THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

 GTM was teaching method used in many European countries. Help L2 learners to study foreign language
LITERATURE.
 Develop the ability to read a text in another language.
 More familiar with the grammar of their mother tongue.
 Speak & write their native language better.
 Acquire it to read its literature.
 Focus on teaching: to read, write and translate.
 The role of the T is very authoritative and leaner’s native language is the medium for instruction
 Detailed analysis of grammar rules, application of this knowledge.
 Systematically (following a sequecing grammar syllabus) through explicit teaching of grammar rules.
è Conscious and Explicit

 Word lists, dictionary study and memorization

REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLE
& Goals

 Be able to read literature in L1.

 Develop the Ss’ minds (b/c Ss need to learn and remember long word lists)
 Techniques
 Learn grammar rules and vocabulary
& Roles of T and Students

Traditional T: authority
Ss: do as told
& Practice on new vocabulary

 Translate : a list of new vocabulary into native language

 Antonyms/synonyms
 Cognates : the similarities of 2 languages
 Practice on grammar: deductive application of grammar rules
 Statements of grammar rules
 Application of the rules in language expressions, fill in the blanks
& Homework

 Memorise: the vocabulary, with native language, translation

 Write: the translation of the reading passage into native language
 State: the grammar rules
 Write: a composition
& Interactions

 Most of the time: T è Ss

 No interaction: Ss è Ss
& Language and Culture

 Literary language
 Vocab = grammar

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 Reading and writing, no speaking and listening skilss, no pronun
 Culture: literature and fine arts
& Roles of L1: L1 for translating text, for instructions

& Evaluation

 Written tests, translation

 Questions for comprehension
 Questions for applying grammar use
& Ss’ errors

 Have the Ss get correct answer

 T supplies the correct answer
PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
1. A typical reading and comprehension activity in the GTM consists of the following steps:
2. The class begins wih a reading passage from the target language literature;
3. Each leaner is asked to read part of the passage and then translate into their mother tongue what they
have just read;
4. The T helps them with suitable translatiosn in case they lack the required vocabulary;
5. After finishing reading and translating the passage, the teacher asks L2 leaners in their mother tongue
if they have any questions. Questions and answers are aommunicated using the mother tongue;
6. The teacher asks learners to write down answers to the comprehension questions at the end of the
passage;
7. After answering the questions, the teacher asks each individual learner to read the question and their
answer to that question. If the answer is not correct, teacher selects another student to supply the
correct answer, or teacher gives the right answer.
A variety of techniques were developed to help leaners to translate, to practice, and to memorize the new
language:
 Translation of a literary passage
 Reading comprehension questions
 Antonyms/synonyms
 Cognates
 Deductive application of rule
 Fill in the blanks
 Memorization
 Use words in sentences
 Composition
MERITS
 The method requires few specialized skills on the part of teachers
 Tests of grammar rules and translation
 Reading knowledge in L2
DEFECTS
 GTM does nothing to enhance an Ss’ communicate ability in L2
 Memorizing endless list of unsuable grammar rules and vocabulary
 No advocates, no literature (không có nền tả ng lý thuyết)
 Little stress is paid on accurate pronunciation

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  Ss work hard on vocabulary learning, translation, endless written exercises without much progress in the
mastery of the language an dwith little opportunity to express themselves through it.
Input è intake è output
(reading) (writing)

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THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
DM was proposed as a reaction to the GTM in terms of its approach to grammar teaching, vocabulary
learning, and language skills.
DM the main emphasis was on listening and oral communication skills
The role of the language teacher become more active
The teacher asked questions, engaged learners to participate in speaking activities, and wncouraged self-
correction. L2 learners speak a great deal as they were engaged in developing oral communicative skills.
The DM emphasis the importance for L2 leaners to have the opportunity to use the target language to
express meaning.
According to DM, language instructors should provide leaners with opportunities to convey meaning
through the use of the new language. L2 learners should use the target language without translating and
wothout using their native language to communicate.
At the beginning of the 19th century, DM was introduced in France and Germany before becoming popular in
the US. It was known as the “Berlitz Method” and became popular in private schools and colleges.
The emphasis on developing speaking skils, emphasized bt the Direct Method, was considered impractical
for 2 main reasons:
1) Little time available for sencond language teaching
2) Limited skills in language teachers.
REVIEW
& Goals

Be able to communicate in L2. To do this, Ss should learn to think in L2.

& Roles of T & Ss

Ss = less passive
T – Ss: like partners (T directs)
& Teaching & Learning process

Means of instructions: L2
Presenting meanings using: visual aids
Ss use L2 a great deal
Situational syllabus: based on situations
Grammar is taught implicitly, inductively (quy nap)
& Interactions T è Ss
Ss è T
Ss è Ss

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 & Language and Culture

Spoken language, not written

Vocabulary & grammar of everyday speech, vocabulary > grammar
Culture & people of the target language community
4 skills occurs from the start
Pronun is paid more attention from the start
& Role of L1: No L1 at all
& Evaluation

Not focus on knowledge about language

Communicate in both oral and written skills
& Ss’ errors

Employing:
 Say the correct word
 Stop right away and use “or” questions for Ss to self-correct
PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
Language instruction is exclusively conducted in the target language.
Language teachers should demonstrate the use of the target language and should not explain or translate.
Language teachers and leaners are more like partners. Leaners are given opportunities to interact with
other leaners.
In this sense, the DM is less teacher centered. The target language is always used in the classroom. Leaners
are continuously exposed to the target language and teachers do not use the native language as a means
instruction;
Basic vocabulary is introduced first. Ss are encouraged to make links between meaning and the target
language. The emphasis is on spoken language and vocabulary is emphasized over grammar;
Grammar is taught inductively. Rules are not given and leaners need to figure them out. L2 leaners need to
discover rules of grammar. Language errors are not corrected as teachers should provide opportunities for
self-correction.
According to DM instructors should approach the teaching of grammar inductively. This is on assumption
that L2 leaners should learn grammar by interpreting contextual and situational cues rather than
receiving long explanations.
The direct method was characteried by the following:
 Correct pronunciation is emphasized
 Emphasis is on speaking and listening
 Vocabulary is taught through known words, real objects, pictures, and miming
 Self-correction is encouraged
 Curriculum is structured on situations/topics, not on linguistic structures
 Communication is at the center
 Purpose of language acquisition is to communicate
Some of the typical activities used in the direct method were:
 Reading aloud
 Question and answer exercise
 Student self-correction
 Conversation practice
 Fill in the blank exercise
 Dictation
 Map drawing

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  Paragraph writing
MERITS
 DM is suitable for private language schools where Ss were highly motivated and where native speaking
teachers could be employed.
 The method provides an interesting and exciting ways of learning English through activities.
 DM is successful in developing the skill of listening and speaking in very young children in elementary
schools because they have great ability to mimic.
DEFECTS
 Ss have to pay high prices for small classes, individual attention and intensive study.
 DM is not suitable for public education with constrain of budget, classroom size and teacher
background.
 It demands tremendously on the teacher. He should be fluent in L2, and very resourceful in order to
make the meaning clear in a variety of ways without usng L1.
 There is not sufficient provision for systematic practice of structures in a planned sequence.

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AUDIO – LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
 Behaviorism (thuyết hành vi, hình thành thói quen)
 Hatbit formation: stimulas response reinforcement
 Maintained leaner’s experience, innate capacity (nă ng lự c bẩ m sinh), accquiring verbal habits(hình thành
thói quen về mặ t ngôn ngữ )
 The main conditions for acquiring these habots were:
 The learner imitated the language heard
 The imitation has to be rewarded
 The behavior is repeated and becomes habitual
 The ALM emphasized the use of mechanical and pattern drills practice to acquire languages.
& The main principles of ALM:

 Language instructors play the role of leaders and are responsible for providing a good language model.
Learners must imitate this model by imitating anf following instructions
 Learners should always be exposed to the target language
 Learners are exposed to correct models/patterns of the target L2
 Practice consists of a type of exercise called “drills practice” (e.g: repeat, manipulate, or transform a
particular form or structure to complete a task
 Ss follow a very structural syllabus

Psychology + linguistics è ALM

(behaviorism) (structural)
 Ss engage in activities that focus on structure and form rather than meaning and are corrected for in
accurate imitations/errors
 Ss: accurate in the target L2. Linguistic competence is the main goal of instruction
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 REVIEW
& Goals

Be able to communicate in L2. Ss should over learn to think in L2 wothout stopping to think in order to
form new habits.
& Roles of T & Ss

 T = An orchestra leader, director, controller, model provider

 Ss = imitations, following T’s instruction, responding accurately and rapidly
 Means of instructions: L2
 New vocabulary, grammar, patterns presented through dialogs
 Dialogs: learnt through imitations & repetition
 Drills: conducted upon patterns in dialogs
 Grammar: taught inductively
 Ss’ correct responses are reinforced
 Cutural info: contextualized in dialogs and by T
 Read & writing: based upon oral work
& Interactions (T direct)

 T è Ss
 Ss è Ss
 St è St
& Ss’ feelings: no principles

& Language and culture

 Influenced by descriptive linguistics

 Everyday speech is emphasized
 Complexity of speech graded
 Culture and lifestyle of people of target language community
& Areas of language & language skills

 Lis è Speak è Read è Write

 L&S èR&W
 Pronun taught from the start, using minimal pairs anf language labs
 Vocabulary < sound system and grammar patterns
& Role of L1: no L1 at all

& Evaluation

Discrete – point tests

& Ss’ errors

Errors are avoided at all costs. (T stops right away and correct)
PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
 Typical example in the ALM in relation to drills practice is:
(1) The teacher says models (the word or phrase) and the Ss repeat them
Eg: T: I was tired, so I went to bed.
Ss: I was tired, so I went to bed.
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(2) The teacher asks Ss to subtitute one word or more to practice different strctures or vocabulary items
Eg: T: I watch TV, She?
Ss: She watches TV.
T: They?
Ss: They watch TV.
(3) T gives Ss certain kind of sentence pattern. Ss are asked to transform this sentence.
Eg: (positive into negative)
T: I like watching football.
Ss: I don’t like watching football.
 Dialog memorization
 Backward build-up (đọc ngược câu từ sau -> trước)
 Repetition drill
 Chain drill
 Single slot subtitution drill (thế 1 chỗ gạch chân “I eat apple in the kitchen.”)
 Multi-slot subtitution drill (thay đổi các thành phần “I eat apples in the park.”)
 Transformation drill
 Question and answer drill
 Use of minimal pairs
 Complete dialog
 Grammar game
MERITS
 ALM develops the mastery of foreign language in all 4 skills, beginning with listening as the basis for
the teaching of reading and writing.
 The method develops comprehension and fluency in speaking the FL very early in the Ss’ learning
experience.
 Audio lingual materials are more systematical and scientifically designed.
 Reading and writing are not neglected. The Ss are trained to build skills in these ares step by step.
 Ss enjoy learning to use the target language from the first day of their introduction to it. There is active
participation by all Ss for most of time.
DEFECTS
 Ss learn in a mechanical way and may become well-trained parrots.
 The technique of memorization and drilling may be intensely tedious and boring. The successful
application of audio lingual techniques requires inventiveness and resourcefulness on the part of the
teacher who has to vary the presentation of material and use differnet type of drills and exercises to create
interest.
 This method is appropriate for young children who love to mimic and act out roles and to learn through
activities than through explanations and the learning of facts. Adult learners are used to organizing the
material they are learning, so the approach is appropriate if memorization and drilling are accompanied
by some explanation.

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 THE TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD (TPR)
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
 James Asher’s Total Physical Response Method is a comprehension-based method to language teaching.
 The method assumes that language acquisition should start with understanding the language we hear or
read before we proceed to production. It is a method of language teaching that makes use of physical
movements to react to verbal input.
 The Total Physical Response Method assumes that understanding language input plays a key and
primary role in language acquistion.
 A set of principles were set to help L2 leaners to increse their understanding of the language to which they
are exposed:
 Instructors provide L2 learners with a nonverbal model that they need to imitate. Only after an
initial period of conprehension of the target language, learners will be able to speak.
 Initally, language instructors issue commands and then perform the actions with students. Later
on, Ss demonstrate an understanding of the commands by performing them alone
 Vocabulary and grammar learning are the skills emphasized.
 Understanding should precede producting. When ready to speak, instructors should let Ss make
errors and should be tolerant
 Language instructors create a relaxed and stress-free environment where Ss focus on meaning
interpreted by movement.
 The main characteristic of this method is that its focuses on meaning and comprehension. Verbal
response is not necessary and Ss become performers. Verbal response is not necessary as the main
focus is listening and acting.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
& Goals

 Facilitate Ss’ experience of learning a foreign language by reducing the stress Ss might feel
& Role of Ts and Ss

 T: director
 Ss: imitators
 When Ss are ready to speak è roles of Ts and Ss reverse
& Teaching and learning process

 First phase: modeling (give command + perform actions with Ss)

 Second phase: Ss perform alone è show their understanding (both same Ss and observes)
 After learning to respond to some oral commands: Ss learn to read and write them è language
production
 Ss are ready to speak è Ss issue the commands
& Interactions (from nonverbal to gradually verbal)

T è Ss Ss 1 Ss
T è St (individual) Ss 1 Ts
& Ss’ feelings

Reduce Ss’ stress

 Allow Ss to speak when they are ready
 Make learning as enjoyable as possible
 Zany commands and humorous skits è language leaning can be fun

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  There not be too much modeling + Ss not be too rushed è Feelings of success and low anxiety facilitate
learning.
& Language and culture

 The acquisition of the native language è the oral modality is primary.

 Culture is the lifestyle of people who speak the language natively.
& Areas of language and language skills

Vocabulary = grammar structures (embedded within imperatives)

The imperatives are single words and multi-word chunks è frequency of occurrence in the speech
directed at young children learning their native language.
Spoken word should precede its production
Spoken language è writen language
Ss often do not learn to read the commands they have already learned to perform.

& Role of L1

Introduce TPR è rarely would the native language be used è Meaning is made clear through body
movements.
& Evaluation

Check Ss’ understanding by observing Ss’ actions.

Formal evaluations can be conducted simply by commanding individual Ss to perform a series of actions.
As Ss become more advanced, their performace of skits they have created can become the basis for
evaluation.
& Ss’ errors

Ss will make errors when they first begin speaking.

Ts should be tolerant of them and only correct major errors. Even these should be corrected unobstrusively.
As Ss get more advanced, Ts can “fine tune” – correct more minor errors.
PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
(1) Students learn new material, vocabulary, and verbs that will pertain to the commands
(2) Teacher develops a set of commands that are related to a specific theme
For example, the theme might be “identifying body parts” and the language instructor runs through body parts
to touch.
(3) Let’s say the commands is, for example, “touch your head with your right hand.” L2 learners process the
command and physically complete the task as fast as possible.
 The main activities used in the Total Physical Response Method are:
 Using commands to direct behavior
 Role reversal
 Action sequence
MERITS
Ss enjoy activity as the lesson is fun and easy to follow.
Simple TPR activities do not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher.

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TPR is inclusive and works well a class with mixed ability levels.
TPR is good for kinesthetic learners (nhữ ng ngườ i họ c thô ng qua thự c hà nh) who need to be active in
class.
TPR is good tool for building vocabulary.
Actions help build connections in the brain by using TPR.
TPR helps learners achieve fluency faster by immersing learners in activities that involve them in
situational language use.
TPR works well for child and adult leaners.

DEFECTS
TPR is the most useful for beginners.
Preparation becomes an issue for teachers at higher levels
Ss are not generally given the opprtunity to express their own thought in as creative maner.
It is easy to over use TPR and begin to bore Ss.
TPR may limit teachers in term of scope of language that can be addressed.
TPR can be a major challenge for shy Ss.
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THE COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

The main assumption behind this approach was that communicative language teaching programs will lead to
the development of both Linguistic Competence and Communicative Competence.
 Linguistic competence : vocab, gram, knowledge about the language
 Communicative competence: the usage
 In the 1980s one could talk of a “fever” for the Communicative Language Teaching Approach. CLT
was considered to be a type of instruction, an approach to language teaching rather than a method.
 CLT makes us consider language not only in terms of its structures but also in terms of the
communicative functions that it performs. Therefore, this approach aims at understanding what
people do with language forms when they communicate. The CLT Approach is a student-centered type
of instruction, a very revolutionary approach to language teaching.
 CLT Approach represents a philosophy of teaching that is based on communicative language use.
 If the language classroom can become an area of co-operative negotiation, joint interpretation, and the
expression, then the language teacher is in the position to give the students the opportunity for
spontaneous, unpredictable exploratory production of language when involved in classroom language
tasks.
 The main contribution of this new type of instruction is the shift from attention to the grammatical
forms to the communicative properties of the language. The language instructor creates the
opportunity and the conditions in the classroom for learners to interact in a communicative way. This is

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 to say that the L2 learner has someone to talk to, something to talk about, and a desire to understand and
to make himself/herself understood. If that happens, language acquistion can take place naturally and
teaching can be extremely effective.
 This approach encouraged the development of communicate competence (eg: grammatical competence,
pragmatic competence, sociolinguistic competence and strategic competence)
 This approach considers learners’ needs a matter of priority
 This approach suggests that a language syllabus should be based on notional/functional principles and
communicative competence
 This approach commits to message-orientated use of ther target language in the classroom.
 The main characteristics of this approach:
 The meaning is emphasized over form. Genuine questions (ask question to which Ss do not know
the answer) as opposed to display questions (type of questions asked to make Ss display knowledge)
are used because there is a focus on meaning rather than form
 Learners should have considerable exposure to the second language speech from the teacher and
other learners and instructors should provide opportunities for learners to play an active role.
The role of the language instructor is to construct dynamic classroom tasks(architect) and encourage
learner’s participation and contribution (resource person or co-builder). To that end, the materials that
the instructor uses must permit these new roles.
 Therefore, the traditional question/answer task should be supplanted by a task-oriented activity. By
providing a series of tasks to complete, the tutor plays the role of architect, encouraging learners to take
responsibility for generating the information themselves rather than just receiving it.
 Communication is defined by the expression, interpreation, and negotiation of meaning. Learners
teachers must make some mutual efforts to understand interactions and negotiate meaning. Negotiation of
meaning can be defined as any phonologically, lexically and morpho-syntacically to resolve
difficulties in mutual understanding that impede the course of their communication
 Comprehensible and meaning-bearing input promotes acquisition. Simplifications of the input
through the use of the contextual props, cues and gestures also promote acquisition. Comprehension
activities should be used without initial requirement for Ss to speak in the target language. The main
function of language teaching is to provide comprehensible input (useful especially for beginners and
foreign language learners) that leads to a low filter (high motivation and low anxiety). Little pressure
should be exercised for learners to perform at a high level of accuracy and in the early stages,
comprehension is emphasized over production
 Classroom activities should be designed to evoke communication and not be wasted in grammatical
lectures or manipulative and mechanical exercises
 Learners must be involved in learning tasks that allow them to perform a range of communicative
dunctions with the target L2. Communicative language teaching should encourage the use of a variety
of discourse tasks
 Grammar should be learned communicatively. Learners should be provided with communicative tasks
that contain enough samples of the linguistic features that learners are trying to learn. Learners must be
engaging in communicative tasks where grammar is enhanced using different techniques (eg: input
enhancement, consciousness rasing, input flood, structured input tasks)
 The amount of correction in the L2 classroom must be kept to a minimum, as the emphasis must be to
allow learners to express themselves. In the CLT Approach, error correction is seen as having a negative
effect on learners in terms of lowering their motivation and attitude. An alternative form of
correction might be done by the teacher by repeating what the Ss have said with the correct form
(recasting) or using other forms of corrective feedback such as negative enhancement techniques.
Negative enhancement techniques would involve providing learners with some information about
the incorrectness of the particular use of a form/structure by enhancing the mistake in different ways
(e.g: facial expression or offering a quizzical look)
PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
The three main activities proposed in this approach are:
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 (1) activities that involve communication promote second language acquisition;
(2) activities that involve completion of real tasks promote second language acquisition;
(3) meaningful activities that make use of authentic language to promote second language acquisition
 The 3 main features of all communicative activities are:
 One person knows something the other one does not (information gap)
 The speaker has a choice
 The main purpose of the activity is achieved based upon the information that is received form the
listener (feedback)
Typical communicative language teaching activity is an information-gap activity. This is an activity where
learners are missing the information to complete a task successful. They need to talk to each other to
find the information to complete the task.
For example, Learner A has a biography of a famous person with all the place names missing, while learner
B has the same text with all the dates missing. Together they can complete the text by asking each other the
relevant questions to collect the relevant information to complete the task.
The main activities used in CLT are:
 Information gap activities
 Jigsaw activities
 Opinion-sharing activities
 Role plays
 Language games
 Scrambled sentences
 Communicative grammar tasks
 Exchange information tasks
 Discourse type tasks
 Picture strip story
REVIEW
& Role of T and Ss

 Teacher:
 Presentation/ Pre-stage: Instructor, controller organizer, motivator,…
 Practice/While-stage: Facilitator, advisor, participant, assessor,..
 Production/Post-stage: Feedback giver, corrector

 Ss: Communicators
Center in classroom
& Teaching/Learning process

Ss use L2 a lot.

A lot of communicative activities: game, role-play, info. Gap activities, problem sovling tasks
Use of authentic materials
A lot of group work
Truly communicative activities have three features: info.gap, choice and feedback
& Interaction

(T establishes situations)
T Ss
Ss Ss (group work)
St St (pair work)
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T’s talking time < Ss’ talking time
& Ss’ feelings

Ss are more motivated

Ss have more chances to participate
Ss feel more secured thanks to group work
& Language & culture

Linguistic form + meanings + functions

(different forms è same function; same form è different functions)
Social contexts
Culture: everyday lifestyle of people of target language community & non-verbal communication.
& Areas of language & language skills

Function > Form (functional syllabus; simple è complex forms)

Ss learn at discourse level. (cohension & coherence : tính liên từ & tính liền mạch)
4 skills are taught right at the beginning and integrated
& Role of L1

Judicious use of L1 (sử dụng tiếng mẹ đẻ hợp lý)

L2 is used most of the time (presenting, giving instructions, during communicative activities)
& Evaluation

Accuracy + fluency
T can informally evaluate Ss’ performance during group work.
(formal) an integrative test having a real communicative function.
T’s response to Ss’ error
Errors of forms are tolerated during fluency-based activities
T notes Ss’ error and deal with them later with an accuracy-based activities.
Langauge functions: things we do with languag:
 Requesting enquiring suggesting
 Warning greeting describing
 Agreeing promising apologizing
 Reporting advising

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CONTENT & LANGUAGE INTEGRATED LEARNING (CLIL)

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
CLIL is the teaching of subject to learners through the use of the target language.
This dual approach has 2 main aims:
(1) one related a particular subject
(2) one related to language. If you’re teaching Italian you can use as a subject matter “history of art”
CLIL has 4 main components:
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  Content (subject aims)
 Communication (oral & written form)
 Cognition (promotes cognitive or thinking skills)
 Culture (understanding cultures makes the process of communication with other people more
effective)
The main principles of CLIL are:
 Language is used to learn as well as to communicate
 Subject matter determines the language needed to learn
 Subject matter is taught is simple, esily comprehensible ways, by using illustrartions, diagrams, and
highlighted tearms
 Subject-based voacbulary, tests, and discussion are used by teacher
 The CLIL lesson should combine 4 elements:
 It should not repeat the content learned in other lesssons
 It should constitute progression in knowledge
 The focus of the lesson should be the using of the language to learn and learning to use language
 It should encourage the development of thinking skills that link concept formation, understanding
and language.
 It should understand culture, community, and global citizenship
The teaching is organized around the content of information that learners will acquire and not around the
linguistic characteristics of the language
Subject matter content is used for teaching purposed and language instructors need to provide learners
with assistance in understanding subject matter texts.
Learners become highly motivated and are exposed to authentic material and tasks
Language is used to convey specific content
Ts need to ensure that learners understand all the crucial vocabulary and concepts in lesson. In short,
instructions give comprehensible input.
They use their whole body to convey nuanced meaning to language learners. Images and pictures are also
used to facilitate comprehension
Instead of solely using words in a lesson and letting learners figure out the meanings for themselves, Ts must
be more direct about what vocabulary is being features and need to be learned
Ts should pre-teach vocabulary ahead of the main lesson. Ts should give language learners plenty of
opportunities to engage in activities that offer the chance to practice the target language.
In CLIL, a typical task designed for production needs to be subject orientated, so that both content and
language are recycled. Typical speaking activities include:
 Question loops – questions and answers, tearms and definitions, halves of sentences
 Information-gap activities with a question sheet to support
 Word-guessing games
 Class surveys using questionnaires
 Ss present information from a visual using a language support
 Handout
Typical activities in this approach include:
 Language skills tasks
 Vocabularu building
 Discourse organization
 Communicative interaction
 Study skills
 Synthesis of content materials and grammar
 Role plays

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TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (TBL)
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
Task-based language teaching became initially popular in the 1990s. it referred to a type of language
teaching that takes “tasks” as its key units designing and implementing language instruction. The
main principles of the TBL approach are:
 Learners should be provided with opportunities that make the language input receive more
comprehensible;
 Learners should be engaged in contexts in which they need to produce output which others can
understand;
 Learners should be exposed to real-life language situations in the language classroom.
TBL aims at providing L2 learners with a natural context to use the target language.
The goal of this approach is to promote communication and to develop fluency by attempting to use the
L2 in real operating conditions. Learners work to complete a task and have plenty of opportunities for
interaction and nefotiation of meaning as they have to understand each other and express their own
meaning.
The essential characteristics of a task in this approach are:
 Meaning must play a key role
 The participants choose the linguistic resources to perform the task
 Learners must resolve a communication-based world problem
 Learners will be assessed in terms of the task outcome
TBL aims at integating all 4 language skills (Speaking, R, L & W) and providing opportunities for the
learners to experiment with explore both spoken and written language through learning activities that are
designed to engage L2 learners in the authentic, practical, and functional use of language for meaningful
purposes (e.g: to cultivate the learners’ communicative competence).

PEDAGOGICAL PROCEDURES
& Goals

Facilitate Ss language learning bu engaging them in a variety of tasks that have a clear outcome.
& Role of T and Ss

T: facilitator, instructor, feedback-provider, monitor

Ss: participants, communocators
& Teaching/learning process

A pre-task phase typically begins a task sequence. T can introduce Ss to the language they will need to
complete the task. The tasks are meaningful and relevant so that the Ss are the reason for doing the task and
can see how the task relates to possible situations in their lives outside the classroom.
A task cycle phase: Ss are actively engaged with the task, with the teacher monitoring their performace and
intervening when necessary. The task has clear outcomes to that both Ss and Ts can tell if the task has been
successfully completed.
A post-task phase takes place to reinforce Ss’ learning or to address any problems that may have arisen.
& Interaction

(T establishes tasks)

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  T è Ss
 Ss è Ss (group work)
 St è St (pair work)
& Ss’ feelings

Ss are motivated by doing tasks that prepare them for the real world.
& Language & culture

Language is for communicating and for “doing”.

Culture is not explicitly addressed.
& Areas of langugage & language skills

 4 skills - Focus on meaning

& Role of L1

There is no explicit role for the Ss’ native language.

& Evaluation

T consantly evaluates Ss in light of task outcomes and the language they use.
& T’s response to Ss’ error

Focus on form is essential to Ss’ learning.

Error correction is done through recasts (repeat again-many times) or modeling or by giving brief grammar
explanations.
MERITS
TBL helps learners to interact spontaneously
TBL paves way for automaticity
TBL gives language learners opportunitiy to learn vocabulary
TBL encourages learners to use language purposefully and in cooperation
TBL provides conditions that allow learners to assimilate what they notice and understand while
performing the task.
DEFECTS
There is no acquisition of new grammar or vocabulary features
Task difficulty is hard to determine in terms of other contributing factors such as Cognitive demand,
Linguistic demand, Clarity of pictures/story, Amount of information, Task structure
Not all Ss are or will be motivated by TBL since learners who are beginners with no linguistic resources
find it very difficult to take part in a task.
Some Ss need more guidance and will not or cannot “notice” language forms (grammar) or other
elements of accuracy.
Ss typically translate and use a lot of their L1 rather than the target language in completing the tasks.

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THE LEXICAL APPROACH
The lexical approach is less concerned with Ss production and more concerned that Ss receive and
comprehend abundant input. Particularly at lower levels, Ts talk extensively to their Ss in the target
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 language, while requiring little or no verbal response from them. Ss are also given exercises and activities
that raise their awareness about multi-word lexical items, such as “I see what you mean”, and “Take your
time”.
Lewis emphasizes acquisition over learning assuming that “it is exposure to enough suitable input, not
formal teaching; which is key to increasing the learner’s lexicon. (Lewis 1997:197)
“Vocabulary acquisition is the target and most important task facing the language learner.”
v Why is the lexical approach so helpful?

Learning chunks of natural language saves “processing time” – Ss don’t have to build a sentence from
grammatical beginnings.
Helps learners sound more natural.
v Using language chunks in class

Even teaching “how are you?” to young learners – hopefully you don’t break down the sentence into its
grammatical components and explain them, you just teel them what it means.
You probably also teach them useful classroom phrases – “what does “X” mean?”, “Please can I go to the
bathroom?” and so on.
v Teaching Lexical Chunks

The best way is little and often. Whenever you come across an appropriate chunk, you can introduce it to the
class. Whatever system of recording vocabulary you ask your Ss to use, do the same with your lexical
chunks.
Make sure that you keep a record of the lexical chunks you’ve introduced to each class and be sure to use
them in context whenever you can.

v Lexical approach activities

 Find someone who…

 Songs
 Lexical chunk dictation
 A task-based approach
 Corpora searches
 Paper on walls
 Lexical chunk hot seat
 Slot-filler relay race
v Corpora searches

Ss actually enjoy searching for items using concordance printout from a corpus. Keep the task simple. You
can make it into a game by challenging pairs or groups of Ss to come up with the most lexical chunks
meeting a certain criteria. For example: find colour collocations based on food and drink, (mustard-yellow)
find 2 colour collocations with “y” (orange-yellow)
ADVANTAGES OF THE LEXICAL APPROACH
 It develops learner’s proficiency with lexis or words combinations.
 Central to the lexical approach is ther focus on teaching real English and a shift away from the artificial
language found in ELT textbook and which is drawn form the intuition of textbook designers.
 Emphasis is on successful communication not grammatical mastery.
 Language is not learnt by learning individual sound and structures and then combining them, but by an
increasing ability to break down wholes into parts.

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 Lexcial approach advocates argue that language consists of meaningful chunks that, when combined,
produce continuous coherent text, and only a minority of spoken sentences are entirely novel creations.

DISADVANTAGES
 Language cannot be simply divided into different units in real life.
 Some topics that are traditionally considered advanced can actually be taught at much lower levels.
 Ts and learners need training in using computational tools to analyse data received from technological
corpara.
 It still need to be demonstrated how a lexically based theory of language and language learning can be
applied at the levels of design and procedure in language teaching, suggesting that it is still an idea in
search of an approach an a methodology.

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THE ELECTIC APPROACH (PP TONG HOP)
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES
“The successful teacher usually organizes and makes a blend of methods he/she thinks are appropriate. Each
method has its value and uniqueness on one side and its difficulties and disadvantages on the other side.”
Larsen-freeman(2000) and Mellow (2000) both have used the term principled eclecticism to describe a
desirable, coherent, pluralistic approach to language teaching.
Larsen-freeman (2000) “when Ts who subscribe to the pluralistic view of methods pick and choose from
among methods to create their own blend, their practice is said to be eclectic.”
Eclecticism involves the use of a variety of language learning activities, each of which may have very
different characteristics and may be motivated by different underlying assumption. The use eclecticism is
due to the fact that there are strengths as well as weaknesses of single theory based methods.
The use of eclecticism does not mean to mix up different approaches randomly. There must have some
philosophical backgrounds and some systemetic relation among different activities. Usually it is
recommended to mix structural approaches with communicative use of language.

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