CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Open space can be described as land preserve for the purpose of preservation of natural

environments, provision of green space and/or urban storm water management. Parks and

open spaces very in size, form, and functions that they perform. Public open space is

usually categorized using the hierarchy of neighbourhood, district and regional open

space; and can be used for either passive or active recreation (Thompson, 2008). Open

space often come under pressure for development in existing neighbourhood or is at risk

of being undervalued and underprovided in the planning of new subdivisions. Open space

provides a number of valued services, particularly to urban populations, including

recreational opportunities; aesthetic enjoyment, environment functions, and may also be

associated with existence values (Brander and Koetse, 2011).

Open space network should encourage active lifestyles by offering a variety of safe and

attractive spaces that are well distributed throughout a neighbourhood and accessible and

cater to the sporting and recreational needs of the community (Auckland City Council,

2007). Preferably, an open space should attempt to cater to multiple users. Open space

also provides economic and social benefits; it increases property values and municipal

revenue through higher property tax assessments, (Donovan and Butry,2011; Stone et al.,

2015 USDA Forest Service, 2014)

Open space improves housing pattern by breaking up monony in housing layouts.

Thus, improves the aesthetic quality and arrangement of housing units. Open space

enhances maximum intake of solar radiation and illumination. It also encourage air

circulation within development areas (Listoken and walker, 1995). In any land use

development, open space is inevitably essential; their uses may vary per land-use
1
developmental activity. In a residential area for example, open space represents and

preserves many natural features of a place including vegetation. Open space increases the

marketability of housing units and reduces the cost of grading and landscaping a site.

Open space can serve as recreation area for children and adults alike. Animals,

especially in the nights can make maximum use of it to recreate and reproduce. Open

space both in magnitude and spatial arrangement is critical to urban living. Availability,

distribution and accessibility to open spaces are a major concern for cities and residential

development as they are a necessity and not a lyxury to on-going urbanization trend

worldwide. The distance between city inhabitants and nature is increasing. Urban

greenery is one of the ways to bridge the gap between people and nature. Open space

provides a for socialize and play, reducing stress and benefiting the health of urban

dwellers (Ulrich, 1984, 1993).

Open space conservation, in addition to upfront purchasing, will incur costs, and

that is one of the factors militating against open space development in Nigeria, hence

local government have to recurrently incur maintenance costs for open space

conservation. Not all costs of open space conservation are, however, immediately obious;

in fact, implicit costs may be significant. Open space conservation may reduce the tax

base for local authorities, as land is set aside from commercial or industrial development.

It also imposes substantial opportunity costs; money spent on open space conservation

cannot be used for other public goods valued by local residents (Wu, 2014). Most of the

Nigeria cities are far behind in the conservation of open spaces, high population density

and the need for shelter are some of the reasons for the underdevelopment of open space.

Urban dwellers in the attempt to harness environmental resources for the like land

resorted to various developmental projects such as construction of road erection of

buildings, and other infrastructural facilities (Sander, 2009). The actualization of these
2
land-uses and services, has led to massive removal misuse or destruction of open space

sites. Open space occurs incidentally like agricultural lands, barren lands or is formally

planned. Open space is a basic type of public land use along with residential commercial,

industrial, transportation, etc. other than open space, the rest is given due importance for

progress and it is neglected because it caters for natural, recreational and cultural needs

that seems intangible.

However, planning may help in converting open space from its undeveloped state

of a very effective and sustainable one, as it offers places wildlife habitat, wilderness

protection, groundwater retention, air oxygenation, active recreational use, historic

landscapes, etc. (Jayarwardhana, 2005).

Hence, the research is actually focuses on studying the open spaces of North-Bank

Ward One and ward Two, Makurdi, Benue State, and aims at Making open spaces

available and accessible to the social, economic and environmental aspects to promote

recreation, leisure and sustainability. They information accrued from this research is

important to open space planning policy makers, City planning, Urban planning

Education, Urban Design & Environmental Departments whose mandate fall into

ordering of land, setting up maintaining open spaces in Nigeria. The research may also

influence public policy on how provision, use and management may be undertaken in a

bottom up approach. It can be a significant guideline to the provision of open space in

residential areas which may change the way professionals do their jobs in a particular

field or may change the way people live. It may benefit professionals in the field of urban

planning, landscape architecture and urban design as well as build up data and

information on recreation and open space for the end user.

1.2 STATEMENT OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

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 The issue of open space in Nigeria begs serious attention (Kabir, 2006). Present

day cities and their open spaces are not property planned with the required open space

amenities provision. It mainly causes it to remain the isolated without people and

activities (Kabir, 2006). Although the designers creates visually pleasing beautiful places

but less consideration was given on its social and spatial characteristics in the proper way

to create rich socio spatial urban environment full of people with different activities.

Most of the modern cities that are designed paid little attention to their socio cultural

values and their urban open spaces become lost as they have finally created unused,

misused or dead open spaces. The liveliness of urban open space is increasingly

diminishing due to various negative effects (Jawardhana, 2005).

North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two, Makurdi, Benue State has been urbanizing

and developing and would need adequate open spaces, although it has certain historical

features that may indicate availability of open spaces. Studies of them will unearth the

elements of the past, which are applicable in the present urban context. The Study of the

social and spatial attributes of existing open space will help to know whether they

strengthens urban activities, or how the social and spatial attributes have intertwined our

urban areas, in response to its physical context too. And how the society of North-Bank

Ward One and Ward Two has been attached to the open spaces, where it remains their

quality as monumental or multipurpose or etc. Open spaces, ought to accommodate the

urban man, fulfilling various requirements and needs of the total populace who are the

residents and to intertwine socially and spatially to suit the present situation for the

population. Hence the study of open space has to be created or made intertwined in urban

areas is essential.

Conversion and misuse of open spaces, due to increase in demand for land from

the public for the various human activities. This has led to open spaces being misused by
4
being converted illegally for other uses like refuses, dumps, corner shops, mechanic

workshops, residential buildings, squatter homes and other uses other than that which it

was initially developed for (Alabi, 2009; Ayatamuno, 2010). Urbanization there is an

increase in the demand for higher levels of development by urbanization in developing

countries like Nigeria. This has sponsored largely the ineffective use of open spaces

(Darmola and Ibem 2010). Poor Organization most Nigerian cities are poorly organized

in terms of physical planning and, hence, characterized by inadequate open spaces. The

available ones have been over-taken by un-organized and haphazard planning resulting

from weak development control (Olotuah and Babadoye, 2009). Illegal developments,

majority of the private developers are involved in the illegal development of their

buildings. They build without relevant approval from authority and hardly measure up to

to the stipulated statutory regulations while developing their lands. This has defeated the

management plan, design, and landscaping (Arigbola 2008, Aluko, 2011). Despite the

many works on open space, more is yet to be learnt: for instance how much open space

per capital is needed in cities? Should be per capital vary, with varying cities of varied

socioeconomic properties?

Schipperijn et al. (2011) indicated that generally, no association exists between

outdoor physical activity and the size of, distance to, and number of features in the

nearest open space; however, they found positive associations between physical activity

and walking /cycling routes, wooded areas, water features, lights pleasant views, bike,

rack, and parking. This study deals with the management and maintenance strategies of

open space and also focuses on how Government and private establishments can improve

open space development.

1.3 AIM

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The aim of this research work is to assess the need and management of open space within

the selected urban neighbourhood in North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two, Makurdi,

Benue State; this with a view to suggesting appropriate open space standards towards a

more sustainable urban planning.

1.4 OBJECTIVES

The specific objectives are as follows;

i. Assess the socio-economic characteristic of urban dwellers in the study area;

ii. Take inventory of the open spaces in the study area;

iii. Appraise the use or environmental benefits of the open spaces;

iv. Identify resident’s satisfaction of the existing open space and;

v. Give recommendation to facilitate improved planning and management of open

space in the study area.

1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

 What are the socioeconomic characteristics of the dwellers in the study

area?

 Is there any existing open space in the study area?

 To what use are the open spaces put and how are they managed?

 What are the environmental benefits of the open spaces?

 Are the residents satisfied with the condition of the open spaces or they

need further open space development?

 What are the possible suggestions for improved open space development

and management in the study area?

1.6 JUSTIFICATION FOR THE STUDY

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 The importance of open spaces to our environment and quality of life is

increasingly recognized (Ward Thompson, 2002). Open space is essential in any

community for both amenity and recreation purpose and often contributes positively to

the character, attractiveness, and vitality of our cities, towns and villages. It provides

areas for play – an essential element in the development of all children and enhances the

quality of the residential environment. It can also provide valuable areas for nature

conservation and biodiversity, act a buffer between conflicting land uses, help reduce

flood risk, promote pedestrian linkages and provide ‘green lungs’ that can assist in

meeting objectives to improve air quality. Ultimately, open space and the use of such

space contribute to the health and quality of life for all.

Residential neighborhoods ought to be provided with quality and adequate open

spaces. A residential area built form alone cannot support the livability of its populace.

Therefore, there is the need to provide for open spaces uses by its residents. More

importantly, open spaces offer social, health, environmental and economic benefits for by

its residents of a residential neighbourhood. If quality were measurable by a variable, it

would not be by the greatness or brilliance of its buildings but rather by the richness of its

voids or open spaces. If you design good open spaces and streets, you design a good city,

which are vibrant, livable, active, accessible, safe and scenic. It follows therefore, that a

city as important as North Bank Ward One and part Ward Two, should not only have just

open spaces its residential areas, but rather, should have quality open spaces that are

deliberately designed to enrich social, environmental and economic benefits among its

users. The need for quality open spaces necessitates carrying out this research in the

residential city of North-Bank Ward One and Ward two, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria.

This research is meant to study the open spaces of North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two,

Makurdi which aims at making open spaces more responsible to the social, economic and
7
environmental aspects to promote quality and sustainability. The information accrued

from this research will be important to open spaces Planning Policy Makers, City

Planning, Urban Planning Education, Urban Design and Environmental Departments

whose mandate fall into ordering of land, setting up and maintaining open spaces in

Nigeria. The research may also influence public policy on how provision, use and

management may be undertaken in a bottom-up approach. It can be a significant

guideline to the provision of open space in residential areas which may change the way

professionals do their jobs in a particular field, or may change the way professionals do

their jobs in a particular field, or may change the way people live. It may also benefit

professionals in the fields of urban planning, landscape architecture and urban design as

well as build up data and information on recreation open space for the end user.

1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This study considers the whole of the open space development and management from the

perspective of citizens of North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two. The availability of open

spaces, challenges and limitations as evident in the lack of sound policies and strategies

for its development and management. It then concludes with recommendations on how

the current trends negative trends can be reversed to achieve a better open space system.

In our urbanized communities, open spaces social and spatial attributes are intertwined.

Therefore, the designer should appreciate the important component of the built

environment. The peoples’ activity pattern has to be studied especially, when different

open spaces and various different settings and the time, types of activities varies and

degree of activities one may find, among different open spaces.

Therefore, it is of greater importance for planners to identify the issues between peoples’

activity pattern and the supportiveness of these characteristics in order to create a live

urban environment. Urban spaces designed by urban planners and architects at present
8
are according to their image and they expect other people to adjust them. Therefore, these

spaces alienate man and makes the urban dweller rootless.

1.8 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two is a settlement in Makurdi, the capital city of

Benue State. The settlement is bounded by the Nigerian Army land across Kpege stream

in the South and in East. It is bounded by the River Benue North Bank. North Bank is

about three kilometres away from River Benue along Makurdi Lafia road. The settlement

was originated from the Ngieu and Mbagunen Communities whose name was derived as

a result of its vegetation which is dominant. The occupation of the inhabitants prior to the

early stage of settlement was farming and due to the urbanization and civilization of the

area of its major activities has more from agriculture to variety of services; these include

trading, civil service education and unskilled activities such as craft work. The settlement

is dominated by mixed tribes ranges from Tiv who are the original tribe and dominant

tribe in the area others include Idoma, Hausa, Igala, Agatu etc, with agricultural and

commerce activities as its primary or major urban economical activities sustaining the

settlement. The zone support the growth of both root and grains crop, such as rice, corn,

millet, yam, cassava, yellow melon, sugar cane plant etc, are grown on an average scale

within and around the settlement with a conductive atmosphere for business and pleasure.

1.9 GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY AREA

1.9.1 Topography

North-Bank Ward one and Ward Two is characterized by a gentle slope drained into

River Kpege, with fertile soil for agricultural purposes. It also has granitic stone beneath

the earth surface which hinders the laid of pipeline network of water distribution system

of the area.

1.9.2 Climate
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According to Offordile (1976), North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two have guinea

savanna type of climate with annual average rainfall of about 28.5% and annual relative

humidity of about 70%.

1.9.3 Vegetation

The vegetation is that of the guinea savanna with fairly sparsely grown grasses and

scattered trees. As a transition zone between the north and the south, the guinea savanna

vegetation favoured the growth of roots and grain crops.

Figure 1: MAP OF NIGERIA SHOWING BENUE STATE

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FIGURE 3: MAP OF MAKURDI SHOWING THE STUDY AREA

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND

LITERATUAL REVIEW.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

2.1.1 Defining and Understanding Open Space

There is no consensus on definition of open space. Different displaces such as ecology,

horticulture, landscape architecture, and urban planning have proposed verging

definitions from their own professional angles. This has given rise to many concepts

related to the idea of green spaces. Examples of these concepts are the open space, green,

horticultural, urban, and ecological Greenland systems. The meaning of open space

system has also been continuously evolving with the development of city theory which

involves horticultural, ecological and spatial dimensions and meanings. In the opinion of

Beer (1997) , green space are places for contact with birds and animals and the more

attractive insert like butterflies, spaces with visual variety where children can learn about

nature and social life through contact with animals, places to loiter in and watch the

world go by and places to chat while the children play.

Hai-Yan et al (2001) define green open spaces from the landscape planning and urban

design perspectives as all the areas within the city and its surrounding regions, enabling

people to contact nature thus attaching spatial meaning to the green space system.

Furthermore, open space covers parks, private and public gardens, public squares,

roundabouts, trees planted along the streets, sports and recreation fields, crematoriums,

urban forests, and vacant lands (Choumert &Salanie 2008). Open spaces are also defined

as public and private spaces in urban areas, covered by green vegetation that is either

natural or artificial, which are directly available to the residents of the city (Baycan-
12
Levent et al. 2009). The expanding and continuously evolving concept of open spaces is

clearly evident from the definitions given above. It is easy to see that in the earlier

definitions, the concern was more about the aesthetic and recreational value and

subsequently moving towards issues of social well-being as well as psychological and

physiological concerns that impact the quality of life. Having considered the various

definitions of green space in the literature, this study defines open spaces as areas within

the urban the spatial environment which are mainly covered with naturally occurring or

artificial vegetation that act to regulate the urban microclimate and enhance ecological

and ecosystem processes while serving the function of beautifying the city as well as

providing a place for a president’s to recreate and interact with one another thereby

promoting community bonding and the social and psychological well-being of residents.

Ebenezer (1898), considered the usefulness of public open spaces so much that he

propounded the theory of the three magnets where he talked about the city and the

Country side which can be brought together in other words incorporating the public open

spaces into the urban environment. This shows that City, which is one magnet, can be

“married” to from the third one-city Countryside. This theory was necessitated by the

deteriorating human housing congestion, suburban environment, the ever-increasing

pressure on the socio-economic facilities in London. To this end, Ebenezer Howard

proposed the Garden City Movement. As a result, Countryside was no longer wasteland

but served significant purposes such as camping sites, games reserves, holiday resorts,

etc.

2.1.2 Types of Public Open Space

There are different type public open spaces, Brosseau (2008), has listed a range of

public open spaces including different levels of parks, community and neighbourhood

parks. It showed that while the community is smaller scale parks that serve the needs of
13
the community, the neighbourhood parks give more coverage as it serves the

neighbourhood.

2.1.2.1District Park

District Park is a large park with a variety of Recreational facilities. It

serves the combination needs of surrounding local communities or suburban where

people within the community may travel some distance to access. Litres for a range of

age groups parks and all developed generally multi-functional can include active and

passive parks, Recreational facilities such as kick-about areas, multipurpose hard

surfaces, and playground equipment can include a special interest component such as a

River, water body, etc.

2.1.2.2Neighbourhood Parks

(Including pocket parks and public squares) are smaller park spaces serving

the immediate local community/neighbourhood (within from social walking distance)

focused on informal Recreation including play equipment and kick about areas, Brosseau

(2008). Others include the;

i. Sports Facilities: Include sports fields, stadia, and indoor halls.

ii. Undeveloped: No land zoned but that has not been developed for whatever

reason.

iii. Coastal: Subject to usually linear public open spaces and amenities along

coastal regions.

iv. Amenities: Local context that is managed by municipal parks department

and may include high profile tourist facilities.

v. Gardens: Indicate areas where municipal parks Department are responsible

in some mane for maintenance or management of community vegetable

gardens.
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2.1.3 The Importance of Public Open Spaces

Public open spaces, particularly in urban areas have to also recognize the critical

role that appropriate, accessible, safe and appealing non-park spaces such as town

squares, courts, malls and plazas, footpaths and play, Carr (1992). In support of this

notion, the world Health Organization states in its publication The Solid Facts” that

Designing facilities to encourage meeting and social interaction in communities can

improve mental health.” It also indicates that Social support and good social relations

make an important contribution to health (and) supportive relationships also encourage

healthier behaviour patterns social isolation and exclusion (on the other hand) are

associated with increased rates of premature death and poorer chances of survival after

heart attack”, and poorer health generally, Castillo (2003).

2.1.4 Function of Open Space

Open spaces are areas for recreation, serve other functions like giving form and

aesthetic value to a community. Indeed, open spaces serve very basic human needs and

values as Banon (1976) asserts, “there is certain physical relief in open spaces that cannot

be underestimated. It gives us visual relief from the tangled, jarring and often

monotonous sight of urban development and a sense of orientation and community

identity. Very few can picture the location of every street in town, but most of us can

immediately place the location of an attractive open space in our mind’s eye”. Little

(1969) on his own part, further puts the functions of open space being:

 For the establishment of recreation opportunities

 For the establishment of attractive community design, a visually pleasing

landscape and the environment amenity this supplies.

 For the maintenance of

natural processes or in a word, conservation.

15
Each of these three basic approaches to open space has inherent physical, social and

economic benefits and in many cases, all three functions can be served by one piece of

land or one system of open space. This goes to suggest that air and water pollution and

providing it with recreational facilities like open spaces (Kabir, 2006). For instance, the

development of Onitsha holiday resort has helped to check the health hazard caused by

erosion prevented the striking nature of the stream that ran through it and took care of an

area, which could have been a good habitat for mosquitoes and other integrated into the

development plans of both the federal and state governments of every country as a

strategy to improve their economy, beatify the environment and raise the social standards

of the people. Therefore one way of developing tourist centers is by developing open

spaces. This can be achieved by developing them to international standard like New York

City Parks, which are known to attract people from far and near. That is to say that apart

from such known tourist centers like zoological gardens, hotels, holiday resort, etc., the

government should realize that open space are also one of such agents with which it

could boost tourism overlaps with recreation as a way of using leisure.

2.1.5 Benefits of Open Spaces

Open spaces serve a number of functions and provide a diversity of benefit to the

urban residents. The benefits of green spaces in the urban spatial environment are today

viewed within the prism of sustainable development and in that sense, open spaces

provide benefits that can be categrorized as ecological, social and economic (Ping 1994

in Mugenyi 2002).

2.1.5.1 Ecological Benefits

Parks and other green spaces provide a number of ecosystem benefits such as the

regulation of ambient temperatures, air filtration, noise reduction; carbon sequestration

and storm-water control (Bolund & Hunhammar 1999). Aside from these anthropological
16
benefits, a well-designed urban green system can also protect natural habitats and

preserve flora and fauna (wilby & Perry 2006). A good green space network can act as a

“wildlife sanctuary” within the city and help protect the populations of different animals

species that would otherwise be displaced from the built environments (Fernandez-Juricic

2000).

2.1.5.2 Social Benefits

Open spaces are socially beneficial in a variety of ways. Many studies have

established that open spaces offer residents from the stressful life of the city, accelerate

recuperation from disease, and can foster more active living thereby reducing sedentary

lifestyles that lead to obesity, cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and cancer (Bedimo-

Rung et al 2005). Community gardens, now a common feature of downtown parks in

Western Europe, provide the resident’s space for active social interaction and provide

dietary supplements in the from of fresh fruits and vegetables (Shinew et al 2004). Parks

also foster a sense of togetherness and community bonding (Nuru & Konschink 2000).

Green spaces are an excellent place for children to play and the outdoor experience

stimulates curiosity and learning (Malone & Tranter 2003).

2.1.5.3 Economic Benefits

Research has shown that parks and green spaces provide significant economic

benefits. These include the promotion of tourism and leisure activities, reduction of

negative environmental impacts (e.g. carbon sequestration, storm water attenuation),

reduction of the effect s of air and noise pollution, and reduction in health care bills

because of the healthier lifestyles they engender (Arvanitidis et al 2009). Parks have a

significant positive impact on nearly property values (Bolitzer & Netusil 2000). Real

estate located near green spaces always have higher resale value and potential buyers

place a high premium on that in taking decisions on residential location and housing
17
choice (Crompton 2005). Finally, open spaces are considered by researchers as the city’s

future defensive mechanism against the predicted impacts of climate change such as

rising temperatures, flooding, and storms. Green space systems that are well integrated

into urban landscapes will reduce the magnitude of these anticipated problems providing

significant economic benefits (Gill et al 2007).

2.1.6 Open Space Management

In terms of management, many stakeholders have parts to play in meeting open

space aspirations. This is both an asset and a drawback. The fragmentation of

responsibilities for different aspects of open space management especially as it relates to

governance institutions has been a major hindrance to efficient and effective

management in many parts of the world. Key distinctions can be made between

management and operational roles and between the input (if any ) of the organized

private sector and citizen organizations and the different forms of partnership

arrangements. Best management practices, therefore, are those that eliminate or reduce to

the barest minimum these fragmentation and strive to pull together the available

resources and opportunities offered by the various stakeholders into an efficient open

spaces management system. To this end, there are very interesting example in the

literature that suggests that urban communities are emerging as active and powerful

forces in the ownership, development, and management of green spaces. One of such

examples is the case of community garden projects in Berlin and Rotterdam (Liesegang

2009) that shows what efficiency and positive result s can be achieved if community

resources are pulled together towards achieving a common goal and especially in this

case development and management of green spaces. In addition, the trend described by

Jeffrey Hou (2010) as “guerrilla urbanism” is a positive development that shows urban

residents demonstrating awareness in the importance of public spaces (of which green
18
spaces are an important constituent) and becoming active in reclaiming and maintaining

them. These evolving trends in management can be further strengthened with better

linkages between urban communities and the local government, which now is missing, or

at the best weak.

Furthermore, the special role that the private sector can play in green space

management is coming increasingly evident. In the cases of Hanover, Minneapolis, and

paris for example, the city authorities contract the maintenance of the parks to the private

sector for a fee (CABE Space 2004b). in Nigeria’s capital Abuja, the private sector is

encourage by the government to adopt, develop and maintain a park as part of corporate

social responsibility. Companies are able to do that gain some credits that give them a

competitive edge over their rivals in the award of government contracts especially in

construction (Jibril 2010).

2.1.7 Problems of Managing Open Spaces

Conversion and misuse of open spaces: There is an increased demand for land

from the public for the various human activities. This has led to open spaces being

misused by being converted illegally for other uses like refuse dumps, corner shops,

mechanic workshops, residential buildings, squatter homes and other uses other than that

which it was initially developed for (Alabi, 2009; Ayatamuno, 2010). It could become a

security problem to people around such open spaces as criminals and wild animals

perceive it to be a hideout.

 Lack of Coordination: The inadequate coordinate of physical planning

activities within cities has resulted in the unpleasant and unattractive quality of

19
 spaces. There is a lack of harmony in carrying out their individual and cooperate

task in planning, development, and protection.

 Urbanization: There is an increase in the demand for higher levels of

development by urbanization in developing countries like Nigeria. This has

sponsored largely the ineffective use of open spaces (Daramola and Ibem 2010).

 Illegal Development: Majority of the private developers are involved in the

illegal development of their buildings. They build without relevant approval from

authority and hardly measure up to the stipulated statutory regulations while

developing their lands. This has defeated the management plan, design, and

landscaping (Arigbola 2008, Aluko, 2011).

 Poor Organization: Most Nigerian cities are poorly organized in terms of

physical planning and, hence, characterized by inadequate open spaces. The

available ones have and been over-taken by un-organized haphazard planning

resulting from weak development control (Olotuah and and Babadoyae, 2009).

2.2 Theoretical framework

2.2.1 Open Space Planning Models

The history of open space planning is relatively young. Until the 18 th

century, open spaces were easily accessible to most city dwellers since the

surrounding agricultural areas (Preserved as a source of food for the local population)

and technological barriers limiting transportation and infrastructure facilities limited

cities’ growth. This situation began to change following the industrial revolution. The

emergence of new income sources- independent of land – along with technological

innovations and decreasing dependency on agriculture resulted in accelerated

migration from rural areas to urban settlements (Aalen, 1992). Cities expanded and

peripheral open spaces were left detached from inner-city residents, who lived in
20
crowded conditions under poverty and distress (Pregill and Volkman, 1993). Public

parks were established in the 18th and 19th centuries as a response to increasing public

demand for amenities and recreational areas, and to reduce social stress, which was

threatening the existing social order and political systems (French, 19b73; Heckscher,

1977; pregill and Volkman, 1993 schenker 1995). The term “open space” was

probably used for the first time in the year 1833, by the select committee on public

trails in London (Turner, 1992). Since the mid- 20 th century, urbanization and

metropolitan growth were accelerated, leading to suburbanization and urban sprawl.

These processes were a consequence of rapid technological evolution followed by

economic growth, rising living standards, increased motorization as well as general

well-being. This threatened landscapes and heritage values Antrop, 2004) while

highlighting the necessity for conservation of open spaces as an integral part of land

use planning. In the same period, consolidation of the ecological paradigm led to a

better understanding of complex ecological processes and correlations. An outcome of

these trends was a growing awareness of the need to protect vital ecosystems and

natural processes, as expressed by ecologists and conservationists (Prevolutzky, 1994;

Shachak, 1996; Nave, 2001). As experience in open space planning accumulates,

various types of planning models may be identified, expressing different approaches

to the functions of open spaces within and outside developed areas. The rest of this

article is dedicated to a review and examination of some of these models.

2.2.2 Opportunistic Model

The term “opportunistic” is used here to describe a pattern where open

spaces are the result of opportunities that pop-up rather than of a systematic planning

process. Among the best-known examples are the first major parks opened to the

public in London during the 19th century (Turner, 1992). The leading guiding
21
principle for the model is quantitative matching between open space and the

respective user population, claiming that adequate response to needs requires a certain

minimal area size of open space of a given population. Space standards are a popular

and common planning tool for all kinds of public services in the urban environment,

and are usually expressed in terms of land units per person. Planning by space

standards is easy to implement, since it is based on quantitative data only, and does

not require acquaintance with the characteristics of complex social or ecological

systems. That explains why the use of space standards as a measure for allocating

open spaces quickly expanded around the world (Gold, 1973; Hill and Alterman,

1977).

However quantitative measure alone cannot provide sufficient answers to existing

demands. More elaborate versions of this model address that problem by also

incorporating criteria relating to additional aspects of user’ needs and open space

type, such as service range, minimal size, spatial distribution, residential densities and

types of activities (Hill and Alterman,6 1977). Application of a quantitative model

should be monitored to ensure actual realization of the desired standards. In Irael, for

example, large gaps were discovered between the actual open space compared to the

size and amount allocated according to standards in plans initiated by the ministry of

Building and Housing (Pinksfeld- Firstenberg, 2002) Even when fully realized, the

quantitative model lacks reference to site features, including nature and heritage

values of the plan site. In other words, it does not ensure conservation of high-quality

landscapes and disregards potential ecological and environmental uses and benefits.

Park system model is a set of functionally interrelated open spaces – sometimes

interconnected physically – in a given geographical area. It is employed mostly in

22
 urban areas, guided by a motive of offering the population an expanded variety of

experiences and opportunities. A park system approach may already be detected at the

end of the 19th century. Examples pf this approach are prospect Park in New York

and the Emerald Necklace in Boston, both planned by Olmsted and Vaux, and

Cleveland’s plan for the park systems of Minneapolis and Saint Paul (Little, 199;

Walmsley, 1995; Zube, 1995; Nduhisi, 1997).

A later example is Abercrombie’s 1943/2944 plan for London, which aspired to

create a system of open spaces interconnected by green trails, to enable continuous

movement through open spaces in the city/ (Turner, 1992). A park system may also be

arranged hierarchically, with an array of gardens and parks of different size according

to their range of service – starting with local pocket gardens – of limited use – up to

major urban and metropolitan parks, which serve a large population and offer a

variety of uses (French, 1973; Gold, 1973; Heckscher, 1977;Hill and Alterman, 1977).

The hierarchical concept relates open space plans to the spatial distribution of

neighbourhood units, their size and structure – data that are readily available, and

therefore this model is widely used. A system of interrelated parks and gardens –

whether hierarchical or not – is easy created in new developing areas, but less so in

existing urban areas due to constraints imposed by the spatial distribution of existing

development. Moreover, this model – in similar to the quantitative model –

emphasizes population needs, but does not protect natural landscapes or ensure

ecological and environmental functions.

2.2.4 Garden City (A Comprehensive Planning Model)

23
 The well-known garden city model represents a comprehensive approach to urban

planning, which regards open spaces as an integral parts of development, relating their

spatial array to the configuration of developed zones. Ebenezer Howard conceived the

model at the end of the 19th century (Alexander, 1992). This was an era of accelerated

uncontrolled urban growth, accompanied by crowding and unsanitary living conditions

that produced social stress, high housing prices and land speculation that exacerbated

socioeconomic gaps, increasing air and water pollution, abandonment of agricultural

fields and lack of open space (Aalen, 1992; Ward, 1992b; Girling and Helphand, 1994).

Howard aspired to achieve social reform, through comprehensive urban planning, based

on socioeconomic (e.g. land reform, comperativism and self-containment), environmental

(e.g. creating buffers between residential zones and pollution sources) and structural (a

radial structure with open spaces as central parks, as green fingers between neigborhoods

and as airpheral greenbelts) principles (Ward, 1992a; Girling and Helphand, 1994).

Howard outlined his proposal in a book entitled “Tomorrow: a peaceful Path to

Real Reform” (1898), a title that expresses his emphasis on the goal of social reform and

socioeconomic principles. However, the book was soon republished as Garden Cities of

To-Morrow (1902; 1965), supposedly because of the immediate popularity the term

“garden city” acquired. At least some part of that popularity might be attributed to the

detailed graphic schemes that Howard included in his book, which illustrated the

structural principles of proposed garden city. Moreover, while Letchworth, the first

garden city (founded in1903), was developing slowly, it was the garden suburb

Hampstead (Planned by Raymond Unwin and started in 1907 )- employing mainly

structural principles – that proved to be immediate success. This success contributed to a

fast expansion of the garden city model in other European countries as well as in America

24
and Asia (Ward, 1992b; Girling and Help hand, 1994; Tibbets, 1998) The garden city

model is considered to be a cornerstone of modern urban planning in general, and open

space planning in particular (Alexander, 1992). Thought it was never fully realized, some

of its principles – especially the structural – have inspired planners around the world

(Alexander, 1992; Girling and Helphand, 1994; Tibbets, 1998). Among others, it is also

the origin of shape – related models, such as greenbelts and green fingers (Ministry of

Local Government, 1962).

2.2.5 Shape- Related Models

Shape-related models refer to cases where the open space is defined by its shape,

which in turn relates to the shape and spatial arrangement of the adjacent built-up zone or

of elements within it. The best known of these are “greenbelt”, “green heart fingers” and

“greenways”,. The greenbelt model was a response to uncontrolled growth of cities at the

end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, characterized, inter alia by the

expansion of urban development into peripheral rural areas. Conserving a “greenbelt” of

agricultural and natural areas around the city was supposed to prevent its expansion and

merging with small nearby settlements. The use of this belt as an amenity and recreation

zone for the urban population was a secondary goal (Ministry of Housing and Local

Government, 1962). The greenbelt concept was developed and applied mostly in

England, although it was also adopted in other countries in Europe, America and Asia

(see for instance Girling and Helphand, 1994; Taylor et al., 1993), Walmsley, 1995;

Kuhn, 2003; Li et al., 2005).

In London, it was found that the greenbelt did not prevent urban growth. Yet, most

of the belt zone itself was conserved as open space (Elson et al., 1993), proving that a

25
greenbelt is a useful to for conserving nearby open accessible to city dwellers. The green

heart model is the opposite of greenbelt, describing an open space encircled by built-up

urban areas (similar to the central park principle in the garden city model). A well-known

example of a green heart implemented on a metropolitan scales is the Randstad in the

Netherlands, where four cities (Amsterdam, Hague, Rotterdam and Utrecht) form an

urban ring encircling a largely rural and agricultural area. A similar to the central open

space was proposed for the Haifa metropolitan region in Israel (Mazor and Tsamir,

1999). Conserving the central open space was supposed to prevent urban growth and

merging, similar to the role intended for green belts (Kuhu, 2003). Green fingers-also

known as green wedges – are radial strips of open space that penetrate the built-up area.

Roberts (1970) cites some early examples in the US, such as Charles Eliot’s 1901 Boston

plan, which proposed radial wedges based on waterways and forested land. A latter well-

known example is Copenhagen’s five-finger plan, initiated in 1947. Green fingers also

exist or are proposed in other countries throughout the world (see for instance Feitelson,

1995; Jim and Chen, 2003).

An important advantage of this model is improved accessibility to open space from the

inner core of the city. It does not, however, ensure a satisfactory response to population

needs, except if combined with a quantitative model. The greenway model, according to

Zube (1995), may already be traced-as a greenline concept inn the Adirondack Park, in

New York State, founded in 1892. However, it became especially popular since the last

decade of the 20th century (Little, 1990; Flink and Searns, 1993; Ahern, 1995; Fabos,

1995, 2004; Walsmsley,1995, 2006; Fabos and Ryan, 2006). Greenways were given a

variety of definitions and typologies (Ahen, 1995), all referring to open space of a linear

nature, based mostly on existing linear surface elements, whether natural (streams or

26
ridges) or man-made (right-of-way of roads and railways). Greenways coinciding with

natural elements offer a better response than the previously described models to natural

resource conservation possibilities in metropolitan areas-albeit still limited because of

their linear nature. For example, they may be used as ecological corridors (Ndubisi et al.,

1995; Shkedy and Sadot, 2000; Bryant, 2006). Though the linear structure of a greenway

might restrict certain types of recreational use, this concept remains more flexible than

other shape-related models, as it is not bound to the shape of the urban area but rather too

linear elements within it, that may be diversified by nature, length, direction and spatial

location in respect to the built-up areas. Greenways may also be implemented on various

scales, mostly local (Taylor et al., 1995; Ndubisi et al., Walmsley, 1995; Jim and Chen,

2003; Bryant, 2006) to regional (Taylor et al., 1995; Ndubisi et al., 1995; Yahner et al.,

1995). An example on a national scale is the recently approved National Outline Plan

(NOP 35) in Israel that addresses the disappearance of open spaces and habitat

fragmentation by preserving a North-South “Green Avenue” and East-West green

corridors. Shape-related models may be used alone or in combination with other models,

as exemplified by Feitelson’s (1995) proposal for the core metropolitan regions of Israel.

On the whole, they are easy to apply, based on maps or aerial photos. Since the

understanding of social or ecological processes is not necessarily required, it is no

wonder the models that models of this type were so extremely used by planners around

the world.

2.2.6 Landscape- Related Models

The term “landscape” is used here in the visual sense, as “that stretch of country as seen

from a single point” (Meinig, 1979). Planning based on visual landscape values in

urban environmental was already exercised in cities and metropolitan areas in 19 th

27
century (Zube, 1995). Its purpose was to conserve highly valued landscape, especially

topographical (mountains and ridges) and hydrological (rivers and streams) elements. An

example of this model is the Genius Loci concept used in Washington, DC in the 1960s

to mark prominent landscape features that gave the city its uniqueness (McHarg, 1969).

However, landscape valued as scenery - such as mountainous terrain and stormy

waterways, for instance - tend to be a tederrent to human settlement. Therefore, an

approach based on unique or prominent features is of limited value as a universal

planning model for urban areas. However, since the last decade of the 20 th century, a new

landscape-related concept may be identified, especially in fast-growing metropolitan

areas, undergoing sprawling development resulting in extensive loss of open spaces

mainly farmlands (see for instance Frenkel, 2004; Robinson et al., 2005). Rural

agricultural landscapes are now perceived as cultural landscapes worthy of conservation

for their heritage and visual valves (Yahner et al., 1990). Egoz (1996) expresses a similar

approach in her suggestion lands as landscape assets might prove useful as a basis for

conservation, especially in metropolitan areas.

2.2.7 Ecological Determination

Ecological determination means that planning is determined by the natural characteristics

of the land. The ecologically oriented planning process starts with collecting and

analysing data on the natural features of the plan area; sites identified as highly valued for

conservation (or hazardous for development) are set aside for open uses. The rest of the

land is then allocated for built-up uses according to development needs. Ecological

considerations may already be traced in works of landscape architects and planners in the

19th and early 20th century, among them Olmsted, Eliot, Cleverland and Geddes (Ndubisi,

1997; Spirn, 1995). However, it was only in the 1960s – with the accumulation of
28
ecological knowledge and understanding that ecological planning was consolidated into a

systematic planning method. One of the first projects that considered ecological valves on

a systematic basis was the plan for the twin valleys in the metropolitan are of Baltimore,

prepared in 1963 by a group of planners led by McHarg, a landscape architect and a

leading figure in the field of ecological planning (McHarg, 1969). The plan offered a

spatial distribution of open spaces and built-up areas on a suitability analysis of

physiographic and hydrological features such as water bodies, drainage basins and

floodplains (McHarg, 1969; Wallace, 1970). At about the same time Lewis (1964)

presented a similar approach in his plan for quality corridors in Wisconsin. With time the

ecological approach evolved, embracing emerging paradigms and terms such as

landscape ecology, biodiversity and sustainability (see also Lyle, 1994; Ndubisi et al.,

1995; Dramstad et al., 1996; Ndubisi, 1997; Steiner, 2000; Bryant, 2006; Walmsley,

2006). The ecological approach in planning has many versions, differing by types of data

used, methods of analysis and scale of the plan for the Jerusalem hills and Judea plain in

Israel which constitute part of the Jerusalem metropolitan region was based on an

analysis of surface morphology, bedrock, flora and fauna, hydrology, agriculture and

cultural heritage, which were evaluated qualitatively according to their integrity, rarity,

diversity and visual quality. The aggregate outcome of this analysis was a sensitivity

map, where landscape units of highest sensitivity were designated for conservation

(Kaplan et al., 2000). Similar work on a national scale was part of a master plan for Israel

towards 2020 (Kaplan and Dayan, 1996). An example on a regional scale is the outline

plan for the northern region of Israel (Amir et al., 1997). In other cases, a quantitative

evaluation was used to rank natural features (see for instance Frankenberg et al., 1991).

However, the few examples described above also illustrate some of the limitations of the

ecological model. Its implementation may be more expensive and complicated than other
29
methods since it requires collecting and processing a large amount of data (some of

which is often not readily available). The planning process is complex and requires

profound ecological skills and understanding (see for instance the process described by

Ndubisi et al., 1995). Another problem is the subjectivity inherent in evaluating

ecological data (Frankenberg et al., 1991). Such limitations from barriers to the broader

application of the ecological planning approach.

2.2.8 Protected Landscapes:

Protecting landscapes by legal measures is practiced mainly for conservation of

outstanding, unique or endangered values of landscapes, nature or heritage on a national

scale. It began with Yellowstone National Park in the US, proclaimed in 1872 (Runte,

1987). This was soon followed by the proclamation of additionally protected landscapes,

mostly national parks and nature reserves, during the 19 th century in the United States and

Europe (Pregill and Volkman, 1993). With time the objectives of protection expanded

from a focus on outstanding visual landscape values mostly wilderness lands far from

developed areas to also include natural values of high ecological and cultural

significance, regardless of their visual quality. Nowadays, more than a thousand of

protected landscapes exist around the world (Lucas, 1992). The International Union for

the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) defined eight categories of

protected landscapes differing from each other in their level of conservation, from strict

nature conservation to multifunctional areas where some human-related land use and

intervention are allowed by law (Lucas, 1992). The relevant law in Israel, for example,

distinguishes between nature reserves, national parks, and landscape reserves. This

distinction is expressed by the aims of conservation, level of intervention, management

and the institutional structure created for each landscape type. The strength of a protected
30
landscapes system lies in its reliance on a statutory declaration. Changing the legal status

of a given protected area requires a procedure that is rarely quick and simple, making it

difficult to for decision-makers or stakeholders to use the land for other purposes. In

many cases a designated public agency such as the National Park Service in the US, for

example is involved in managing protected landscapes, helping ensure their status over

time. Thus, the protected landscape system is essentially different from the other models

described above, which lack the means to secure the landscapes from future development.

However, the legal status is relatively inflexible and is also generally accompanied by

restrictions on potential uses, leading to conflicts between conservationists and

stakeholders (landowners or investors), which might hamper the implementation of

conservational objectives. Nevertheless, protected landscapes are widely accepted around

the world as a means for conserving natural resources and habitats, especially in

undeveloped areas, where natural resources are relatively undamaged. It is however, of

limited use in urban and metropolitan areas, where natural environments tend to be few

and already degraded due to accumulated effects of development.

2.3 Summary of Literature Review

Given the known benefits that open space brings to our communities, cities and the

environment, a considerable body of literature covering topics such as design, planning,

uses, management, need and meaning has been produced over the past three decades. At

first glances, the topic appears simple, but has so many encrypted layers and phases from

implementation to completion (planning, design, implementation, management and

maintenance), that it is impossible to tackle all its components in one research. Therefore,

this research will only focus on the phases of need, management and maintenance, but

31
little attention will be given to the importance of the other components such as planning

and design phase.

Moreover, the provision of open space gains popular support from scholars, non-profit

organizations and communities. Issues relating to the supply of open spaces are becoming

a part of the sustainability agenda of many governments around the world. But with the

fast growth of our cities and the increase of urban population, what are the key aspects to

consider in management and maintenance of open spaces for our cities (Urban Research

Program, 2010). This section focuses on what we should when managing open spaces

especially for disadvantaged communities. It will also cover research related to existing

planning and design practices and some ideas that could be applied in the same context.

This review is instructional and provides basic guidance for the management framework.

The first African housing estate was in 1929 at Kariokor, and consisted of a complete

unitary block that was subdivided into cubicles. The basic concept was of shared spaces

for mostly single labourers and demonstrated that the notion of a household was not at all

entrenched and only affirmed the notion of the African Urban worker. The organization

of the early settlements such as 32 those of Makongeni, Kariokor and Kaloleni would

explain how important it is to have had open space shared by a cluster of housing units.

This aimed at fostering unity and closeness of the community to one another (Hake,

1977).

Based on Clarence Perry’s famous Neighborhood Uint, kaloleni was originally dsigned

in 1927 (while Kenya was still under British colonial rule), to house 3000 bachelors in

single-dwellings and duplexes. According to Professor Peter Makachia of the University

of Nairobi, the estate was developed following the recommendations of Sir Charles

32
Mortimer, who chaired the African Housing Committee (AHC). When they were finally

completed in 1948, these bungalows were gifted to African sldiers who fought for the

British army in World War II. According to (Perry, 1929) at least 10 percent of the

neighbourhood land area should be dedicated to parks. Neighbourhood are meant for

recreation or improving a neighbourhood’s aesthetic appeal trees and other plants in

parks, sidewalks or elsewhere, public plazas, school yards and playgrounds, and public

lands covered with trees, shrubs and grass. Lack of planning for public open spaces

amidst increase in settlement development will lead into an accrued deficit of open

spaces. This will spell a disaster into the figure growth and livability of these settlements

while undermining the goal of achieving sustainable cities.

Also, during the course of the 1980s, Philadelphia Green’s Greene Country Towne

program marked a departure from the scattered, citywide approach to greening that was

practiced in the 1970s and introduced concentrated neighbourhood-based greening efforts

in eight low-income communities throughout the city. This approach revealed that

greening was a highly effective tool to help revitalize neighbourhoods. In the 1990s,

Philadelphia

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This research assessed the need and management of open within the neigborhood of

North-Bank Ward One and Ward Two, Makurdi, Benue State. In order to accomplish the

33
objectives of this research, a series of international methodological steps were followed.

The chapter discusses the types and sources of data, method of data and sampling

collection processing, method of data analysis, and software used in this research.

3.2 TYPES AND SOURCES OF DATA

Both primary and secondary sources were used to obtain relevant information related to

this study. The primary data was obtained through reconnaissance survey, questions,

interviews and personal observations about the study area while secondary data where

sourced from journals, articles, Google earth images, seminar papers, internet study,

lectures and past research works (published and unpublished) related to this research.

Table 3.1: Research Methodology Log Frame

S/N Objective Sources of Types of Data Method of Data

Data Analysis
1. Inventory of the open space
of open spaces in the study
area.

INSTRUMENT OF DATA COLLECTION

Primary Source of Data The primary data are

those data that were collected directlyfrom the field survey and

withinthe study area.The instrument used for the collection ofprimarydata for
the study

image capturing and field observation.The questionnaire was administered to

questionnaire,

business ownersin the study area.

34
issance survey

Recon

This is the step that was implemented.In order

executetheproject,,preliminary

North-Bank Ward one and two,Makurdi,Benue State,familiarizes with the

vey across

road path (circulation),open spaces and their distributions.

cls,

1.2 Questionnaire

analysis.

ormation

dy area was sourced through the use of questionnaire.

Structuredquestionnaires containing

evant questionsin order to take inventory of the open spaces and per capital
need, to appraise

use or environmentalbenefits of the open spaces,and to identifyresidents

satisfaction of the

sting open space wasdesigned and distributed within the study areas.

13 Oral interview with residents of the study area direct contact

This involve withthe respondents in the

study area to gather relevant na ton hat is not physically discerible to the researcher
as well asinformation that can asist didate the design of structured questionnaire.

SAMPLE FRAME

35
North - Bank Ward 1 and Ward 2 according to 2006 population census has about
48,472 sons approximately. For the purpose of this research work, the population
was projected to sent period 2022 using the growth of 2.53%.The formula used for
this calculation is shown W:

P2=P1(1+r/100)n

Where P1=existingexisting population

P2=projected populati

r=growth rate

36

n=numnumber of difference in years

Projection forNorth-Bank W One and Ward Two, Makurdi;

P1=48,472 P2=?r=2.53%,n=(2022-2006)=16

P2=48,472(1+0.0253)16

P2=48,472x1.4915

P2=72,295

3.4.1 Sample Size

The sample size is drawn from the projected population of 72,295 using the
Morgan predetermined table which gives 382 as the sample size.

Table 3.2:Table showing the number of questionnaire distributed

Name of ward,Total population,Number of questionnaires,(%),North-Bank Ward

One,26,664,50,55%,North-Bank Ward Two,21,808,50,45%,Total,

48,472,

100,

36
100%,

Source:Field Survey 2022

A total number of one hundred (100)questionnaires were administered.The study

area was delineated into two wards in which fifty (50)questionnaires was
administered to each ward making (100) questionnaires all together.

3.4.2 Sampling Technique

Random systematic sampling was used for questionnaire administration, where the
questionnaire wereadministered to the members of the community of North-Bank
Ward One and Ward Two,Makurdi,Benue State. The first house was choosing at
random and the subsequent ones, after interval of five (5) houses.

3.5 SECONDARY SOURCE OF DATA

The secondary data was obtained from previous work and research done relating to
this study,use of journals,and acquisition of the Google earth imagery of the
studyarea.The figure above (3.1) will help in having preliminary ideas of how the
structured questionnaire looked like and the how the questionnaires was structured
in order to achieve the objectives. The method of data analysis for every data
required for the study is stated below.

37METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The methodsemployed for the data analysis in the research study include
descriptive

frequency and percentage proportions of the variables to appraise the use or

ics to get

mental

identify resident's satisfaction of the existing open space and as well as to give
37
mendations tofacilitate improved planning and management of open space in the
study area.

38