PPD Fuels and Combustion Lesson 1

Republic of the Philippines
Laguna State Polytechnic University

ISO 9001:2015 Certified
Province of Laguna
Level I Institutionally Accredited
LSPU Self-paced Learning Module (SLM)

Course
Sem/AY
Module No.
Lesson Title
Week
1 week (Week 7)
Duration
Date
This lesson will
Description
of the
Lesson
Learning Outcomes
Intended Students should be able to meet the following intended learning outcomes:
Learning 1. Solve problems using numerical methods for Linear Equations.
Outcomes 2. Be able to use different techniques and methods for Linear Equations.
Targets/ At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
Objectives Explain the steps involved in using Gaussian Elimination.
Solve Root-Finding Problems Using Gaussian Elimination.
Student Learning Strategies
Online A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

Activities You will be directed to attend in a 3-Hour class discussion on the nature and
types of educational technologies. To have access to the Online Discussion,
(Synchronous/ refer to this link: ____________________.
Asynchronous
) The online discussion will happen on November 21, 2020, from 10:30am-
1:30pm.
(For further instructions, refer to your Google Classroom and see the
schedule of activities for this module)
B. Learning Guide Questions:

1. What is the algorithm of Gaussian Elimination?
2. Cite benefits and drawbacks of using the techniques
LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Prepared by: ALBERTO D. YAZON, PhD
Province of Laguna
Note: The insight that you will post on online discussion forum using Learning Management System
(LMS) will receive additional scores in class participation.
Lecture Guide
FUELS AND COMBUSTION
Introduction
 Fuel - is any substance or combustible material that by rapid oxidation or
burning produces heat and light. An example of a fuel is coal or gasoline.
 A fuel is composed of chemical elements which, in rapid chemical union
with oxygen, produce combustion.
 Fossil fuels are fuels that originate from the earth as a result of the slow
decomposition and chemical conversion of organic material. The basic
forms of fossils are solid (coal), liquid (oil), and natural gas.
 Synthetic fuels or synfuels, the new combustible-fuel-options, are liquid or
gaseous fuels derived largely from coal, oil shale, and tar sands.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FUELS
Fuels are classified according to the following categories:

Offline 1. Solid Fuels
Activities a. Natural solid fuels. Ex. Coal, wood, bagasse
(e-Learning/ b. Prepared or manmade. Ex. Charcoal, coke, briquette fuels
Self-Paced) 2. Liquid Fuels
a. Hydrocarbon (C n H m ¿
i. Gasoline – Octane, C 8 H 18
ii. Diesel – Hexadecadene, C 16 H 32
iii. Fuel oil – Dodecane, C 12 H 26
b. Alcohol (C x H y O z ¿
i. Ethyl alcohol
ii. Methyl alcohol
c. Alcogas (70% alcohol and 30% ethanol)
d. Methanol (Liquid Coal)
3. Gaseous Fuels
a. Natural Gas Derivatives
i. Methane, C H 4
ii. Propane, C 3 H 8
iii. Ethane, C 2 H 6
iv. Acetylene, C 2 H 2
b. Liquid Petroleum Gas (LPG)
c. Biogas (Animal waste gas)

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CRUDE OIL
 Crude oil is the term used from the raw petroleum as it comes from the oil wells.
Classification of Crude oil
 Crude oils classified in accordance with the following bases:

1. Paraffin Base
2. Napthenic Base
3. Mixed Base
PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM THE REFINEMENT OF PETROLEUM
1. Natural gas
 The gaseous hydrocarbons are usually associated with liquid
petroleum, either standing above the liquid in the earth or dissolved
in it.
2. Gasoline
 Liquid petroleum fuel intended for use in spar-ignition engines.
Specific gravity is 0.70 to 0.78
3. Kerosene
 The next fraction heavier than gasoline
 Intended for use in lamps, heaters, stoves, and similar appliances
 Excellent fuel for compression-ignition engines and for aircraft gas
turbines
 Specific gravity is 0.78 to 0.85
4. Distillate
 Slightly heavier than kerosene
 Obtained from some Western United States crude by distillation at
atmospheric pressure
 Substantially the same uses as a kerosene
5. Diesel Fuel
 Petroleum fractions that lie between kerosene and lubricating oils
 It covers a wide range of specific gravity
 Composition is controlled to make them suitable for use in various
types of CI engines.
6. Fuel oils
 Covers a wide range of specific gravity
 Distillation is similar to that of Diesel oils
 Its compositions do not require such accurate control as in Diesel
oils for it is used in continuous burners.
7. Lubricating oils
 Made up in part from heavy distillates of petroleum and in part from

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residual oil, that is, oils remaining after distillation. Tar and asphalt
are solid or semi-solid products that remain undistilled.
Compositions of Petroleum Products

The common or main compositions of petroleum products are

carbon and hydrogen
 Hydrocarbon is the combination of carbon and hydrogen
 The general formula is C n H m , where n = 1 to 26 and m = 2 to 54
 Hydrocarbons are further categorized into sub-families such as:
 Alkynes ( C n H 2n−2 ) → Ex . Acetylene , C 2 H 2
 Alkenes (C n H 2 n )→ Ex . Ethylene , C2 H 4
 Alkanes ( C n H 2n +2 ) → Ex . Octane , C 8 H 8
 Alkynes and alkenes are referred to as unsaturated hydrocarbons.
 Alkanes are referred to as saturated hydrocarbons. Alkanes are also known
as the paraffin series and methane series.
 Alkenes are subdivided into the chain-structures olefin series and the ring-
structured naphthalene series.
 Aromatic hydrocarbons (C n H 2 n−6 ) constitute another subfamily. Ex.
Benzene, C 6 H 6 .
Types of Hydrocarbons
1. Paraffin (C n H 2 n +2)
Ex. Heptane, C 7 H 16
2. Olefins ( C n H 2n )
Ex. Octane, C 8 H 16
Cracking of Hydrocarbons
 Cracking is the process of splitting hydrocarbon molecules into smaller
molecules. It is used to obtain lighter hydrocarbons (such as used in
gasoline) from heavy hydrocarbons (say, Crude oil)
o Ex. Alkane molecules crack into a smaller member of the alkane
subfamily and a member of the alkene subfamily.
 Cracking can proceed under the influence of high temperatures (thermal
cracking) or catalysts (catalytic cracking or “cat cracking”).
 Catalytic Cracking also produces gasoline with better antiknock
properties than does thermal cracking.
Gaseous Fuels
1. Natural Gas
 Obtained from oil wells

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 It is called a casing-head gas

 Usually treated for gasoline recovery
 It is delivered into the pipeline system to be used as fuel
2. Coke-oven Gas
 Obtained as a by-product when making coke
 Its analysis depends into the pipeline system to be used as fuel
 Coke; typically used in blast furnaces, is produced by heating
coal in the absence of oxygen. The heavy hydrocarbons crack,
leaving only a carbonaceous residue containing ash and
sulfur. Coke burns smokelessly. Breeze is coke smaller than
5/8 inch (16 mm). it is not suitable for use in blast furnaces,
but steam boilers can be adapted to use it. Char is produced
from coal in 900 °F (500°C) carbonization process.
3. Blast-Furnace Gas
 A by-product of melting iron ore
4. Produces Gas
5. Sewage-Sludge Gas
 Obtained from sewage disposal plants
Four Main Methods In Making Gasoline

1. Distillation or refining from crude oil
2. Cracking residue oil
3. Polymerization of gases produced by the cracking process, which produce a
high-octane gasoline that can be used either directly or blended with
gasoline produced by other methods.
4. Extraction from natural gas by absorption and distillation and blending
with some heavier hydrocarbons.
Properties of Diesel Fuels
 The following are the important properties of Diesel fuels:

1. Density – the mass per unit volume of the fuel, in kg/li, kg/m 3, or lb/Ft 3
m
ρ=
V
 The density of fuel is measure at 60 °F (15.6 °C)

Density at 15.6 °C = SG at 15.6 °C / 15.6 °C, kg/li
 Hydrometer- an instrument used for determination of SG (15.6 °C / 15.6 °C) in °API
(American Petroleum Institute) and °Baume.

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140
° Baume= −130
SG at( 15.6 ° C
15.6 ° C )
141.5
° API = −131.5
SG at (
15.6 ° C
15.6 ° C )
2. Coefficient of Volumetric Expansion – a coefficient used in oil purchasing and
storage, since oil is bought by volume usually expressed in terms of 42-gallons
barrels.
V t =V o [ 1+0.0004 ( t−t o ) ] → EnglishUnit
Where, V t =¿ volume at a temperature t, F t 3

t=temperature , ° F
3
V o =volume at a temperature t o , ( usually 60 ° F ) , F t
Coefficient = 0.0004/°F
V t =V o [ 1+0.0007 ( t−t o ) ] → SI Unit
Where, V t =¿ volume at a temperature t, m 3 ,li

t=temperature , ° F
3
V o =volume at a temperature t o , ( usually 15.6 ° F ) , m , li
Coefficient = 0.0007/°C
Ex.1 A 28 °API oil has a temperature 40 °F. what is its density?

Solution:
Considering the English System
141.5
¿ −131.5
For SG at 60°F, °API
SG at
15.6° C
15.6° C ( )
SG at
60 ° F
= (141.5
)
=
141.5
60 ° F ° API + 131.5 28+ 131.5
=0.887
For the density at 60 °F,
(
ρ60 ° F= ρwater @ 60 ° F Sg @
60 ° F
60 ° F )
=62.4 ( 0.887 )=55.35 lb /¿ft 3
For the given volume at a given temperature, t ¿ 40 ° F
V t =V o [ 1+0.0004 ( t−t o ) ]=1 f t [ 1+0.0004 ( 40−60 ) ] =0.992 f t

3 3
For the density at 40 °F

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55.35
ρ 40° F = =55.8 lb /¿ft 3
0.992
Considering the SI units
t=40° F=4.44 ° C
SG ( 15.6 °C
)=
141.5
=
141.5
15.6 ° C ° API +131.5 28+131.5
=0.887
ρ15.6 ° C =S G ( 1.0 )=0.887 kg /¿ li

(at 15.6
15.6 ℃ )
℃
m m
V t =V o [ 1+0.0007 ( t−t o ) ] → = [ 1+0.0007 (t−t o) ]
ρt ρo
ρo 0.887 kg
ρt = = =0.894
[1+0.0007(t−t o )] [1+0.0007(4.44−15.6)] li
3. Viscosity – property of Diesel fuel used to measure its resistance to flow.

It is a fair indication of how the oil will atomize and how it will affect the
injection pump.
a. Absolute viscosity, µ
SI units → 1 poise−1 Dyne - sec /c m2
English Units → 1l b f - sec / f t 2 ¿ 1 slug / ft - sec
b. Kinematic Viscosity – the ratio of absolute viscosity to that of the

µ
density, v=
ρ
SI units → 1 stoke=1 c m2/sec
English Units → F t 2 /sec
 Saybolt Viscosimeter – an instrument used to measure viscosity of oil in

Saybolt Universal (SSU) or Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF).
Centistoke ¿ 0.308 ( SSU−26 )

62 SSF=600 SSU 1 SSF=9.68 SSU
4. Heating Value – refers to the heat content of the fuel in a unit mass. The
heating value of a liquid fuel is ranging from 18 000 to 19 500 Btu/lb. An
instrument or apparatus used to determine the heating value of a fuel is
known as Bomb or Sergent Calorimeter. Heating value is also called as
Calorific Value.
a. Higher Heating Value (HHV) is the heating value obtained when
the moisture or water in the product of combustion is in the

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liquid condition.
b. Lower Heating Value (LHV) is the heating value obtained when
the moisture or water in the product of combustion is in the
vapor condition.
ASME formula:
HHV = 41130 + 139.6(°API) → kJ/kg
HHV = 17680 + 60(°API) → Btu/lb
Sherman and Knoff Formula:
HHV = 18 250 + 40(°Baume −10 ¿ → Btu /lb
HHV = 42 450 + 93(°Baume −10 ¿ → k J/kg
Bureau of Standard Formula:
HHV = 51 716 −8 793.8 ( SG )2 →kJ/kg
Lower Heating Value, LHV = HHV −9 H 2 ( 2442 ) →kJ/kg
Where, H = 26 -15(SG), in decimal

5. Flash Point and Fire Point – the temperature at which oil vapor flashes or
burns steadily; used in relation to ignition and storage hazards of oil.
6. Pour point – the lowest temperature at which oil flows; used in pumping
and flow of oils. It is more important to the fuel for mobile engines whose
fuel tanks are generally exposed and unheated that for stationary units.
7. Color is sometime specified on the basis that good color indicates clean
fresh stock of satisfactory volatility.
8. Purity. Although oils is a relatively pure fuel it may contain some sediment
and water, ash, or sulfur, all of which are undesirable impurities and are
limited to low permissible amounts in specifications. Sediment and water
are determined by eluting the fuel with benzol and centrifuging. They are
reported together, sometimes by the number B.S. and W., meaning bottom
sediment and water.
9. Sulfur Content – in weight percentage; useful with reference to corrosion
of plant equipment.
10. Moisture and Sediment – in weight or volume percentage; useful in firing
of oil.
11. Specific Heat – varies with temperature but for usual values is about 0.4 to
0.5 Btu/lb-F; used in heating problems.
12. Carbon Residue – test indicating carbon forming characteristics of oil;
used in oil burning.

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SOLID FUELS
For power plant application, the commonly used solid fuel is coal.
 Coal – is a solid fuel which is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture. It is believed that the coal once existed
primarily as vegetable matter.
 Coal is a general term that encompasses a large number of solid organic
minerals with widely differing compositions of properties, although all are
essentially rich in amorphous (without regular structure) elemental carbon.
Coal Compositions
 Coal has these components distributed throughout its mass: a) coal
substance, b) mineral matter, and c) moisture.
 Coal substance consists of many organic compounds by carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen from original vegetable matter. The exact composition varies
but does not affect practical coal burning.
 The mineral matter to some extent was in the original vegetable fibers.
Water, which percolated through the peat, bogs and coal seams, contained
dissolved salts and deposited most of the mineral content of the coal.
 The moisture content of coals, often called “mechanical moisture”, means
water retained by coal.
CLASSIFICATION OF COALS
 There are many ways of classifying coal according to its chemical and
physical properties. The most accepted system is that one used by the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), which classifies coals
by grade or rank according to the degree of metamorphism (change in form
and structure under the influences of heat, pressure, and water), ranging
from the lowest state (lignite) to the highest (anthracite)
 These classifications are briefly described below in descending order:
1. Anthracite coal
 The highest grade of coal
 Contains a high content, 86% to 98% by mass, of fixed carbon on
a dry, mineral-matter-free basis and a low content of volatile
matter less than 2% to 14 % by mass (chiefly methane, C H 4 ¿
 Very hard coal having a shiny black luster
 A brittle coal that borders on graphite at upper end of fixed
carbon.
 Non-coking
 With high percentage fixed carbon

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 Less than 8% volatile matter

 Requires strong draft
 Burns without flame or very short bluish flame
 Desirable when smokeless combustion is essential.
Note:
o Graphite is a moderately soft allotropic form of carbon. Carbon
crystallizes perfectly into diamond, imperfectly into graphite and is
amorphous (having no regular structure, non-crystalline) in
anthracite and charcoal.
o The anthracite rank of coal is subdivided into three groupings, in
descending of fixed-carbon percent, as follows:
 Metha-anthracite, greater than 90%
 Anthracite, 92 % to 98%
 Semi-anthracite, 86% to 92%
2. Semi-anthracite coal
 Not used commercially as steam coal
 With less fixed carbon
 With 8 to 14 % volatile matter
 Less luster
 Burns with larger and more luminous flames
3. Semi-bituminous coal
 Highest grade of bituminous coal
 Burns with very small amount of smoke
 Softer than anthracites coals
 Contains 14 to 22 % volatile matter
 Has a tendency to break into small sizes during storage or
transportation.
4. Bituminous coal
 Soft and with high percentage of volatile matter
 Burns with long yellow and Smokey flames
 Cary greatly in percentage of volatile matter, moisture, ash and
sulfur.
 Classified as free-burning and caking or coking.
5. Sub-bituminous coal
 Sometimes known as black lignites
 Low grade bituminous coal which has lost the woody, structural
appearance of lignites
 Disintegrates when exposed to the air and requires careful

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attention during storage
 Contains 36 to 45 % volatile matter
 Contains 17 to 20 % moisture
6. Lignites coal
 The transition state between peat and the sub-bituminous grade
 Have a woody or offer a claylike appearance
 With low heating value
 Contains 30 to 45 % moisture
 High ash content
 Unless carefully stored, lignites are subject to spontaneous
combustion
PEAT
o It is not an ASTM rank of coal
o It is the first geological step in coal’s formation
o It is a heterogeneous material consisting of
decomposed plant matter and in organic minerals
o It contains up to 90% moisture.
Components of Coals
1. Coal substance – part of coal consisting of organic compounds of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen that are derived from the original vegetable.
2. Mineral Matter- composed of inorganic compounds which to some extent
with in the original wood.
3. Moisture Content – referred to as mechanical moisture and means water as
such retained by the coal.
1. Heating Value or Calorific Value – the equivalent heat content in a unit mass
fuel; determined either by calorimetric measurement or by Dulong’s
formula.
o Dulong’s Formula (Solid Fuels) for higher heating value
HHV = 33 820 C+144212 H 2− ( O2

8 )
+ 9304 S →kJ/kg
HHV = 14544 C +62028 H 2 − ( O2

8 )+ 4050 S →Btu/lb
Where C, H, O, & S are element in percentage by weight

o Lower Heating Value

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LHV = HHV – Q L
where: Q L=latent heat of water content ,

Q L=mw h fg =9 mH hfg
2
mw =¿ mass of water vapor in products of combustion per unit

mass of fuel (due to the combustion of H 2 In the fuel, but not
including initial H 2 O in fuel.
m H =¿ mass of original hydrogen per unit mass of fuel, known
2
from ultimate analysis.

h fg =¿ latent heat of vaporization of water vapor at its partial
pressure in the combustion products, Btu/lb m H 2 O or kJ/kg
H2 O
Q L= (W +9 H ) ( 2493+1.926 t g−4.187 t a) → for t g ≤ 302 ° C
Q L= (W +9 H ) ( 2442+ 2.0935 t g−4.187 t a ) → for t g >302 ° C
W = free moisture in fuel, kg/kg fuel

t g=flue gas temperature , ° C
t a=combustible air temperature , °C
2. Ash-fusion temperature – refers to fluid temperature

3. Grindability – indicates the case with which a coal maybe pulverized.
4. Coking – refers to the ability of the coal, when heated, to evolve volatile
matter
5. Caking
6. Free-burning
7. Friability
8. Clinkering
Note:
o Coke is the solid substance remaining after the partial burning of coal in an
even or after distillation properties.
COAL ANALYSIS
 There are two types of coal analysis: proximate and ultimate, both done on
a mass-percent basis.
 Both methods may be used on:
o “As- received Basis”, useful for combustion calculations
o “Moisture-Free-Basis”, avoids variation of the moisture content even
in the same shipment and certainly in the different stages of

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pulverization.
o “Dry Mineral-Matter-Free Basis”, circumvents the problem of the ash
contents not being the same as the mineral matter in coal.
1. Proximate Analysis
 This is the easier of the two types of coal analysis and the one which,
supplied readily meaningful information for coal’s use in the steam
generators.
 It is an analysis that gives the gravimetric fraction of moisture, volatile
matter, fixed carbon, and ash.
 It determines the mass percentages of fixed carbon, volatile matter,
moisture, and ash.
 Sulfur maybe combined with ash or may be specified separately.
Fixed Carbon
o It is the elemental carbon that exists in coal.
o Its determination is approximated by assuming it to be the
difference between the original sample and the sum of volatile
matter, moisture, and ash.
Volatile Matter
o It is that portion of coal, other than water vapor, which is driven off
when the sample is heated in the pre absence of oxygen in a
standard test (up to 1750 °F for 7 minutes)
o It consists of hydrocarbon and other gases that result from
distillation and decomposition.
Moisture
o it is determined by a standard procedure of drying in an oven
o this does not account for all the water present, which includes
combined water and water of hydration
o there are several other terms for moisture in coal. One, inherent
moisture, is that, existing in the natural state of coal and considered
to be part of the deposit, excluding surface water.
Ash
o it is the inorganic salts contained in coal.
o It is determined in practice as the non-combustible residue after the
combustion of dried coal in a standard test (at 1380 °F).

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Sulfur
o It is determined separately in a standard test
o Being combustible, it contributes to the heating value of the coal.
o It forms oxides which combine with water to form acids. These cause
corrosion problem in the back end of steam generators if the gases
are cooled below the dew point, as well as environmental problems.
2. Ultimate Analysis
 It is a special type of gravimetric analysis in which the constituents are
reported by atomic species rather than by compound.
 In this analysis, combined hydrogen from moisture in the fuel is added
to hydrogen from the combustive compounds.
 It is an analysis showing the chemical elements of coals such as carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, ash, and moisture. Elements are
presented in percentage by weight.
C – Carbon
H – Hydrogen
O – Oxygen
N – Nitrogen
S - Sulfur
A – Ash
W – Moisture
Bases of Reporting the Ultimate Analysis
a. “As-received” or “As Fired” basis
C + H + O + N + S + A + W = 100%
b. Dry or moisture-free basis
C+ H + O + N + S + A = 100 %
c. Moisture and Ash Free or Combustible Basis
C+ H + O + N + S = 100 %
d. Moisture, Ash, and Sulfur-free basis
C+ H + O + N = 100 %
Note:
o The first basis, as fired, is of most use to the power-plant operator
because it shows the constituents of the fuel in the same condition as
it was weighed and supplied to the furnace.
o The remaining methods are used primarily for comparing coals from
various sources.
o To transfer an analysis from as received to dry, it is only necessary to

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deduct the weight of hydrogen and oxygen in the water from these
terms and to divide each of the remaining constituents by one minus
the decimal equivalent of the moisture. A similar procedure may be
used for converting to any the methods.
Ex. 2 A certain type of coal has the following “as-received” analysis:

C = 80.50 % S = 1.20 %
H = 4.10 % A = 5.30 %
O = 3.00 % W = 4.40 %
N = 1.50 %
Calculate the analysis on the dry basis and combustible basis.
Solution:
 Consider the “Dry-Basis" Analysis
Solving for the Factor for the dry-basis analysis,
W 4.40
Factor=1− =1− =0.956
100 100
Dry-basis Analysis:
80.50 4.10
C= =84.20 % H = =4.30 %
0.956 0.956
3.00 1.50
O= =3.10 % N= =1.60 %
0.956 0.956
1.20 5.30
S= =1.30 % A= =5.50 %
0.956 0.956
Then the sum of the components:
C+ H + O + N + S + A = 100 %
 Consider the Combustible Basis

Solving for the Factor for the Combustible Basis
Factor= 1− [
(W + A )
100
= 1− ][
(5.30 +4.40)
100
=0.903 ]
Solving for the Combustible Basis
80.50 4.10
C= =89.20 % H = =4.50 %
0.903 0.903
3.00 1.50
O= =3.30 % N = =1.70 %
0.903 0.903
1.20
S= =1.30 %
0.903
Then the sum of the components:

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C+ H + O + N + S = 100%
Ex.3. Convert the ultimate analysis of coal shown in the table below to a) an
ultimate analysis showing the amount of moisture (“as-received”), b) moisture-
free basis, c) moisture and ash-basis, and d) moisture, ash, and sulfur-free basis.
Determine the heating value in each case.
PROXIMATE ULTIMATE
W VM FC A S H2 C N2 O2
9.77 34.15 47.45 8.63 0.75 5.34 66.23 1.51 17.54
% % % % % % % % %
a. Consider the “As-received” analysis
 Deduct 1/9 of W from H 2 to obtain the ‘’as-received’’ percent H 2 , and
deduct 8/9 of W from O2 to obtain the ‘’as-received’’ percent of O2.
Solving for the heating value of the “as-received” fuel
HHV = 14600C + 62000 H 2− ( O2

8 )+ 4050 S
HHV = 14600(0.6623)+6200 0.0425− ( 0.0886

8 )
+ 4050 ( 0.0075 )
HHV = 11648.305 Btu/lb
b. Consider the Dry-Basis or Moisture-free basis of the analysis

 To obtain the moisture-free analysis, divide each component of the as
received analysis, except W, by the following factor:
Factor=1−
9.77
100 ( )
=0.9023
C=
66.23 73.40 %
0.9023

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H 2=
4.25 4.71 %
0.9023
O 2=
8.86 9.82 %
0.9023
N 2=
1.51 1.67 %
0.9023
S=
0.75 0.83 %
0.9023
A=
8.63 9.57 %
0.9023
TOTAL 100.00 %
 Solving for the Heating value
HV = 14600 C+ 62000 H 2−
O2
8 (
+4050 S )
HV = 14600(0.7340)+62000 0.0471−
0.0982
8 (+ 4050(0.0083) )
HV = 12 909.165 Btu/lb
c. Consider the Ash and Moisture-free (combustible) Analysis
 To obtain the combustible analysis, divide each component, except Ash and
Moisture, of the as received analysis by the following factor:
Factor =1−
0.0863+ 0.977
100 ( =0.8160 )
C=
66.23 81.16 %
0.816
H 2=
4.25 5.21 %
0.816
O 2=
8.86 10.86 %
0.816
N 2=
1.51 1.85 %
0.816
S=
0.75 0.92 %
0.816
TOTAL 100.00 %
 Solving for the Heating Value
HV = 14600 C+ 62000 H 2− ( O2
8 )
+4050 S
HV = 14600(0.8116)+62000 0.0521− ( 0.1086

8 )
+ 4050(0.0092)
HV = 14 275.17 Btu/lb

Province of Laguna
d. Consider the moisture, ash, and sulfur-free basis of analysis
 To obtain this analysis, divide each component except moisture, ash and
sulfur of as-received analysis by the following factor:
Factor=1−
100 (
0.75+ 0.0863+0.977
=0.8085 )
C=
66.23 81.92 %
0.8085
H 2=
4.25 5.26 %
0.8085
O 2=
8.86 10.96 %
0.8085
N 2=
1.51 1.87 %
0.8085
TOTAL 100.00 %
 Solving for the heating value
HV = 14600 C+ 62000 H 2−
O2
8 (
+4050 S )
HV = 14600 ( 0.8192 ) +62000 0.0526− (
0.1096
8 )
+4050 ( 0 )
HV = 14 372.12 Btu/lb
COMBUSTION
DEFINITIONS AND USEFUL INFORMATION
 Combustion is the rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element in which
the exothermic heat of reaction is sufficiently great and the rate of reaction
is sufficiently fast that useful quantities of heat are liberated at elevated
temperature.
 Combustion is synonymous with oxidation and is the union of oxygen with a
combustible material.
Standard Air Composition and Standard

1. Components By Weight
N 2=76.9 %∧O2=23.1%
2. Components By Volume
N 2=79 %∧O2=21%
3. Air Gas Constant
R = 0.28708 kJ/kg-°K
4. Molecular Weight or Mass

Province of Laguna
MW = 28.95 kg/kgmol = 28.95 lb/pmol
5. At p = 14.7 psi pr 101.325 kPa and t = 32 °F or 0 °C
3
Volume of a mole of any gas, V o =359 F t / pmol=¿ 22.43 m3
/kgmol
COMBUSTION CHEMISTRY
The following equations are the combustion chemistry of combustible components

of the fuel.
1. Combustion of Carbon, C + O 2=C O2

 Analysis by weight
12 kg C+ 32 kg O2=44 kg C O2
1 kg C+
8
3
kg O2 =
11
3 ()
kg C O 2 ( )
 Oxygen required for 1 kg C
8
W oc= kg C /¿ kgO2
3
 Molal Analysis
1 mole C + 1 mole O2= 1 mole C O2
2. Combustion of Hydrogen, 2 H 2+ O 2=2 H 2 O
 Analysis by weight
4 kg H 2 +32 kg O2=36 kg H 2 O
1 kg H 2 +8 kg O2=9 kg H 2 O
 Oxygen required for 1 kg H 2
W O H =8 kg H 2 /¿ kg O2
2
 Molal Analysis
2 moles H 2 +1 mole O2=2 moles H 2 O
1
1 mole H 2 + mole O2=1 mole H 2 O
2
3. Combustion of Sulfur, S+O 2=S O 2
 Analysis by Weight
32 kg S+32 kg O2=64 kg S O2
1 kg S+1 kg O2=2 kg S O2
 Oxygen required for 1kg sulfur
W OS =¿1 kg S/ kg O2
 Molal Analysis
1 mole S+1 mole O2=1 mole S O2
4. Incomplete Combustion of Carbon, 2 C+O2=2CO
 Analysis by Weight
24 kg C + 32 kg O2 = 56 kg CO

Province of Laguna
1 kg C+ ( 43 ) kg O =( 74 ) kg CO
2
4
W OC = kg C /¿ kg O2
3
 Molal Analysis
2 moles C + 1 mole O2= 2 moles CO
1 mole C + ½ moleO2 = 1 mole CO
Theoretical Air Required
W a=
Wo
=
8
3
C +8 H 2−
O2
8
+S ( )
0.231 0.231
 Equation by Vopat
W a=11.5C+ 34.5 H 2− ( O2
8 )
+4.32 S
 Equation by Potter
W a=11.53C+ 34.36 H 2− ( O2
8 )
+ 4.32 S
 Equation Used by Subaran
W a=11.44C +34.32 H 2 − ( O2
8 )
+ 4.29 S
Where, W a = theoretical air required, kg/kg fuel, lb/lb fuel

Complete Combustion of Carbon with Air
C + Air = C O2 + Nitrogen
C+ O2+3.76 N 2=C O2 +3.76 N 2
By Weight: 12 kg C + 32 kg O2+ 3.76(28) kg N 2= 44 kg C O2 + 3.76(28) N 2

+8 11
Relative Weight: 1 kg kg O2+ 8.77 kg N 2= kg C O2 +8.77 kg N 2
3 3
8
Theoretical Air/ Fuel Ratio: A : F = + 8.77 = 11.45 kg air/ kg fuel
3
Ex.4 Deduce the combustion equations for a) complete combustion of 1 kg and 1 m3

ethylene, C 2 H 4 , in air, and b) combustion with 25 % excess air.
Solution:

Province of Laguna
a) Consider the complete combustion
C 2 H 4 + Air =C O2 + H 2 O+ N 2
C 2 H 4 + a O2+ 3.76 a N 2=bC O2 +3.76 a N 2+ c H 2 O
For the coefficients (atom balance):

Carbon, 2 = b
Oxygen, 2a = 2b + c; a = b + c/2 = 2 + 1 = 3
Hydrogen, 4 = 2c; c = 2
For the combustion equation,
By Volume,
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 m C 2 H 4 + 3 m O2+ 11.28m N 2 =2 m C O2 +2 m H 2 O+11.28 m N 2
Analysis by Weight,
[12(2) + 4(1)] + 3(32) + 11.28(28) = 2(44) + 2(18) + 11.28(28)]
28 kg C 2 H 4 +96 kg O2 +315.84 kg N 2=88 kg C O2+ 36 kg H 2 O+315.84 kg N 2
Relative Weight,
1 kg C 2 H 4 + 3.43 kg O2+ 111.28kg N 2=3.14 kgC O2+ 1.285 kg H 2 O+11.28 kg N 2
Theoretical Air/Fuel Ratio,

A : F = 3.43 + 11.28 = 14.71 kg air per kg fuel (ans.)
b. Consider the Actual Combustion with e = 25 %
Weight Analysis,
28 kg Fuel + 120 kg O2 + 394.8 kg = 88 kg C O2 + 36 kg H 2 O + 24 kg O2 +
394.8 kg N 2

Province of Laguna
1 kg
C 2 H 4 + 4.286 kg O2 +14.1 kg N 2=3.14 C O2 +1.285 kg H 2 O+ 0.857 kg O2 +14.1 kg N 2
Therefore, the air : Fuel Ratio,

W aa=4.286+14.1=18.386kg/kg fuel (ans.)
AIR-FUEL RATIO FOR HYDRO-CARBON FUELS, C n H m

Considering the C n H m
C n H m + a O2+3.76 a N 2=bC O2 +c H 2 O+3.76 a N 2
Atom balance,
Carbon: n = b; b = n
Hydrogen: m = 2c; c = 0.5m
Oxygen: 2a = 2b + c; a = n + 0.25m
Substituting the coefficients,
C n H m + ( n+0.25 m ) O2 +3.76 ( n+ 0.25 m) N 2=nC O2+ 0.5 m H 2 O+ 3.76 ( n+0.25 m ) N 2
Combustion with excess air,
C n H m +(1+e) ( n+0.25 m ) O2+ 3.76 ( 1+ e )( n+ 0.25 m) N 2=nC O2+ 0.5 m H 2 O+ e ( n+ 0.25 m) O2+ 3.7
For the Air-Fuel Ratio with (theoretical),
32 ( n+ 0.25 m) +3.76 (28)(n+0.25 m)

W a=
12n+ m
[32+ 3.76(28)](12+0.25 m)
W a=
12 n+m
A 137.28 (n+0.25 m)
=W a =
F 12 n+m
For the Actual Air-Fuel Ratio, W aa
W aa = [ 12 n+m ]
137.28 ( n+ 0.25 )
(1+e)
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

Province of Laguna
 The composition of the products depends on the kind of fuel used, the A/F ratio,
and the conditions of combustion. The products usually contain carbon dioxide (
C O2), carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen, nitrogen, free carbon, fly ash, steam, sulfur
dioxide, and unburned carbons.
AIR-FUEL RATIO IN TERMS OF THE PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION (Volumetric

Analysis)
Considering the Dry Gas:
100 n
C O 2=
n+ e ( n+0.25 m ) +3.76(1+ e)(n+ 0.25 m)
Dividing both the denominator and numerator by n,
100
C O 2=
(
1+e 1+0.25
m
n )
+3.76(1+ e) 1+0.25
m
n ( )
From the stoichiometric (gravimetric) analysis of fuel,
H 2 m m 12 H 2
= ; =
C 12 n n C
Where, H 2= percent hydrogen by weight
C = percent carbon by weight
Substituting the value of m/n,
100
C O 2=
[
1+ 1+0.25 ( 12CH )]+3.76 (1+e)[ 1+0.25( 12CH )]
2 2
100 100
C O 2= =
1+ [ e +3.76 ( 1+e ) ] 1+ 0.25
[ ( 12 H 2
C )] (
1+ ( 3.76+ 4.76 e ) 1+
3 H2
C )
100 100
C O 2= =
1+3.76 1+ ( 3 H2
C )
+ 4.76 e 1+
3 H2
C ( ) ( 1+ 3.76+ 11.28
H2
C )
+ 4.76 e 1+
3H2
C ( )
Solving for the value of e,
[
1+ 3.76+ 11.28 ( HC )]+ 4.76 e (1+ 3CH )= C100O
2 2
4.76 e 1+ ( 3 H2
C
= )
100
C O2
− 3.76+ 11.28
H2
C [
−1 ( )]
Province of Laguna
e=
(
100−C O2− 3.76 +11.28 ) H2
C
C O2
=
[ [
100− 1+ 3.76+11.28
H2
C ]]
C O2
4.76 e (1+
C ) ( 4.76+14.28 HC ) C O
3H 2 2
CO 2 2
100−(4.76 +11.28
C )
H 2
CO 2
e=
(4.76 +14.28 HC ) C O 2
2
e=
(
100− 4.76 +11.28
H2
C
C O2 ) → By Maleev
( H
4.76 +14.28 2 C O2
C )
A : F Ratio in Terms of H 2∧¿ C,
W aa=
137.28(n+0.25 m)(1+ e)
=
(
137.28 1+0.25
H2
C
(1+e))
12n+ m H2
12+
C
m 12 H 2
But, =
n C
W aa=
[
137.28 1+0.25 ( 12CH )]( 1+ e) = 137.28 (1+ 3CH )( 1+ e)
2 2
12 (1+ )
12 H 2 H 2
12+
C C
11.44 (1+
C )
3H 2
(1+e )
W =
(1+ HC )
aa
2
Approximate Formula of Theoretical Air-Fuel Ratio in terms of HHV (For

Coals and Oils)
7.65 HHV
W ta =
10 000

Province of Laguna
Where, HHV = higher heating value of fuel, Btu/lb
Percent Excess Air
Percent Excess Air , e=

[ O2−0.5 CO
0.26 N 2−( O2−0.5CO ) ]
( 100 % )
Ex 5. An analysis of exhaust gases shows the products to consist of the following

percentages vy volume: C O2 = 12.1, O2 = 0.30, CO = 3.3, H 2 = 1.3, C H 4 = 0.30, N 2 =
82.7. Assuming the fuel to be a pure hydrocarbon of the form C n H m , a) find the
values of n and m; b) Balance the combustion equation; and c) Determine the air-
fuel ratio.
Solution:
a) Consider 100 moles of the products
C n H m + a O2+ 82.7 N 2=12.1C O2+ 0.3O 2+3.3 CO +1.3 H 2+ 0.3C H 4 +82.7 N 2+b H 2 O
Where, a = moles of oxygen in air supplied;

b = moles of water vapor in the products
Ex 6. A natural gas has the following percentage volumetric compositions:

C H4 = 59.8 % C2 H6 = 37.6 %
N2 = 2.2 % C O2 = 0.4 %
Calculate:
a. The molecular mass of weight of the natural gas
b. The gravimetric analysis of the natural gas
c. The gravimetric analysis per element
d. The amount of air required per kg fuel for complete combustion and an
excess air 50 %
e. The volumetric rate of air required at a pressure of 101.325 kPaa and
temperature of 15.56 °C for a fuel mass flow rate of 50 kg/min.
f. The amount of air required per m3of fuel at 116 kPaa and 27 °C
Solution:
a) Solving for the molecular mass or weight
MW = 16 C H 4+ 30C 2 H 6+ 28 N 2+ 44 C O2
MW = 16 ( 0.598 ) +30 ( 0.376 ) +28 ( 0.022 ) +44 ( 0.004 ) =21.64kg/kgmol
fuel
b) Gravimetric analysis by component

Province of Laguna
C H4 16(C H 4)
MW [ 16 (0.598)
21.64 ]( 100 % )
44.21 %
C2 H6 30(C 2 H 6 )
MW [ 30 ( 0.376 )
21.64 ](100 %)
52.13 %
N2 28(N 2 )
MW [ 28 ( 0.022 )
21.64 ](100 % )
2.85 %
C O2 44 (C O2 )
MW [ 44 ( 0.004 )
21.64 ](100 %)
0.81 %
TOTAL 100 %
c) Computation of the gravimetric analysis by weight
C 12C H 4 +24 C 2 H 6 +12 C O2 12(0.598)+ 24(0.376)+ 12(0.004) 75.08

(100 %) (100
3%%)
MW 21.64
H2 4 C H 4 +6 C 2 H 6 4 (0.598)+6(0.376) 21.47
(100 %) (100 %) 9%
MW 21.64
N2 28 N 2 28(0.022) 2.847
(100 % ) (100 %) %
MW 21.64
O2 32C O2 31 ( 0.004 ) 0.591

(100 %) (100 %) %
MW 21.64
TOTAL 100
%
d) Solving for the actual air required per kg fuel
W aa=
( 1+e ) W a ( 1+ e ) 8
0.231
=
0.231 3
C +8 H 2−
O2
8 [ (
+S ) ]

Province of Laguna
W aa=
( 1.50 ) W a ( 1.50 ) 8
0.231
=
0.231 3 [ (
( 0.7508 ) +8 0.2148−
0.0059
8
+0 ) ]
W aa=21.12kg air per kg fuel
e) Determination of the volumetric rate of air required

Solving for the mass flow rate of air required,
ma=( W aa ) mF =( 24.12 ) ( 50 )=1206 kg /min
Solving for the volumetric rate of air required
ma Ra T a 1206( 0.28708)(15.56+273) 3
V a= = =985.71 m /min
Pa 101.325
For the given Flue Gas Analysis (Orsat Analysis)

O2−0.5 CO
Excess Air , e= ( 100 % )
0.26 N 2−( O2−0.5CO )
Mass of Flue Gas
4 C O2 +O2 +700
W dg=
3 ( C O2 +CO ) (C ab
3 5
)
+ S + S
8 8
where , C ab=actually burned carbon , kg/kgfuel

C ab=C−C ub ;
C ub=unburned carbon
IMPORTANT POINTS TO REMEMBER

 Combustion is the rapid chemical union with oxygen of an element whose heat
of reaction is sufficiently great and rate of reaction is fast enough that quantities
of heat are liberated at elevated temperature.
 Straight oils are oils produced entirely from the crude chosen entirely through
elimination of undesired constituents by refining process.
 Additive oils are oils produced by adding to straight mineral oils; certain oil are
soluble compounds that enhance the lubricating oil properties for use in Diesel
engines.
 Proximate analysis – composition of fuel that gives on mass basis the relative
amount of volatile matter, fixed carbon, moisture and ash.

Province of Laguna
Performance Tasks
EXERCISES 1
Solve the following.

1. A diesel power plant uses fuel with a heating value of 43,000 kJ/kg. What is the density of the fuel at 25 °C?
2. A typical industrial fuel oil, C 16 H 32, has 20 % excess air by weight. Assuming complete oxidation of the
fuel, calculate the actual air-fuel ratio by weight.
3. A gaseous fuel mixture has a molal analysis:
H 2=14 % ; C H 4 =3 % ; CO=27 % ; O2=0.6 % ; C O2=4.5 % ; N 2=50.9 % . Determine the air-fuel ratio
for complete combustion on molal basis.
4. There are 20 kg of flue gas formed per kg of fuel oil burned in the combustion of fuel C 12 H 32 . What is the
excess air percent?
5. A certain coal has the following ultimate analysis by weight : C =67 %, A = 5 %, M = 8%, S = 7 %,
N 2=6 % , O2=4 % , H 2=3 % . a) Calculate the heating value of the fuel, kJ/kg, b) What is the lower
heating value, kJ/kg, c) Determine the air-fuel ratio of this coal is burned with 50 % excess air.
6. At a certain temperature of 25 °C, what is the specific gravity of a fuel at 20 °API?

Province of Laguna
Understanding Directed Assess

Rubric for Exercises 1
CRITERIA EXEMPLARY SATISFACTORY DEVELOPING BEGINNING RATING
4 3 2 1
Comprehensive The score of the The score of the SAQ The score of the The score of the
Ability SAQ and and Activities is SAQ and SAQ and
Activities is around 70% to 89% Activities is Activities is
around 90% to Correct. around 40% to around 0% to
100% Correct. 69% Correct. 39% Correct.
Workmanship The neatness of The neatness of the The neatness of The neatness
the solution for solution for the SAQ the solution for of the solution
the SAQ and and Activities is the SAQ and for the SAQ
Activities is very good quality. Activities is and Activities
good quality. standard needed
quality improvement
Accuracy The submitted The submitted work The submitted

work manifests manifest the work
qualities which required qualities partiall
go beyond the y manifest the
requirements required
qualities.
Certain aspects
are
either
incomplete or
incorrect.
Total
Learning Resources
Francisco, Jose R. (2014). Lecture Notes in Power Plant Design


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Republic of the Philippines

Laguna State Polytechnic University

LSPU Self-paced Learning Module (SLM)

Student Learning Strategies

Online A. Online Discussion via Google Meet

B. Learning Guide Questions:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

FUELS AND COMBUSTION

Fuels are classified according to the following categories:

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Classification of Crude oil

 Crude oils classified in accordance with the following bases:

PRODUCTS RESULTING FROM THE REFINEMENT OF PETROLEUM

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

Compositions of Petroleum Products

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 It is called a casing-head gas

Four Main Methods In Making Gasoline

Properties of Diesel Fuels

 The following are the important properties of Diesel fuels:

 The density of fuel is measure at 60 °F (15.6 °C)

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

V t =V o [ 1+0.0004 ( t−t o ) ] → EnglishUnit

Where, V t =¿ volume at a temperature t, F t 3

V t =V o [ 1+0.0007 ( t−t o ) ] → SI Unit

Where, V t =¿ volume at a temperature t, m 3 ,li

Ex.1 A 28 °API oil has a temperature 40 °F. what is its density?

For the density at 60 °F,

For the given volume at a given temperature, t ¿ 40 ° F

V t =V o [ 1+0.0004 ( t−t o ) ]=1 f t [ 1+0.0004 ( 40−60 ) ] =0.992 f t

For the density at 40 °F

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

ρ15.6 ° C =S G ( 1.0 )=0.887 kg /¿ li

3. Viscosity – property of Diesel fuel used to measure its resistance to flow.

b. Kinematic Viscosity – the ratio of absolute viscosity to that of the

 Saybolt Viscosimeter – an instrument used to measure viscosity of oil in

Centistoke ¿ 0.308 ( SSU−26 )

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

HHV = 51 716 −8 793.8 ( SG )2 →kJ/kg

Lower Heating Value, LHV = HHV −9 H 2 ( 2442 ) →kJ/kg

Where, H = 26 -15(SG), in decimal

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Coal – is a solid fuel which is a mixture of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

 Less than 8% volatile matter

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

HHV = 33 820 C+144212 H 2− ( O2

HHV = 14544 C +62028 H 2 − ( O2

Where C, H, O, & S are element in percentage by weight

LSPU SELF-PACED LEARNING MODULE: TECHNOLOGY FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING

where: Q L=latent heat of water content ,

mw =¿ mass of water vapor in products of combustion per unit

from ultimate analysis.

Q L= (W +9 H ) ( 2493+1.926 t g−4.187 t a) → for t g ≤ 302 ° C

Q L= (W +9 H ) ( 2442+ 2.0935 t g−4.187 t a ) → for t g >302 ° C

W = free moisture in fuel, kg/kg fuel

t a=combustible air temperature , °C

2. Ash-fusion temperature – refers to fluid temperature