popular and implementations exist for all major
operating systems.

OpenType fonts
OpenType is a smartfont system designed by Adobe and Microsoft. OpenType fonts contain
outlines in either the TrueType or Type 1 (actually CFF) format together with a wide range of
metadata.

6.5 Font File Extensions

• .ACFM - Adobe Font Metrics File
• .AMFM - Adobe Multiple Font Metrics File
• .DFONT - Mac OS X Data Fork Font
• .EOT - Embedded OpenType Font
• .FNT - Font File
• .FON - Font File
• .GDF - PHP GD Library Font File
• .GDR - Symbian OS Font File
• .GTF - German Type Foundry Font
• .MMM - Adobe Type Manager Multiple-Master Metrics Font
• .OTF - OpenType Font Format
• .PFA - PostScript Printer Font ASCII File
• .TPF - Downloadable PCL Soft font file
• .TTC - TrueType Font Collection File
• .TTF - TrueType Font
• .WOFF - Web Open Font Format File

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6.6 Summary
• File remains accessible for programs for use even if the current program has ended. Most
files on the computers are to be used by programs. At times the programs handle files are
reached using a name. These files are stored in directories. There are various types of
files: program files, directory files, data files, text files, and so on.
• Any given file formats is mostly specified as a part of the file’s name itself by means of
an extension (suffix) given to the filename. A few common file formats are: Text Files,
Data Files, and Image Files. Lots of computer systems make use of extensions in file
names basically to help recognize the contents also called the file type. Like extensions
of .txt marks the file as text file; similarly a .doc extension will mark the file as a document,
mostly in the font MS- Word file font format.
• Fonts are also like programs but in miniature format. There are two main categories of
fonts - resident fonts and soft fonts. Windows users nowadays use OpenType and TrueType
fonts. The next type of font format you may come across is PostScript fonts that are
type1.
• PostScript Type a and TrueType fonts are available in both the formats for Windows and
also for Macintosh. All the TrueType fonts for windows have .TTF extension. Apple
created TrueType font for competing with Type 1 of Adobe. The resource file for a vector
or a raster font is recognised by the .FON extension. TrueType, maintains double files
for every font: the initial file has shorter header whereas the second has the actual data
for the font. The commonly used font formats are TrueType, OpenType and PostScript
Type 1. The font file contains data about ten glyphs being in the font and the way it will
appear on the screen.

6.7 Key Terms

• File : A collection of random information which can be treated as a source of information
storage, accessible to a computer program.
• File extension : A three or four letter word used for identifying the format.
• True type font : Created by Apple to compete with Type 1 of Adobe. It is supported by
Windows, MAC and Linux and is a popular font format.
• Open type font : An expansion of True Type and was introduced by Microsoft.

6.8 End Questions

(1) Write short notes on:
(a) File
(b) File Format
(c) File Extensions
(2) What are the differences or similarities between OpenType and TrueType font?
(3) Explain the features of OpenType font briefly.
(4) Write a note on TrueType font.

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Yashwantrao Chavan
Maharashtra Open University

Cover by Rajasekharan Parameswaran, (Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
under
the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Soft-
ware
Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is
included in the section entitled GNU Free Documentation License.)(CC_BY_SA)
File URL:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Artist_Rajasekharan_-_Digital_sketch_by_Bayani_artist.jpg

B. Sc. in Media Graphics and Animation

102: Typography
BMG 104: Drawing & Sketching