Part HINTS 1SOLUTIONS/

1. We know from deinition

When the sum of two angles is two right angles or 180°,
Each two angles 18 sa1d to be supplement of the other.
Honce,
Supplement ofone-balfof a right angle is 2 rt. 25- rt, L9
or rb. LS, or three-balves of & right aDgle, or x 90°,
135°.
Supplement of four-thirds of a right angle is 2 rt. 29
$ rt, S, or $ rt. zS, or two-tbırds of a right angle, or
90°, or 60°
Supplement of 46° 18 180°-46°, or 134°.
Supplement of 149° is 180°- 149°, or 31°,
Supplemenb of 83 Ls 180°-83°, or 97°.
Supplement of 101". 1B' is 180°-10 1°, 15', or 78°. 45,

2. We know from de oıb1on

When the snm of 'two angles is one nght angle or 90°.
Each of two angles 1s waid to be complement of the other
Hence,
Complement of tvo•ifths of a rıght angle is 1 rt. L-
t.54°.,or rt , orthreeifthsofarightangle,or x 90°,
Conplement of 27° 18 90°-27°, or 68°.
Complenenb of 38°. 16 is 90°-38° 16', or 51°, 44,
Complement of 41'. 29, 30° is 90* -41", 20'. 30",
or 48* 80ʻ80
3. Let AB, CD be aDy two staanght lınes intersesting at
0, and let A0C be & ıght engle.
It 1s required to prove thab the other
A-
three angles COB, BOD aDd AOD
are also right angles
fi
 Proof -Because 00 stands on the strangbt line AB at
0
:. the 5 A0CandC0B.aretogetherequalto 2 rt. 25:
(Theor. 1)
Bat the L A0C 1Rgiven a rt. L.
Hence, the COB19 also a rt L.
Againbeoause A0 sbandson theatramght lne DC at 0
. the 6 A00and A0D aretogetherequalto 2 rt. 25,
(Theor. L)
But the L A0CIF gren a zt. L
Reoce, the 2 A0D 1saleo a rt L.
AgainbecangoDƆsbandaon the straıght liao AB at 0:
.:the 8 A0DandDOBaretogetherequalto 2 rt 5.
(Theor. 1)
Bus the L AOD 19 prnved to be a rt. 2L.
Hence, the DOB is alvo a rt L.
".each of the tbree angles COB, A0D and DOB 18a rt L.

4. Let ABC be a triangle in which the angles ABC and

ACB aregıven tqal The side BC is pro
duced boh ways to the pounts D'and E, as
shown in the disgram.
E

I: is reqnired to prove that theangles ABD and ACE

eqzal.
Proof.-B"can9e AB stands on DE at B,
. the 25 ABD end ABCare togethereznal to two
bt anges, (Theor. 1)
Aleɔbeca1se AC stnde on DE at C,
. the $ ACEandACBaretogetherequalto tzo rigat
gles. (Ineor. 1)
the $ ABDsndABCtozether=the LS ACE and
CB togeth=t.
Bat the ABC= the L ACB (byhypothezis)
:.the ABD=the L ACE.
 5. Let ABC ba & triangls in which the angles ABC and
GB are given eqnal. The eide AB is pro- A
neei besond B to ans point D and LC is
rodaosd beșoad C to sny point E.
It is requirei to proTe taat theangles
BOE and CBD are tqual.

Proof-Becauss BC stands on AD st B,
the 25 ABO and CBD aretogether eqaal to to
rigbt angles. (Taeor. 1)
ágainbecanzeBt stendeon AE at C,
. the 5 ACBandBOEaretogesherezualto tro right
znglet. (Taeor. 1)
, the L ABGsadCBDt9gthr=the L AC3anå
BCE togecser.

Bat the ACB= the L ABC (by bypotbesis)

. tbe CBD=theLBCE.
6 Let the strugbt line GD stand on another straıght
lne AB at C makıng the adjacent angles
BOD and DCA. CE bisects the angie
F
DCB and CF bisects the angle DCA. B

It 1s reured to prore that she aa gle FCE 1s a rigbt

angle.
Proof.-Broanee CD stands on AB at C,
. the BCDandthe L ACDogetber=2 rt Ls
(Theor. 1)
. the L BODand the L ACDtogother=one rt L.
Bnt che DCE ie balf of the BCD and the DCF
is baif nf the z ACD (bybypothes1s)
. the L DOE and the 2 DOF togethermone rb 2
te, the 2 FCE 8 & rt. Z.
 7. Let the straight lıoe BOabandan AC at 0 making
the ndjncent angles BOA ana BOC 0X is
bisector of the angle B0A apd 0Y 1sbi8ect-
or of the angle B0C

It isrequred toprovetbat the 5 A0X and COY are

coToplemenrary.
Proof.--Beeause 0B standson CA at 0,
. the BOAandtho B0Ctogether=2rt. 28 (Theor. 1)

.. the L BOAand the BOC=onert. L.

Bas the L A0X is half of the L B0A and the C0Y
balf of the L BOG,by bypothesıs)
the A0X and the C0Y together=one rt. L.
. the s A0XandCOYareconplementarș.
(fromdeinion)

8.

Let BO stand on the straight lıne AC at 0 making tbe

adjacentanrles BOA and B0C. OxX1s n1sector of the angie
AOB and 0Y is bisector of the angle BOC.
It 1sreqaired to prore that the angles BOX snd C0X
are supplementary , aud also that the sngles A0Y and BOY
are supplementary.
Proof.-Recaneo 0X stands on AC,
the 5 A0XandXOCnretogetherequalto two rigit
angies. (lbuor i)
Bat the A0X=the BOX (byhypothesis)
.:. tbe 5 BOXand X0C toge.her=2 rt 2$
ie, the zs BOX and BOX are sopplementry (from
defantion)
Agaın beense 0Y stands on CA,
.:. the z$ GOY and YOA together=2rt. 28 (Theor. 1)
 Batthe C0Y=the B0Y (bshypotbesis)
.". the 5 BOYand YOẢ together=2 rt. 2s
2e, the Ls BOY and YOA aresupplementery.
9. Let BO stand on the straight line AC at 0 makıog
the adjacent angles BOA and BOC. 0X is
bieectorof theangle A0B and 0Y s birector
of the angle BOC.
Let the angle A0B be 35.
It 1s requred to nd the angle COY.
Because BO stands on CA
.. the s BOCandBOAtngether2 rb. 28 (Theor.1)
And because the AOB=35°,
. the BOC=l0°-35°=145.
But the angle COY is half of cho BOC (by hypothesıs)
.. the C0Y= of 145°=72, 80'.
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 SOLUTIONS/HINTS
Lines and Angles solutions/Hints
1. Sinco the minute-band of a clock makes one complete
revolntıon in one hour or 60 minutee, 1b
turns through 4 rt. 2s 10 60 ainutes
3. e. 10 60 minates the miouse-hand turos
through 360.
., 1Done minute the minute -band wll
turn through 360",
60
or 6°.
 () . in 5minutestheminube-bandWıll tarn through
6'x5, or 80".
(2) in 21 minutes the mınate-hand wll turo through
6:x21, or 126*.
(r4) in 43} minutes or minntes the minute-hand
walltorn through6 xy, or261
(1v) in 14 minutes 10
mIaute-handwillturothrough6°x , or 85. miDates the
-hand will turo thronoh
seconds or
The minute-hand turns through 6° in one minute.
(v) the minute hand wll turn throngh 66* 1n y
minutes, or 1l mınutes.
(vi) the mınate-hand wall turn through 222* n
minutes, or 87 mıoutes,

2,

Since, the hoar-haod of & clock makes one completo

zerolatıon in 12boars, it tarns through 4ro 25 in
ie. in 12 hours theboar -hand tarns throngh 360".
.: in 1hoarthe
hour-haadwilltarathrough ;
or 30*.
(is.". in 8 hours 45 mioates, or ¥ hours, the houe-hand
Tmll tura through 30° x ¥, or 3g", or 112° 30".
(i2) in 5 hours 10 minates or hours the hoar-hand
will tura through 30° x #, or 155.
The time takea by the hoar-haad in turoing through
30 18One hour.
. thetumetakenby fhehour-handin turniog through
345
345°
172", or 2 willbe
2
30
345
or 80boara, or
23
hours,
or 5 hours 45 minutes
 3. Sıace the earth makes one complete revolation in
24 boars abont its ax1, it turns throga 4 rt. eS in 24 hrs.
i. e. in 24 hoare the earth taens through 360".
.:. in one honr the enrth wıll turn tbrough or 15.
(i).. n 3 honrs 20 ginnes, or 19 hours the earth will
tarothrough15'x . or50°.
The time ta ken by the earth in taraing through 15* is
one hour,
(r)
(ti) . thetime takenby theearthin torning through
130*willbe , or $bours,or 8Lours40minates,
4. Les the straight hoes AB sad AD cut oDe snother
at the pont 0.
0 B

(4) If the angle A0C be 35°, 1t is required to ad the

Talae of esch of the angles cOB, B0D, DOA without
Mpasurement.
Because tbe straight line C0 stands on AB
.:.the 5 A0C andC0Btogetber=2 rt. 2S, or180°.(Theor.1)
But the A0C=35* (given)
.:. the cOB=180°-35", or 145°.
Because AB and CD cat one another at 0
. the LCOB=thevertically
opposıte DOA (Theor. 3)

But tbe 2 COB=145*(proved)

:. the DOA=145.
Also, the L A0C=the verticallyopposıbe L BOD (Theor, 3)
Bab the A0C=35 (given)
.. the BOD=35°
(e1) If the 8 COB and A0D togother be 250",1619
requıred to had ench ot che ® COA, BOD.
Because AB and CD ent one aoother at 0
..the AOC,COB,BODandDOAtogether rt.
25, or 860. (Cor. 1 Thsor. 1)
fi
 But the s BOBand A0Dtogether=250*(gıvea)
110. the zs C0A and BOD together360°-250", or

Bat the A0C=vertienlly opposıte BOD (Theor. 3)

. enchof the s A00, BOD=t of110",or 55'.
(31) If the 5 A0G,COB,BODtoçethermakeup 274,
it isrequured to hnd esoh ot he 25 A0C, COB, BOD, DOA,
Because CO stands on AB
.. the s A00andCOB together2 rt. 2S, or 180°
(Theor. l)
Bat the L$ A0C, COB. BOD together=274 (given)
.. the BOD274'-180° or94°.
Becanse DO srands on AB
.. the Ls BODand DOA together=2 rt 2s or 180°
(Theor. 1)
Bat the L BOD=94 (proved)
.. the DOA= 180°-94, or 86.
Because AB and CD cnt one another at0
the L A0C= vertucallyopposıte L BOD (Theor. 3)
But the L BOD=94 (proved)
.. the L B0C=94°
Alsothe L BOC=vertically opposite A0D (Theor. 3)
Bat the L DOÁ=86 proved)
.. the A00=80".
5.
B

Let AB be a straıght ne and let O be any poit in it

from wheh two straight Iines 0C and OD are dra wo oD
opposıteBides of AB such tbat the angles C0B and A0D are
equal,
Ib 1s required to prove that 0C and 0D are in the same
Btraight hoe.
 Proof.-Becanse 0C etands on AB
.. the s A0CandCOBtagether2 rt. 2$ (Theor.1)
But the e COB=the 2 A0D (bybypothesıs)
. the s A0GandAQDtogether=2rt. 25
0C and 0D are in thbesame straight lıne (Theor. 2)
Proof.-Becanse0 etandson AB
.. the s A0 andCOBtogether=2rt. L$ (Theor. 1)
Bot the COB=the2 A0D (bybypothesıs)
.• thez5A0CandAQDtogether2 r. s
0G and 0D are in the same straight lıne (Theor. 2)
6. Let two stright ines AB, CD ross one another at
0, and let 0X be the bisector of tbe angle
BOD.Produce X0 be yond0 to apy point -X
Y.
It is required to prove that 0Y bisects the angle
A00.
Proof-Because AB and YX cut at 0.
.. the 2 B0X=vertically opposıteL A0Y (Theor. 3)
AganbecauseCD and YX ut at 0.
.:. the cOY=vertıcally oppostte DOX (Theor. 3)
But the DOX=the 2 BOX (bybypothesis)
.. the A0Y=the C0Y.
i. e the L A0C 1sbisected by 0Y. Q. E. D.

7.

Let two strıght lınes AB CD intersect ab 0, les 0X ba

tbe biseator of the angle BOD, and 0Y the biseotor of
sbe A0C.
It 1s required to prove that 0X and 0Y are in the same
straight lıne.
Proof-Because AB and CD cat at 0.
 : the 2A0C==rertioally
opposte . B0D(Theor. 3)
Bab the 2 A0Y=the z C0Y (byhypotbesıa) tbe L.
A0C.
Also, the B0X= the Z DOX (by bypothesıs) =} the
2 BOD.
Bat the A0G=the L BOD(proved)
. the A0Y=the LBOX.
Because 0X stands on AB
. the zSBOXsadX0Atogether=2 rt 28
(Theor. 1)
Bat the BOX=the L A0Y(proved)
.the A0Y andXOAtogethera2 rt. 28

:. 0X and 0Y ane in the same straight line. (Tbeor. 2)

Q. E. D.

8. Let A0B be & giren angls snd let 0X be the bısector

of the angle AOB. A
0
3

Tt is reqnired to show that, by folding the diagram

OX, 0A may be made to coincıde wath 0B.
In foldıngthedıagramabout 0X wemakethe A0X
fall uponthe BOX.
But the 2 A0X= the L BOX (bybypotbesis)
0A will fall upon 0B.

() If the L A0X 8 greaterthanthe XOB, 0A

will fall outside the L X0B with regard to 0B, 8o that
OX and 0A will be on oppostteendes of 0B.
(i) If the
fall wichın the
A0X is less than the XOB, OA will
XOB with regard to 0B, s0 that 0X and
OA wıll be ou the same side of 0B.
 9. Let AB and CD cut one another at rgat angles
&t 0. G
A

It is required to ehow that, by foldıng the gure about

AB, 0C may be made to fall along 0D.
In foldıng the igure aboat AB, we make the straight
angle on the lefo sade of AB fall on the straight sngle on
che rıght side of AB.
Bat the 2 A0C= the L AOD (be.ng rt. 45)
.. 0C will fall along 0D.
10 Let AB be a stranght Iıne drawn on paper and let Ở be
any pont in 10 abont which the straighb hne AB 1s so folded
that 0A fallsaloog 0B Let COD be the crease left on the
paper
A

It 1s requıred to prove that COD 18 porpendıcalar to AB.

Proof.-Becanse the A00 falls upoa the COB
guch thas 0A falls along 0B.
. the A00=the LCOB.
But these are ad jacen augles.
CO 1s perpendicular to AB.
or, CD 1s perpendıcular to AB. Q. E. D.
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 EXERCISES
1. Shew that the bioector of the vertical angle of an iosceles triangle
(i) bioecto the base (i) io perpendicular to the base.
2. Lee O be the middle point of a straight line AB, and let OC be
perpendicular lo ü. Then if P ia any point in OC, prove that PA=PB.
3.Assuming that the four sides of a square are equal, and that ita
angles are all right angles, prove that in the square ABCD, the
diagonals AC, BD are equal.
4. ABCD is a square, and L, M, and N are the middle points of AB,
BC, and CD: prove that
(i) LM= MN. (iü) AM=DM.
(ü) AN =AM. (iv) BN= DM.
(Draw & separate igure in each case.]
5. ABC is an is0sceles triangle : from the equal sides AB, AC two

B t A, AYarecutof,andBYandCXarejoined. Prove that

 Triangles SOLUTIONS/HINTS
1. Let ABC be anisosceles triaugle and let AD be t
biseotorofthe
vertical
angleBAC
meetung Ậ.
BC in D.
() It 1srequired to prove that AD
bısecta the base BC. D
C

Proof.-In the two AS BAD and ACD

the sıde BA e the side AC (being sides of an
sO8cel-s triangle)
Because the side DA is common to both.
and the Inclnded z BAD=he included
L CAD by bypothesıs)
two trangles BAD andACD areequalin sllrespects, (Tbeor,4)
30 that BD-Do.
i,e BC is bisected at D.
(i) It is requred to prove that AD is perpendıculartoBO.
Proof.--In the two AS BAD and ADO.
the side AB = the side AC (bci og sides of sn
15080eles triangle)
Because tbe side AD. 1s common to both
and theipcladed z BAD=the included DAC
(by bypothesıs)
.. the tw AS ara equal in all respects, (Theor. 4)
8othat, the ADB the ADG
andthesebeingadjacantaogles,each1sn rt, ,
(Prom de nıtion)
i. AD isperpeadıcularto BO.
Q. E. D.
fi
 2. Let AB b3 a straight line, and O its mıddle point.
Let 0C be perpendicniar to AB at 0 and let
P be any pout in 00. Jon PA and PB.
I6 is required to prove that PA and PB B
aro equal.
Proof.-In the bwo AS POA and P0B
[ PO 1soommon to both
A0=0B (byhypothegrs)
Because and che 1ncluded POA=the incladed < POB
l (benig-rt.
9)
. two ASareequalinallirespaots. (Theon 4)
o thatPA=PB, Q. E. D.

3. Let ABCD be s square and let AC and BD be ite

two disgonals. D

It 1srequıred to prove thst the diagonals AC and BD

are enaal
Proof-In thetwo s ADOandBDC
AD=BC (belng wdes of a sqaare)
Bccause
DC 18common o both
apd the ancuded ADC=the 1noluded z BOD
(beingrt 5)
. tro AS are equal n allrespects. (Theor.4)
Bo that AC=BD.
Q B.D.
4 () Lot ABCD be a Bqare and let L be the
middle pont of AB, H the mrddle point of BC.
and N the middle pouut of CD. Joun IiM and
MN,
It 1sregniredtoprovethat Ii and NH M
are equal.
 Proof.-Becnuɛe ABa CDe BC (beng sndesof asquare
And AL LB=} AB.
and DN=NC=CD.
·. LB=NO
Now, ın the two triangles BLM and MNC
BL=NO (proved)
Because BM-NC (byhrpothe81s,)
andsbeincluded IBM =thencluded XON
(beangrh L)
". bwo AS are equal in all respects. (Theor. 4)
So that ILM -MN.

(4) Les ABCD be a square and let L, M, N be the

middle ponts of AB, BO, CD respectively.
Join MA and MD.
It 1srequired to prove that MA
M

snd MD re equal.
Proof.-In the two AS ABM and DMC
rAB=DC (betng sides of a square)
Because
B=MG (by bypothwais)
and theinclndedz ABA=the included DMO
(being rt. L9)
. twotrianglesareequal in allrespests. (Theor. 4)
8o that AM=DM.

(ii) Let ABOD b a square and let L, M, N, be the

middle ponta of AB, BC, CD respectively.
Joa AM and AN.
N
It is requred to prove tbat
AM and AN are equal. M

Proof--Beeause BC=CD (beiog sides of a square).

And BIMC=B0. andDN=CN=0D. . BM=DN.
Nom,in tbe bro A ABIA and ADY
 f AB=
BDN(prored)
AD (being sides of a sqoare)
because and the incladed L ABM=che indaded 2. ADN
| (berngrt. L9)
two AS are equal in all respects (Theor. 4)
80 that AM=AN
(u) Let ABCD be a square and let I, M, N be the
mıddle points of AB, BC, CD respectıvely.
Jon BN and DM.
It 19required to prove thas BN
and DM are eqnal.

Proof-B 'enuse BO=(D (heing ıdes of a square)

And BM=MC=1BC and DN=CN=0D.
.. MC=CN.
Now in the two A8 BNO and MCD,

r NC=Mc(proved)
BC=0D (hvpoth-s1s)
Becaasey aud she ncluted BCN =the included DC
(besngt, 25)
.. Tro AS are equal in all'rospecla, (Theor, 4)
Bo that BN=Dit Q. E. D.
5. Let. ABC ba an 15080eles triangle, From the eqnal
sdes AB and AC two equal parts AX and AY A

A
are onb of. Join BY and CX.
Ib is required to prore that BY
and Cž are eqnal.
Proof-Ia the two As ABY and ACX
[AY=AX (byhypothesis)
Becanse AB=AC (bring equalsides ofisogcelestriangle)
and the L BAY or L GAX 1scommon to both
.two AS are eqaal in all respects. (Theor. 4)
8o that, BY = CX. Q E. D.
 THEOREM 5. Euclid I. 5.]

The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal.

Let ABC be an isosceles triangle,

in which the side AB = the side AC.
It is required to prove that

the L ABC = the L ACB.

Suppose that AD is the line which bisects the L BAC, and

let it meet BC in D.
lst Proof. Then in the A BAD,CAD,
BA = CA,
because AD is common to both triangles,
land the included BAD = the included L CAD;
the triangles are equal in all respects ; Theor. 4.
8o that the ABD =the LACD. Q.E.D.
nd Proot. Suppose the A ABC to be folded about AD.
Thensince the BAD the zCAD,
AB must fall along AC.
And since AB= AC,
.. B must fall on C, and consequently DB on DC.
:. the LABD will coincide with the ACD, and is therefore
oqual to it. QED.
COROLLARY 1. If the equal sides AB, AC of
an isosceles triangle are prouced, the ezterior
angles EBC, FCB are equal; fr they are the
supplements of the equal angles at the base.
COROLLARY2. If a triangle is equilaleral,
# is als0 equiangular.
DEFINITION. A gure is said to be symmetrical about a
line when, on being folded about that line, the parts of the
gure on each side of it can be brought into coincidence.
fi
fi
 The straight line is called an aris of symmetry.
That this may be possible, it is clear that the two parta of the gure
must have the same size and sbape, and must be similarly placed with
regard to the axis.
Theorem 5 proves that an isosceles triangle is symmetrical about
the bisector of its VERTICAL Angle.
equilateral triangle is symmetrical about the bisector of ANY
ONE of its angles.
EXERCISES
1. ABCD is a four-sided gure whose sides are all equal, snd the
diagonal BD is drawn: shew that
(i) the angle ABD=the angle ADB;
(ü) the angle CBD= the angle CDB;
(ii) the angle ABC= the angle ADC.
2. ABC, DBC are two isoeceles triangles drawn on the same base
BC, but onoppositesides of it: prove (bymeans of Theorem 5) that
the angle ABD=the angle ACD.
3.ABC, DBC are two isosceles triangles drawn on the same base
BC and on the oame side of it: employ Theorem 5 to prove that
the angle ABD=the angle ACD.
4. AB, AC are the equal sides of an isoscoles triangle ABC; and
LLM, N are the middle pointe of AB, BC, and CA respectively : prove
that
(i) LM=NM. (i) BN=CL
(ü) the angle ALM =the angle ANM.

SOLUTIONS/HINTS
1, Let ABCD be a quadrılsteraļ whose all sides are
equal, anod let tbe diagonal BD be jooed.

() It is required to prove that the 2S ABD and ADB

are eqnal.
Proof-Beonuse in the A ABD, AB-=AD (bybypothesis)
. tbe 2 ADB=tte ABD.(Theor.5)
fi
fi
 (n) eqnired toprovethat the 8 CBD and CDB
Bre eqnal.
Proof-Becanse in the A CBD, CB-CD (by bypothesis)
.". the ABD=the L ADB (Tbeor. 5)
(in) It 1s required to prove that the ABC and
ADC are equal,
Proof-B causein the A ABD, AD=AB (by bypothesis)
.:. the ADB=the L ABD (Theor. 5)
Again beranse in the A CBD CB=CD (by bypothesi)
. the L ABD=the ADB(Theor.5)
the 5 ADBandCDBtogetber=thez9 ABDand
CBD togetber
Orthe ADOtheL ABC. 9. E. Đ,
2. Let ABC and DBC be two isoaceles triangles drawa
on the same base BC but on opposıte sIde of ite

Ib18requced to prore that the s ABD and ACD are

equal.
Proof.-Because in the A ABC, AB=AC (beingeides
of an 180sceles triangle)
.. tbe ABC=the ACB (Theor 5)
Agaia beonns0 1n the A, DBG, DB= DO (being sudes of
an180sceles triangle)
the 2 DBC=the L DCB(Theor. 5)
the z8 ABC andDBCtogetherthe s ACBand
DCB together or the L ABD=the ACD
Q. E. D.
3. Let ABG nd DBC be two isosoeles triangles drawa
on the same base BO And on the same sde of ib.
 A
h isrequıred to prore that the 9 ABD and ACDAre
equal.
Proof-Becauye ia the A ABC, AB=AC (besngside
of an1s0sceles trianglo)

. the LABC=the ACB

(Theor. 5)
Again becaasein theA DBO, DB-DO (beiog sides of
an is0scelea triatıgle)
.. the L DB0 the L DOB (Theor. 5)
. the L ABC-theL DBC=the L ACB--thc L
DCB or the ABD=the L ACD. Q. E, D.
4. (9) Let ABC be an 1s9celes triangle of which the sides
AB and AC are equal. Let I, M, N be tbo A
middle points of AB, BC and CÅ respectisely.
Joa LM and NM, N
It is regnirei toprove that LM
B
and NM are eqaal. M

Proof.--Because AB=AC (by hypothesıs),

. the L ABC=the L ACB (Thror 5)
AL=LB=} AB; and AN=NC= AC
. LB=N.
Now, in the two As LBY and MCN
(LB=NC (prɔved)
Becaase BM=MO (by hypoth•«is)
(and the inclu-le BI=the inclnded L NOH
. two A arecqnal in attrespests. (Theor. 4)
8o that LM= NN.
 (i) Let ABO be an is osceles trinvgle whose sidcs AB
and AC are eqnal and let L, M, N be the A
middle points of AB, BO and CA 1espectively.
Jon BN and CL,
It is required to prore that BN and CL areequal.
M
Proof-Because 1n tLe A ABC, AB=A0
(being sides of an1sosceles trlangle)
.. theLABC=theL ACB (Theor. 5)
AL-LB -}AB, and AN=NC=} AC
.. AL=AN Now, 1n the tro AS ABN and ALC
AN=AL (proved)
Because AB=A0 (being sdes of an1soscelestriangle)
andthe ncluded BAN or CAL 1s comnon
to both
.. two S areequalin allrespects (Theor 4)
so that BN=CL.
(iui) Let ABC be an 1so*celes triangle who9e sides AB and AC
areeqna!and let I, H, N, be the mtdle pounts of AB, BC
aod CA resp-cuvdy. Jon LIi aud NH.
A

B M
It 1s reqnred to prove that the Ls ALM and ANH are
equal
Proof-Because in the A ABO, AB= AC
(being sides of an 501celes triangle)
.. the z ABC=the L ACB. (Tbeor. 5)
Bat AL=LB= AB, and AN=NC=} AC
. LB =NC.
Now, 1n the As LBN and NMC
( LB-NC(proved)
Because BM=MC (bybypothesis
andtheincluded z IBM= theincluded NOM
proved
 .. two 2 areeqnal in allresDects(The0r., 4)
8othat the L BIN=the MNC.
Becanse IM standson AB at L
.the 25 ALM and MB together=2 rt. L8
(Theor. 1)
Also,because NM stands on AC nt N
.. the s ANM and MNC together=2 rt. 25
(Theor. 1)
:. the s ALMand MIB=the 2$ ANMand MNO.
But the MLB=the L MNO(proved)
:. the ALM=the L ANM. Q E. D.

THEOREM 6. (Euclid I. 6.]

If boo angles of a triangle are equal to one another, then the

sides whch are oppositle to the equal angles are equal to one another.

Let ABC be a triangle in which

the LABC the ACB.
It is required toprove that
the side AC = the side AB.

If AC and AB are not equal, supposo that

AB is the greater.
From BA out off BD equal to A.
Join DC.
Proof. Then in the 4' DBC, ACB,
DB= AC,
because BC is common to both,
and the included DBC = the included L ACB,
the A DBC= the A ACB in area, Theor. 4.
the part equal to the whole ; which is absurd.
.. AB is not unequal to AC;
that is, AB= AC. Q.E.D.
COROLLARY. Hence if a triangle isequiangular i is also
eguilateral.
 NOTE ON THEOREMS 5 AND 6

A
Theorems 5 and 6 may be veri ed ex-
perimentally by cutting out the given
A ABC, and, ater turníng it over, tting
it thua reversed into the vacant space left
in the paper.
B
Suppose A'BC to be the original posiion of the A ABC, and let
ACB represent the triangle when reversed.
In Theorem 5, it willbe found on applying A to A that C may be
made to fall on B, and B on C.
In Theorem 6, on applying C to B' and B to C we nd that A will
fall on A'.
In either case the given triangle revered will coincide with ite own
" traoe," 8o that the side and angle on the left are respectively equal to
the side and angle on the right.

NOTE ON A THEOREM AND ITS CONVERSE

The enunciation of a theorem consists of two clauses. The irst
clause tells us wàat we are to asume, and is called the hypothesis; the
8econd tells us what it is required to prove, and is called the conclusion.
For example, the enunciation of Theorem 5 as8umes that in a certain
triangle ABC the side AB=the eide AC: this is the hypothesis. From
this it is required to prove that the angle ABC = the angle ACB: this is
the conclusion.
If we intercbange the hypothesis and conclusion of a theorem, we
enunciate a new theorem which is called the converse of the rst.
For example, in Theorem 5
it is asLmed that AB=AC;
it is required toprone that the sngle ABC= the angleACB.
Now in Theorem 6
it is snmed that the angle ABC= the angleACB;
it is required lo prove that AB=AC.
Thus we see that Theorem 6 is the converse of Theorem 5; for the
hypothes ofeach is the concluion of the other,
In Theoren 6 we employ an indirect method of proof frequently
ased in geometry. It consists in shewing that the theorem cannot be
untrue; since, if it were, we should beled to some imporibleconcdueion.
This form of proof is known as Beductio ad Abeurdum, and is most
commonly used in demonstrating the converse ofsomneforegoing theorem.
It must not however be supposed that if a theorem is true, its con-
verse is necessarly true.
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 THEOREM 7. (Euclid I. 8.]
If boo triangles hae the three sides of the one equal to the three
tides of he other, each to each, they are equal in allrespecks.

Let ABO, DEF be two triangles in which

AB= DE,
AC = DF
BC = EF.
I isrequired toprove that thetrianglesareequal in allrespects.

Proof. Apply the A ABC to the A DEF,

8o that B falls on E, and BC along EF, and
8o that A is on the side of EF opposite to D.
Then because BC EF, C must fall on F.
Let GEF be the new position of the AABC.
Join DG.
Because ED= EG,
.". the L EDG = the L EGD. Theor. 5.
Again, because FD = Fa,
.. the L FDG = the L FGD.
Hence the whole EDF = the whole L EGF,
that is, the L EDF= the BAC.
Then in the A' BAC, EDF;
BA = ED,
because AC= DF,
(and the included zBAC= the included EDF;
.. the triangles are oqual in all rospects. Theor. 4.
QLD.
 Obs. In this Theorem
it isgiven that AB=DE, Be - EF, GA= FD:
and we prove that LC=LF, LA=L D, LB=LE
Also the triangles are equal in area.
Notice that the angles which are proved egual in the two triangles
are opposite to sides which were given equal.

Nors 1. We have taken the case in which DG falls witbin the

L EDF, EGF.
Two other cases might arise :
(i) DG might fall outeide the EDF, EGF [as in Fig. 1)
(ü) DG might coincide with DF, FG [as in Fig. 2)

G
Fig.. C Fig.2
Thesecaaes will arise only when the given triangles are obtuse-
angled or right-angled ; and (as will be seen hereafter) not even then,

A
it we begin by choosing for superposition the greatest side of the A ARC,
as in the diagram

NoTs 2 Two triangles are said to be equiangular to one another

when the angles of one are respectively equal to the angles of the other.
Hence if tuo triangles havethe three side of oneseverally equal to the
three sides of the other, the triangles are equiangular to one another.
The student should state the converee theorem, and sbew by a
diagram that the converse is not necessarily true.
 *,* At his stage Problems 1-5 and 8 (80eChapter7] may
conveniently be taken, the proofs afording goodiWustrations of the
Identical Bquality of Tuo Trianges.
EXERCISES
ON THE IDENTICAL EQUALITY OF TWO TRIANGLES
THEOREMS 4 AND 7
(THEORETICAL)
1. Shew that the straight line which joins the verter of an isosceles
triangle to the middle point of the base,
(i) bisecta the vertical angle :
(ii) is perpendicalar to the base.
2. If ABCD is & rhombus, that is, an equilateral foursided gare ;
shew, by drawing the diagonal AC, that
(i) the angle ABC= the angle ADC;
(ii) AC bisecta each of the angles BAD, BCD.
3. If in a quadrilateral ABCD the opposite sides are equal, namely
AB=CD and AD =CB; prove that the angle ADC=the angle ABC.
4. If ABC and DBC are two isosceles trisngles drawn on the same
base BC, prove (by means of Theorem 7) that the angle ABD = the
angle ACD, taking (i) the case where the triangles are on the eame side
of BC, (i) the case where they are on opposite sides of BC.
5. If ABC, DBC are two isosceles triangles drawn on opposite
sides of the same base BC, and if AD be joined, prove that each of the
angles BAC, BDC will be divided into two equal parts.
6. Sbew that the straight lines which join the extremities of the
base of an isosceles triangle to the middle points of the opposite sides,
are equal to one another.
7. Two given points in the base of an isosceles triangle are equi-
distant from the extremities of the base : shew that they are also
equidistant from the vertex.
8. 8hew that the triangle formed by joining the midlle points
of the sides of an equilateral triangle is also equilateral.
9. ABC is an iso8celes triangle having AB equal to AC; and the
angles at B and C are bisected by BO and CO: shew that
(i) BO=C0;
(ü) AO bisects the angle BAC.
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 10. Shew that the disgonals of a rhombus [see Ex. 2] bisect one
another at right angles.
11. The equal sides BA, CA of an isosceles triangle BAC are pro-
duced beyond the vertex A to the points E and F, so that AE is equal
to AF; and FB, EC are joined : shew that FB iseqfual to EC.

SOLUTIONS/HINTS
1. Let ABC be nn s08celes triangle and let D be tbe
mıddle pont of BC. Jon AD.
(1) It is required to prove thst AD bisects the vertical
L BAC.

Proof.-In the two triangles ABD and ACD

rAB=AC (berngsdesof nnisoscalestriangle)
Because BD=DO tby hypothesıs)
l and AD 1scommon to both
.. two AS are equal in all respects. (Theor. 7)
that the BAD=the DAC
o e. the vertical z BAC 1s bısected by AD.
(iu) It is requıred bo prove that AD 1s perpendıcular to
the base BC.
Proof --In thetwo S ABD audAOD.
AB=AC (beingsıdesof anisoscelestrıangle)
Because BD D byhypothesis)
( and AD 1scommon to both
i bwoAS areequalin allrespects.(Iheor. 7)
s0 that, the 2 ADB=the ADO and these being
adjacent
angles,oachs r. L.
.. AD 1sperpendıcalar to BC. Q E. D.
 2. Lat ABCD be a rhombus and leś the diagona! AC
be joined.

() It required to prove that the z5 ABC and ADC are

cqual.
Proof--Io the two As ABC and ADC
( AB=AD (beiag eides of n rhombaa)
Becauses B=CD (being sides of a rhombus) and AG is
CommoD to botb
:. tws As are eqnal 1a all respote (Theor. 7)
so that the ABC= the ADC.
(euy It is requıred to prove that ths angles BAD and
BOD are bisected hy AC.
Proo.-In the two As ABO and ADC
AB=AD (beng srdes of a rhombus)
Because BC=CD (being eides of a rhombus)
and AC 1s conmon to bosh
.two AS areeq1al in all re:p9ts. (Theor. 7)
Po that the z DAC=tho BAG and the L ACD=the
L AGB , e.the zs DAB and DIB arebısectedby A0.
Q. E. D.
3. Lat ABOD be a qnadrilateral n which AB-0D and
AD=CB Join AG.
B

Tt is required to prore that the L5 ADC and ABC are

eqaal.
Proof.-1n the two AS ADC and ABC
r AD=B0 (bybypothesıs)
Bcanse DC=AB (by hypothesıs)
l and AC1scommonto both
. two AS sreeqnai in allrespects.(Theor. 7)
8o that the Z ADC= the ABC. Q. E. D.
 4 (6) Let ABC and DBC be two isosceles triangles standıng
on the game base BC and on the same s1de of at

161ereqnired to prove that the 5 ABD and ACD ara

eqnal.
Jin AD
Proof.-In the two AS BAD and CAD,
rBA= AC(being des ofisoscelesA ABC)
Because BO=DC (beog sides of18080eles ADBC)
(and AD iscommonto both
two AS are equal in all resoects. (Theor. T7)
Bo that the ABDthe ACD.
(ii) Let ABC and DBO betwoJSOSoeles triangles standıng
A
on the esme base BC but on opposite
BIdes of it.
.A.
V
Ib 1s reqared to prove that

the 5 ABD and ACDareequnl

Join AD
Proof-In the tws As BAD and CAD
fAB=AC ibetng sıdes of an180s0eles trıangle)
Becanse BD=DC (beingsides of an1803celestriaugle)
Land AD 1s comnon to bosh
".bwo AS are equal 1n all respeots. (Theor. 7)
8o thabthe ABD=the ACD. Q. E. D.

5. Let ABC and DBC be two is0sceles triangles standıng

on thesamebaseBG but onopposıtesides of it and let AD
be joined.
 A
It 1s reqaired to provo tbat the 25 BAC and BDC are
biseoted by AD
Proof -Iathe two AS BAD and DAG
(BA=AC (being sides of an 908çeles tzangle)
Because BD=DO (being sıdes of an180sceles triangle)
(and AD 18 commoo to bosh
.. two AS are equal in all respeots (Theor 7)
so that the BAD tbe CAD and the BDA= the
2 CDA
t. e. the 25 BAC and BDO are biseoted by AD.
Q. E. D.
6. Leb ABO bo sn ioosoelos trıangle and let D and E be
tho mıddle points of AB and AC respectıve ly. A
Let BE and CD be Joined.
It is required to prove that BE and
CD are equal.
Proof.- In the A ABC, becaase
AB=AC (being sides of an1sOscelestriangle)
.. the ABC= the ACB (Theor. 5)
AD=DB=} AB, and AE-EC=} AC
.DB=EC.
Now, in the two As DBC and EBC
(DB=E0 (pLoved)
BC 18 common to both
Because a0d the noluded L DBC=the inciaded L. ECB
Liproved)
.. two AS are equal in all respects. (Theor. 4)
so that the sıde DC= the side BE. Q. B. D.
 7. Leb ABC be an isosceles teisngie, and iet D, E be two
Buch points in BC that BD EC. Join AD and AE.

0 E
It is requred toprove that AD=AE
Proof--Becanse in the A ABC, AB=AC (beingsadesof
an1s0sceles triangl-)
.. the . ABC=the 2 ACB(Tbeor,5)
Now, 1n the two As ABD And AEC
fAB=AC tbeingsıdesof 1n180s0elostriangle)
BD=EO by hpothesıs)
Becanse and the1ncluded ABDthe incladed2 ACE
t(proved)
two AS are equal in all respeots. (Theor. 4)
80 that AD=AE.
Q. E, D,.
8. Let ABO be an equılateral trisngle and let D, E
be the mıddle ponta of AB, BO and CA A
rospeotivelş. Jon DE, EF and DF.
t1s requred to prove that DEF is
an equilateral triangle. E
Proof-Becanse the A ABC Is equilateral,
.the ACB=tbe BAC=tbeLABO (Theor. 5, Cor: 2 )
ln the A ABC, AB= AC=BC (being sıdes of an
equnlateral triangle)
AD=DB=ị AB; BE-BC= B0; and AF=FC=}
AC
.. AD=DB=BE-B0=AF=FC
Now, in the twɔ A5 ADF and BDE
AD=BD (by bypothesis)
- AF=BE (proved)
Becaure
and the LDBBihe DAF (prored)
 :. two As are equal in all respects.(Theor, 4)
Bo that DF=DE
Agaın in the two 4s ADF and FEC
(AF-FC (byhypothesia)
Because AD=EC (provel)
Aud the 2L DAF=the FOE (proved)
two AS areequal in allrespeots.(Theor, 4)
BO that DF-FE
.DE=FE-DF
Henoe, DEF is sn equilsteral triangle. e. E. D.

9. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle and let the angles

ABC and ACB b: biseoted by B0 and C0 res pectively.
A

A
() It is required to prore that BO and CO are equal.
Join Á0
Proof-Io the A ABC,becanse AB-AC
:. tbe L ABC=the ACB(Theor. 5)
tbe 0BG=the ABG (iven)
aod the 0CB= the 2 ACB (gıven)
.:. the z OBC=be L 00B
:. 0B=0C (Theor.6)
(ii) It 18 required to prove that the BAC 1s bisected
by A0.
Join A0.
Proof.0 the A ABC,because AB=AC
.. the 2 ABO=he ACB(Theor. 5)
the L 0BC==the ABC(gıven)
and the 0CBi the / ACB (eisen)
 ". the 0BC= the L 0CB
0B=00 (Theor.G)
Xow, in the two AS AOB and A0G
[AB=AC (given)
Because B0=00 (proved)
aud A0 1s common to both
.. two AS are equal in all respects. (Theor. 7).
BOthat the z BA0=the CAD.
4. e, A0 bısects the L BAC.
Q. E. D.
10 Leb ABCD be a rhombus snd let the dagonals
AC abd BD cut at 0.

It 1s requred to prove that the diagonals AC and BD

bisect one another at rıghò angles at 0
Proof-In the two AS ABC and ADC
(AB=AD tbyhypothests)
Because BO=CD by bypothesis)
aud AC 1s commoo to both
:. two As are equal in all rerpects. (Theor. 7)
Bo that the L BCA=thə DCA,
Agaio,1n the two S B0C and DOd.
(BC=OD by bypothesis)
Becanse CO 18 common to both
land the L BCOhe DC0(proved)
". two AS are eqnal in sll respects (Theor. 4)
so that BO=0D aDd the B0C=the COD,and
these being adjacent angles each 1s a rt L.
Again, an the two As ADB and DCB.
(AD=DC (by bypothesıs)
Becauso AB=BO (by hypothesıs)
land BD 1s common to both
.. two AS are equal in all respeots. (Theor. 7)
8o that the L ADB= the CDB
Agaiu, in the two AOD and D0C
 (AD=DC (by hypothesıs)
BecauseD0 is comınon to both
land the L AD0 =the L CDO
. tro AS ar- eqal o alltespects.(Theor,4)
that A0=0C and the AOD=the DOC, and
these being adjucetıi angleseach1s a ri. 2
Becanse AC and BD cut one another at 0.
:. The AOB=the L DOC(Theor. 3)
Bat the DOC is a rt. L iproved )
. The L A0B1s& rt. L
i.e., the z5 BOA, AOD, DOC and C0B areeach a rt. L
and B0=0D, A0=0C
.. thedıngonals AC and BD bisectone another at right
angles at 0.
Q. E. D.

11. Let ABO be an isosrelee trıangle and let tbe equal

sides BA, CA be pro duced to any points E E
and F besond the verter A, such that
AE is eqaal to AF.
Let FB and EC be joined.
It isreqaired to prove that FB and
EC are equal.
Proof-In the tso AS ABF and ACE,
( AB=AC(gısen)
Because AF=AB giren
sud the L BAF=tbe L CAE (Theor. 3)
. two A5 areequal in allrespests. (Theor.4)
EO that FB=E0, Q. E. D,
 EXERCISES ON TRIANGLES
(NUMERICAL AND GRAPHICAL)
1. Draw a triangle ABC, having given a=20", d=21", c=ls.
Measure the angles, and nd their sum.
2 In the triangle ABC, a=75 cm., b=70 cm., and c=65 cm.
Draw and measure the perpendicular from B on CA.
Draw a triangle ABC, in which a=7 cm., b=6 em., C=65°.
3.
How would you prove theoretically that any two triangles having
these parts are alike in size and shape? Invent some experimental
illustratiou.
4. Draw a triangle from the following data : b=2, c=26, A=67':
and measure a, B, and C.
Draw asecondtriangle,using data thevaluesjuatfoundfor ,
B, and C; and measure b, C, and A What conclusion do you draw ?
5. A ladder, whose foot is placed 12 feet from the base of a house,
reaches to a window 35 feet above the ground. Draw a plan in which
1" representa l0 ft. ; and nd by measurement the length of the ladder.
6. I go due North 99 metres, then due East 20 nmetres. Plot my
course (8cale 1 cm. to 10 metres), and nd by measurement as nearly
you can how far I am from my starting point.
When the sun is 42 above the hərizon, a vertical pole caste a
7.
shadow 30 ft. long. Repreasent this on & diagrem (scale 1" to 10 ft.);
and nd by measurement the approximate height of the pole.
8. Froma point Aa surveyor goes 150 yards due East to B; then
300 yards due North to C; fnally 450 yards due West to D. Plot hia
course (scale 1" to l00 ysrds) ; and nd roughly how far D is from A
Measure the angle DAB, and say io what direction D bears from A.
9. B and are two pointa, known to be 260 yards apart, on a
straight shore. A is a vessel at anchor. The angles CBA, BCA are
obeerved to be 33 aod 81° respectively. Find graphically the approxi-
mate distance of the vessel irom the points B and C, and from the
Dearest point on shore.
10. In surveying a park it is required to fnd the distancebetweon
two points A and B; bat as a lake intervenes, a direct measurement
CAnnot be made. The surveyor therefore takes a third point C, from
which both A and B are accessible, and he nds CẤ=245 yards,
CB=20 yards, and the angle ACB=42. Ascertain from a plan the
approximate distance between A and B.

ANSWERS
1. 68°, 87", 75° v. nearly. 2. 80 cin. 4 22, 50°, 73 nearly.
6. 37 ft. 6. 101 metres. 7. 27 ft. 8. 424 yds., nearly ; N. W.
281 vda 166 vdg.. 153 vås. 10, 214 yda,
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 SOLUTIONS/HINTS

:.
1. Draw a straight lne AC=21". With C and A as
centres and the radi equal to 2 0° and 13
draw two BrGs cutbing at B.
JoLn BA and BC.
Then AB0 1s the required triaogle.
Measure the ABC, ACB and BAC, and see that the
L BAC=68,the ABC=75°.
ACB=$7' and the
The sum of the ABC,ACBand BAC=63*+37° +75.
=180.
2 Drawastraightlıpe AC=7 cm. With A and , as
centres and the radın equal to 6°5 cm, and
7-5 cm. draw two ares cutting at B
Jo1n BA and CB.
B
a
Then ABC is the requured triangle.
From B drop a perpendıcular BD to CA.
leasure BD and it will be found to be equal to G cm
3 Construct an angle BCA =65 of whuch the arm B0
is egnal to 7 cm. and AC cqual to 6 cm. A

Jon AB.
Then ABC is the required triangle.
B
a
Theoretıcally any two triangles having these parts would
bave two BIdes of the one equal to two sIdes of the obher as
well as therr incladed argles equal.
 Then the triangles would be equal n all respects.
(Theor. 4)
The triangles would be alike in size and shape.
The above statement can be ex perımentally illustrated
by cuttıng two such triangles fron a piece of paper and by
Buperposıng one of the triangles on the other when they wıll
exactly co1uGIde.
4. Kako an angle ABO=s7" whose arn BA=2.3" and
AC=.
Joun BC.
Then ABC 1a the requured triangle.

Messure tho sıde BC, the ABC

and the ABC.
It will be found that BO=22", the L AB(J=50' and
the ACB=78 nearly.
Draw a straight lune B(=92. As B and C make
angles ABC and ACBL0" and 78' respeciively cutung at A.
A

Then ABC is the required triangle.

Measare the eides BA and AC and the BAC

Îe will be foand tbat BA=2 8, AC= and the BAC

=57" (verynearly
equal,
.:. the triangles constracted in both cases are inden tioally
 5. Draw a verrtioal lıoe AB=3•5" representıng the
height of the wIndow above the ground From A
B draw BC=12 perpen dıcular to AB which 1s
the dıstance of the ladder from the base of the
house.
Jon AC which represents the ladder. g
Measnro AC and ib will be found to be equal to 3.7".
:. The ladder 1s37 ft. long.
6. Leb A be any point representing the starting point,
From A draw ABe99 cm. vertically upwards. C
From B draw BC=2 om perpendıcalar to AB.
Then represents the ual posıtion. Join CA and
mens ure 1t.
It will be found to be eqnal to 10 1 om.
.. The distance from the startıng poind1s 10l metres.
7.Draw a horontal ioe BC=3" At C make an angle
BCA=42, Brom B draw BAperpendacaral to B0 mting CA
ID A,

Tben BC represents the ehudow, AB the dırection of the

rays of son and AB the vertCal pole
Measure BA aDd tt will be found 2-7" long
i. the pole 1s 27 fo. long

8. Let A be the starting point of the surreyor. From

A draw AB=15" to tbe rıght. At B drop a
perpendicalar BC=3 to AB vertically up-
warde, From C draw CD =48 perpendicular
to BC to the left Jon DA.
fi
 W<--

N B

Measure DA and it wall be found to be 4:24",

.: the dıstanoo of the poiat D from the starbıng point A is 424 yards.
Also measure the DAB shd it will be found to be 135*.

.
.. the pount D bears a north westerly direotıon from tho pout A.

9 Let B and C be two poiats at a dstance of 26 cm

apart. Jon BC and at the point B make an
L CBA=33' and at the pont C an BCA
81, the two srms of the angles CBA and
BCA meeting at &.

Then A representsthe position of thevessel.

Measare AB and AC. It will be foand that AB=281° and AC=158".

.. the vesel is 281 yards from B and 155 yards from C.

Drop AD perpendicular to BC.

Then D represents the nearest point on the shore,

Measure AD and it wıll be found 1·53" long.
.. the vessel 1s 158 yard froua tbe nesrest point on the tbore.

10 Make an angle ACB=24 baving the ades AC,

CB=245 and 32 respectively.
 Then A and B repı esent the tvo pointa in the park bet-
reen whicb the lake intervenee, and C represents the thırd
pount from which both A and B areacoessıble.
JoLa AB and measure it.
It miHbefound that AB=2 14
..the distsncebebweenthe poınts A and Bis 214yards.

THEOREM 8. (Euclid I. 16.]

If one side of a triangle is produced, then the ezterior angk is

than either of the interior opposite angles.

D
lG
Let ABO be a triangle, and let BO be produced to D.
II is required to prove that the erterior L ACD is greater than
eilher of the interior opposite z' ABC, BAC.
Suppose E to be the middle point of AC
Join BE; and produce it to F, making EF equal to BE.
Join FC.
Proof. Then in the AEB, CEF,
AE= CE
because EB=EF,
and the AEB= the vertically oppositez CEF;
.. the triangles are equal in all respects; Theor. 4.
8o that the L BAE=the ECF.
But the LECD is greater than the ECF;
. theLECDisgreaterthanthe BAE;
that is, theLACD is greater than the BÁC.
 In the same way, if AC is produced to G, by supposing A to
be joined to the middle point of BC, it may be proved that
the BCG is greater than the ABC.
But the L BCG = the vertically opposite LACD.
the ACD is greater than the LABO.
Q.ED.
COROLLARY 1. Any hoo angles of a triangle are together less
than tuo right angles.

For the LABC is less than the LACD: Proved.

to each add the LACB.
Then the L ABC, ACB are leas than the 2•ACD, ACB,
therefore, less than two right angles. 4.
COROLLARY 2. Every triangle must have at least too acte
angles.
For if one angle is obtuse or a right angle, then by Cor.l each of the
other angles must be less than a right angle.

COROLLARY 3. Ondy one perpendicular can be drawn to a

straight line from a given point ouiside it.

If two perpendiculars could be drawn to AB from

P, we should have a triangle PQR in which esch of
the L PQR, PRQ would be a right angle, which is
impossible.
R B
EXERCISES
1. Prove Corollary 1 by joining the vertex A to any point in the
base BC.

2. ABC s a triangle and D any point oithin it.

joined, the angle BDCis greater than the angle BAC. IỰ BD and
Prove this CD are
(i) by producing BD to meet AC.
(ü) by joining AD, and producing it towarda the base.
3. If any side of a triangle is produced both ways, the exterior
angles so forrhed are together greater than two right angles.
4. To & given straight line there cannot be drawn from a point out-
side it more than two straight lines of the same given length.
 5. If the equal aides of an iso8celes trtangle are produced, tbc
Axterior angles must be obtuse.

SOLUTIONS/HINTS
1, Let ABC be auy triapgle.

It 1s requred to prove that apy two angles of the A

ABI are togesher less than twn rıght angles.
Take any poab D in BC Jon AD.
Proof-Becase in the A ABD, BD 1s produced to C
:. the exterior ADC 1sgreaser tban the interior
opposıte ABD, or ABC (Theor 3)
Agaın, because rn the A ADC, DC 1s produeed to B
. the exterior Z ADB is greater than the interıor
ate L ACD, or ACB (Theor. 8)
.. cbe ABC and ACB are togetáer less than she
ADO and ADB:

Bat the s ADOand ADBtogether=2 rb. z5 (Theor. 1)

. the 3 ABCand ACB of the A ABC sretogether
less than 2 ro 2$.
QB. D.
2. Let A BC be a triangle and D be sny point wıthın i
Join BD snd CD.
It 19 requıred to prove that the z BDC 13 greater tban
the L BAC.
() Prodaco BD beyond D to meet AO in E.
 In tbe A ABE, AE is produced to
.. the exterior L BEC, orz DEC 1s greater than the
interior oppoite BAE,or 2BAC (Theor.8.)
Again, in the A DEC, ED 1s produced to B
.". the exterior L BDC 19 greater than the 1nterIor
opposite L DEC.
. stillmnore1sthe 2. BDC greater than the BAC.
(in) Join AD and produce AD beyond D to meet BC
1n F.

Ậ,
In the A ABD, AD 1sproduccd to F
. the ert. 2 BDF s greaterthan the int. opp.
L BAD (1beor. 8)
In the A ADC, AD 1sproduced to F
.:. the ext. 2 FDC 1s grester than the int, oPp.
L CAD(Theor. 8)
:. thewhole BDCis greater thsn the whole L BAC.
Q E. D.
3. Let ABC be soy triangle and let the side AC be
produced both ways to the points D and E.

Itis reqnired to prore tht the ezterior angles BAD

and BCE soform d are togethergreater than 2 rt. 2s.
The 25BAD and BAC together =2 rt 25 (Theot. 1)
and tbe S BOE andBCA tagether =2 rs cS (Theor 1)
the 5 BAD, BAG, BCE and BCÂ together

rt $,
 Bat tu the A ABC, the s BACand BCA aretogether
less than 2 re. 28 (Cor. 1. Theor 8)

:. the s BAD and BCEare together greaterthan

2rt 28,
Q. E. D.
4 Let AB be a given etraight line and let C be a given
point outside it,
C

EF
Ib is required to prove that there cnonot be drawi more
thap two straight lunes of the same given Jength from
C to AB.
Draw two equanl straight lunes CD and CE to AB and
if;possıblelet CF'bennother atraight lıne equal to CD or CE
drawn from C to AB.
Proof.-Becanse CD=CE rby construction)
.. the CDE= the L CED Theor, 5)
Agaın,becanee CD(F (bysupposıtıon)
.. the L CDF=the L CFD (Theor. 5)
.". the CED=the CFD
t. e, the ext. L CED=the 1nt. opp. CFD which is
absurd accordıng to Theor 8
.. CF 1s not equal to CE or CD.
.. CE and CD are the only two equal straught lines
drawn trum C to AB.
Q D. D.

5. Let ABO be anisnsceles triangle avd let the eqnal sides

AB and AC be produced to any pozıuts D and E rcspectıvely.
 It 1s required to prove that the erteror L S CBD and
BOE tbus formed are ench an obtuse angle.
Proof-Because in the A ABC, AB=AC (given)
i. the L ABC=the L ACB Theor. 5)
Butthe 5 ABCandACBaretogetberlessthan 2 rt. s
(Cor. 1. Theor. 8)
Hence, each of the S ABC and ACB 1s acute
Bat tbe 25 ABO and CBD tngether ==2 ro. 2.9 (Theor, 1)
the 2 ABC 1sacute, hence the CBD 18 obtase.
Also the L8 ACB and BCE together =2 rt, 29.
(Theor. 1)
bat the ACB is acute,hence the L BOE is obtuse.
t.e, cach of theexk. 2s CBD aud BCB s obtuse.
Q E D.

THEOREM 9. (Euclid I. 18.]

If one side of a triangle is greater than another, then the angle
opposile to the greater side is greater than the angle opposite to the
less.

Let ABC be a triangle, in which

the side AC is greater than
the side AB.
It is required to prove that
the L ABC is greater than the L ACB.
From AC cut off AD equal to AB.
Join BD.
Proof. Because AB=AD,
the ABD = the LADB. Theor. 5.

But the exterior LADB of the A BDO is greater than the

interior opposite DCB, that is, greater than the L ACB.
 .". the L ABD is greater than the L ACB.
Still more then is the LABC greater than the LACB.
Q.E.D.
Ob8. The mode of demonstration used in the following Theoren
is known as the Proof by Exhaustion. It is applicable tocasesin which
one of certain suppositions must necessarily be true; and it consists in
shewing that each of theae suppositions is false with one exception :
hence the truth of the remaining supposition is inferred.

THEOREM 10. [Euclid I. 19.)

f oneangle of a triangle isgreaterthananother,then he side

opposite to the greater angle is greaer than the side opposite lo the
less.

Let ABC be a triangle, in which the ABC is groster than

the LACB.
t is required to prove that the side AC is grealer than the
sde AB.

Proot. If AC is not greater than AB,

it must be either equal to, or less than AB.
Now if AC were equal to AB,
then the LABC would be equal to the ACB; Theor. 5.
but, by hypothesis, it is not.
Again, if AC were less than AB,
then the L ABC would be less than the L ACB; Theor. 9.
but, by hypothesis, it is not.
That is, AC is neither eçual to, nor less than AB.
.'. AC is greater than Q.ED.
30 GEOMETRY.

THEOREM 9. [Euclid I. 18.]

If one side of a triangle is greater than another, then the angle
opposie to the greater side is greater than the angle opposite to the
less.

Let ABC be a triangle, in which the side AC is greater than

the side AB.
It is required to prove that the L ABC is greater than the L ACB.
From AC cut off AD equal to AB.
Join BD.

Proof. Because AB= AD,

.". the L ABD = the LADB. Theor. 5.

But the exterior LADB of the A BDC is greater than the

interior opposite DCB, that is, greater than the LACB.
.". the L ABD is greater than the L ACB.
Still more then is the Z ABC greater than the LACB.
Q.E.D.

Obs. The mode of demonstration used in the following Theoremn

is known as the Proof by Ezhaustion. It is applicable tocasesin which
one of certainsuppositions must necessarilybe true; and it consists in
shewing that each of these suppositions is false with one ezception :
hence the truth of the remaining supposition is inferred.

Original from
SITY OF N UNIVERSITY OF MICHIG
 INEQUALITIES. 31

THEOREMr 10. Euclid I. 19.]

If one angle of a triangle is greater than another, then the side

opposite to the greater angle is greater than the side qpposite to the
less

Let ABC be a triangle, in which the LABC is greater than

the LACB.
It is reguired to prove tlhat the side AC is greater than the
side AB.

Proof. If AC is not greater than AB,

it must be either equal to, or less than AB.
Now if AC were equal to AB,
then the LABC would be equal to the L ACB; Theor. 5.
but, by hypothesis, it is not.
Again, if AC were less than AB,
then the LABC would be less than the LACB; Theor. 9.
but, by hypothesis, it is not.
That is, AC is neither equal to, nor less than AB.
.. AC is greater than AB. Q.E.D.

(For Exercises on Theorems 9 and 10 see page 34.]

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 32 GEOMELRY.

THEOREM 11. [Euclid I. 20.]

Any tuo sides of a triangle are together greater than the third
side.

Let ABC be a triangle.

t is required toprone that any tuo of its sides aretogether
qreater than the third side.

It is enough to shew that if BC is the greatest side, then

BA, AC are together greater than BC.
Produce BA to D, making AD egual to AC.
Join DC.

Proof. Because AD = AC,

.'. the ACD = the LADC. Theor. 5.

But the L BCD is greater than the L ACD;

.. the BCD is greater than the LADC,
that is, than the BDC.
Hence from the A BDC,
BD is greater than BC. Thcor. 10.

But BD = BA and AC together ;

. BAandACare togethergreater than BC.
Q.E.D.

NoTE. This proof may serve as an exercise, but the truth of the
Theorem is really self-evident. For to go from B to C along the
straight line BCis clearly shorter than to go from B to A and then
from A to C. In other words
Theshortest ditancebetweentuo pointsis thestraight linewhick joins
them.

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 INEQUALITIES. 33

TIEOREM 12.

0f all straight lines drawn from a given point to a given straight

line the perpendicular is the least.

A 8
Let 0c be the perpendicular, and OP any oblique, drawn from
the given point O to the given straight line AB.
It is required to rove that OC is less than OP.
Proof. In the A 0CP, since the OCP is a right angle,
.. the L OPC is less than a right angle ; Theor. 8. Cor.
that is, tho OPC is less than the 0CP.
.. 0c is less than OP. Theor. 10.
Q.E.D.

COROLLARY 1. Hence conversely, since there can be only

one perpendicular and one shortcst line from O to AB,
If 0c is the shortest straiglt line from O to AB, then 0C is
perpenubicular to AB.

COROLLARY 2. Tuo obliques OP, 0Q, wlich cut AB at equal

distances from G the foot of the perpendicular, are equal.
The A•0CP, OCQ may be shewn to be congruent by Theorcm 4;
henoe OP=0Q.
COROLLARY 3. 0f tuo obliges OQ, OR, if OR cuts AB at the
greater distance from C the foot of the perpendicular, then OR is
greater than 0Q.
The L0QC is acute, .. the LOQR is obtuso ;
.. tho L OQR is greater than the LORQ;
:. OR is greater than 0Q.
H.8.G. C

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34 GEOMETRY.

EXERCISES ON INEQUALITIES IN A TRIANGLE.

1. The hypotenuse is the greatest side of a right-angled triangle.
2. The greatest side of any triangle makes acute angles with each of
the other sides.

3. If from the ends of a side of a triangle, two straight lines are

drawn to a point within the triangle, then these straight lines ae together
lens than the other two sides of the triangle.

4. BC, the base of an isosceles triangle ABC, is produced to any

point D; shew thát:AD is greater than eithor of the equal sidcs.
5. If in a quadrilateral the greatest and least sides aro opposite
to one another, then each of the angles adjacont to the least side is
greater than its opposite angle.
6. In a triangle ABC, if AC is not greater than AB, shew that
any straight line drawn through the vertex A and termjnated by the
baso BC, is less than AB.
7. ABC is a triangle, in which OB, 0C bisect the angles ABC,
ACB respectively : shew that, if AB is greater than AC, then OB is
greater than 0C.
8. The difference of any two sides of a triangle is lcss than tlhe
third side.
9. The sum of the distances of any point from the thrco angular
points of a triangle is greater than half its pcrimctor.
l0. The perimcter of a quadrilateral is greater than the sum of
its diagonals.
l1. ABC is a triangle, and the vertical angle BAC is bisccted by
a line which meets BC in X; shew that BA is greater than BX, and
CA greater than CX. Henceobtain a proof of Theorcm l1.

12. The sum of the distanoes of àny point within a triangle fron
its angular points is less than the perimeter of the triangl.
13. The sunm of the diagonals of a quadrilateral is lcss than the
sum of the four straight lines drawn from the angular points to any
given point. Prove this, and point out the exceptional case.
14. In a triangle any two sides are together greater than twice the
median ohich bisects the remaining side.
(Produco tho median, and complete the construction after the
manner of Theorem 8.]
15. In any triangle the um of the medians is less tlhan the perimeler.

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 PARALLELS. 35

PARALLELS.
1

gnmisem
DEFINITION. Parallel straight lines are such as, being in
the same pląne, do not meet however far they are produced nn Gio
beyond hoth jepds:
"NoTE.Parallel lines must be in thesame plane. For instance, two
straight lines, one of which is drawn on a table and the other on the
oor, would never meet if produced; but they arc not for that reason
necessarily parallel
AioMTuo intersecting straight lines cannot bothbe parallel
to a third straight line.
In other words:
Through a given point there can be only one straight line parallel
to a given straight line.
This assumption is known as Playfairs Aæiom.

DEFINITION. When two straight lines AB, CD are met by

a third straight line EF, eight angles are formed, to which for
the sake of distinction particular names are given.

Thus in the adjoining gure, noHên A E

1, 2, 7, 8 are called exteriorangles,
3, 4, 5, 6 are called interior angles, 8
4 and 6 are said to be alternate angles;
so also the angles 3 and 5 are alternate
to one another. 5/6
87
Of the angles 2 and 6, 2 is referred
to as the exterior angle, and 6 as the
interior opposite angle on the same side
of EF. Such angles are also known as corresponding angles.
Similarly 7 and 3, 8 and 4, 1 and 5,are pairs of corresponding
angles.

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36 GEOMETRY.

THEOREN 13. (Euclid I. 27 and 28.]

Ifa straight line cuts tuo other straight lines so as to make

(i) the alternate angles egual,
or (ü) an enterior angle equal to the interior opposite angle on the
same side of the cutting line,
or (ii) the interior angles on the same side erual to tuo right
angles ;
then in eachcase the tuo straigt lines are parallel.

(i) Let the straight line EGHF cut the two straight lines
AB, CD at G and H so as to make the alternate z'AGH, GHD
equal to one another.
It is required to prove that AB and cD are parallel.

Proof. If AB and CD are not parallel, they will moet, if

produced, either towards B and D, or towards A and C.

If possible, let AB and cD, when produced, meet towards B

and D, at the point K.

Then KGH is a triangle, of which one side KG is produced to A;

.. the exterior L AGH is greater than the interior opposite
L GHK; but, byhypothesis, it is notgreater.
.'. AB and cD cannot meet when produced towards B andD.
Similarly it may be shewn that they cannot meet towards
Aand C:
.. AB and CD are parallel.

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HIG UNIVERSITY OF
 PARALLELS. 37

(iü) Let the exterior L EGB = the interior opposite z GHD.

It is required to prove that AB and cD are parallel.

Proof. Because the L EGB=the GHD,

and the LEGB=the vertically oppositeL AGH;
.. the LAGH= the LGHD:
and these are alternate angles;
.. AB and cD are parallel.

(iüi) Let the two interior ' BGH,GHDbetogetherequaito

two right angles.
It is required to prove tlhat AB and CD are parallel.

Proof. Becausothe 'BGH,GHDtogether=two right

angles;
and because the adjacent zBGH, AGH together =two right
angles ;
.. the 2'BGH,AGHtogether=the ' 8GH,GHD.
From these equals take the L BGH;
then the remaining L AGH = the remaining L GHD:
and these are alternate angles;
.. AB and cD are parallel.
Q.E.D.

DEFINITION. Ả straight line drawn across a set of given

linos is called a transversal.
For instance, in the above diagram the line EGHF, wlhich crosses
the given lines AB, CD is a transversal.

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/ERSITY OF MICHIGA UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
 38 GEOMETRY.

THEOREM14. (Euclid I 29.]

Ifa straight line cutstuo parallel lines, it makes
(i) the alternate angles equal to one another ;
(i) the ezterior angle equal to the interior opposite angle on the
sameside of the cutting line;
(iü) the tuo interior angles on the same side together egual to tuo
right angles.

A B
P

H D

7
Let the straight lines AB, CD be parallel, and let the
straight line EGHF cut them.
It is required toprove that
(1) the L AGH=the allernateL GHD;
(ii) the exterior L EGB = the interior opposite L. GHD;
(iii) the tuo interior L' BGH, GHD together= tuo right angles.

(i) If the AGH is not equal to the L GHD,

Proof.
supposetho LPGH equal to the GHD, andalternate to it;
then PG and CD are parallel. Theor. 13.

But, by hypothesis, AB and CD are parallel ;

. the twointersectingstraight linesAG,PGare both parallel
to CD: which is impossiblo. Playfair's Ariom.
". the zAGH is not unequal to the GHD;
that is, the alternate L' AGH, GHD are equal.
(ii) Again, because the L EGB = the vertically opposite
LAGH;
and the LAGH= the alternate GHD ; Proved.
.". the exterior EGB= the interior opposite L GHD.

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 PARALLELS. 39

(iii) Lastly, the EGB = the GHD; Proved.

add to each the z BGH;
then the 'EGB, BGH together= the angles BGH, GHD.
But the adjacent 'EGB, BGH together =two right angles ;
.. the two interior 2'BGH, GHD together =two right angles.
Q.E.D.

PARALLELS ILLUSTRATED BY ROTATION.

The direction of a straight line is determined by the angle which

it malkes with some given line of reference.
Thus the direotion of AB, relatively to the given line YX, is given by
the angle APX.
Now suppose that AB and CD in
the adjoining diagram are parallel ;
then we have lcarned that
thẹ ext.: LAPX=he int. opp. LCQX;
that is, AB and CD make equal angles
with the line of reference YX.
This brings us to the leading idea
connected with parallels :
Parallel straight lines have the same
D/
DIRECTION,b difer inrosrTION.
The same idca may be illustrated
thus:
Suppose AB to rotate about P through the LAPX, so as to take the
position XY. Thence let it rotate about Q the opposite way through
the equal LXQC: it will now take the position CD. Thus ẤB may be
bronght into the position of CD lby two rotations which, being cqual
and opposite, involve no nal change of direction.

HYFOTHETICALCONSTRUCTION. In the above diagram let

AB be a xed straight line, Q a xed point, CD a straight
line turning about ā, and YQPX any transversal through Q.
Then as CD rotates, there must be one position in which the
LCQX =the xed LAPX.
Hence through any given pont we may assume a line to pass
parallel to any given straight line.
Obs. If AB is a straight line, movements from A towards
8, and from B towards A are said to be in opposite senses
of the line AB.

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 PARALLELS. 41

EXERCISES ON PARALLELS.

1. In the diagram of the previous page, if the angle EGB is 55°,

doyexpress in degreeseach of the angles GHC, HKQ, QKF.

2. Straight lines ohich are perpjeñdiculaf to thesame straiglt line are

parallel to one another.

3. If a straight line meet tvo or more parallel straight lines, and is

perpendicular to one of them, it is also perpendicular to all the otlhers.

4. Angles of which the arms are parallel, each to each, are eilher
equal or supplementary.
V5. Two straight lines AB, CD bisect one another at O. Shew that
the straight lines jojning AC and BD are parallel.

6. Any straight line drawn parallel to the base of anisosceles tri-

angle makes equal angles with the sides.

7. If from any point in the bisector of an angle a straight line is

drawn parallel to either arm of the angle, the triangle thus formed is
isosceles.

8. From X, a point in the base BO of an isosceles triangle ABC, a

straight line is drawn at right angles to the base, cutting AB in Y, and
CA produced in Z : shcw the triangle AYZ is isosceles.

9. If the straight line which bisects an exterior angle of a triangle

is parallel to the opposite side, shew that the triangle is isosceles.

10. The straight lines drawn from any point in the bisector of an
angle parallel to the arms of the angle, and terminated by them, are
equal; and the resulting gure is a rhombús.

11. AB and CD are two straight lines intersecting at D, and the

adjacent angles so formed are bisected : if through any point X in DC a
straight line YXZ is drawn parallel to AB and meeting the biscctors in
Y and Z, shew that XY is egual to XZ.

12. Two straight rods PA, QB revolve about pivots at Pand Q. PA

making 12 complete revolutions a minute, and QB making 10. If they
start parallel and pointing the samoway, how long will it be before they
areagainparallel, i) pointingoppositeways, (ü) pointing thesameway?

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fi
 42 GEOMETRY.

THEOREM 16. [Euclid I. 32.]

The three angles of a triangle are together equal to tuo right

angles.

Let ABC be a trianglo.

It is required to prove that the tlhree L' ABc, BCA, CAB together
= two right angles.
Produce BO to any point D; and suppose CE to be the line
through parallel to BA.

Proof. Because BA and CE are parallel and AC meets them,

.". the L ACE = the alternate L CAB.
Again, because BA and CE are parallel, and BD meets them,
.. thc exterior L ECD = the interior opposite LABC.
.. the whole ertcrior LACD =the sum of the tuo interior opposite
L' CAB, ABC.

To each of these equals add the BCA;

then the L' BCA, ACD together = the three L• BCA, CAB, ABC.
But theadjacent ' BCA,ACDtogether=two rightangles.
.. the z' BCA, CAB, ABC together = two right angles.
Q.ED.

Obs.In the course of this proof the following most im-

portant property has been established.
Ifa sideaf atriangleisproducedtheezteriorangleisequalto
te sum.ofthetuoinderioropposite
qngles.
Namely, the ext. L ACD= the LCAB+ the LABC.

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 THE ANGLES OF A TRIANGLE. 43

INFERENCES FROM THEOREM 16.

1. IfA, B, and C denote the numòer of degrees in the angles of
a triangle,
thenA + B+C= 180°.
2. If tuo triangles have twoangles of the onerespectivelycqual
to tuo angles of the other, then the third angle of the one is equal to
the third angle of the other.

3. In any right-angled triangle the tuo acute angles are comple-

mentary.
4. If one angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the other
too, the triangle is right-angled.

5. The sm of the angles of any quadrilateral gure is equal to

four right angles.

BXERCISES ON THEOREM 16.

1. Each angle of an equilateral triangle is two-thirds of a right

angle, or 60.
2. In a right-angled isosceles triangle each of the equal angles
is 45°.
3. Two angles of a triangle are 36° and 123° respectively : deduce
the third angle; and verify your result by measurcment.
4. In a triangle ABC, the L B=111°, the LC=42°; deduce the LA,
and verify by measurement.
5. One side BC of a triangle ABC is produccd toD. If the exterior
angle ACD is 134°; and the angle BAC is 42°; nd eachof the remaining
interior angles.
6. In the gure of Theorem 16, if the LACD=11s, and the
LB=51, nd tho L•A and C; and check your results by measurement.
7. Prove that the three angles of a triangle are together equal to two
right angles by supposing a line draun throuyh the vertex parallel to the
base.

8. If tuo straight lines are perpendicular to tuo other straight lines,

each to each, the acute angle belween the frst pair is eqal to the acule
angle between the second pair.

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 44 GEOMETY.
NumeH
COROLLARY1. Al theinteriorangles of anyfectilineal igure,
together with four right angles, are equal to twice as many right
angles as the gure has sides.

Let ABCDE be a rectilineal gure of n sides.

It is required to prone that all the interior angles +4 rt. 2'
= 2n rt. L.
Take any point O within the gure, and join O to each of
its vertices.
Then the gure is divided into triangles.
Andthethree ' ofeachAtogether=2 rt. '.
Hence all the z' of all the A together =2n rt. L'.
But all the z' of all the A' make up all the interior angles
of the gure together with the angles at O, which = 4 rt. L
.. all the int. z of the gure +4 rt. L'= 2n rt. L'.
Q.E.D.

DEFINITION. A regular polygon is one which has all its

sides equal and all its angles equal.
Thus if D denotes the number of degrees in each angle of
a regular polygon of n sides, the abovè result may be stated
thus :

nD+360° =%.180°.

EXAMPLE.

Find the number of degrees in cach angle of

v (i) a regular hexagon (6 sides) ;
(ii) a regular octagon (8 sides) ;
(ii) & regular decagon (10 sides).

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 THE ANGLES OF RECTILINEAL FIGURES. 45

EXERCISES ON THEOREM 16.

(Numerical and Graphical.)

1. ABC is a triangle in which the angles at B andC are re-

speotively double and treble of the angle at A: fnd the number of
degrees in each of these angles.
2. Express in degrees the angles of an isosceles triangle in wlhich
(i) Each base angle is double of the vertical angle ;
(ii) Each base angle is four times the vertical angle.
3. The base of a triangle is produced both ways, and the exterior
angles are found to be 94 and I26°; deduce the vertical angle. Con-
struct such a triangle, and check your result by measurement.
4. The sum of the angles at the base of a triangle is 162°, and their
diference is 60°: nd all the angles.
5. The angles at the base of a triangle are 84° and 62°; deduce
(i) the vertical angle, (ii) the angle between the bisectors of the base
anglos. Check your results by construction and measurement.

6. In a triangle ABC, the angles at B and C are 74° and 62°: if AB

and AC are produced, deduce the angle between the bisectors of the
exterior angles. Check your result graphically.
7. Three angles of a quadrilateral are respectively l14}°, 50", and
754°; fnd the fourth anglo.
8. In a quadrilateral ABCD, the angles at B, C, and D are re-
speotively equal to 2A, 3A, and 4A; nd al the anglcs.
9. Four angles of an irregular pentagon (5 sides) are 40%,78°, 122",
and 135; nd the fth angle.
10. In any regular polygon of n sides, each angle contains 2(2-2)
right angles.
(i) Deduce this result from the Enunciation of Corollary 1.
(ii) Prove it independently by joining ono vertex A to each of the
others (except the two immediately adjacent to A), thus dividing the
polygoninto n -2 triangles.
11. How many sides have the regular polygons each of whose
angles is (i) 108°, (i) 156°?
12. Shew that the only regular gures which may be tted together
so as to form a plane surface are (i) eguilateral triangles, (ii) squaree,
(iii) regular hezayos.

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 46 GEOMETRY.

CORILLARY 2. If the sides of a rectilineal gure, uhich has

no Teentrant angle, are produced in order, then all the exterior
ançles so formed are together equal to four'right angles.

Ist Proof. Suppose, as before, that the gure has n sides ;

and consequently n vertices.
Now at each vertex
theinteriorL+ the exterior L=2 rt. L;
and there are n vertices,
.. the sum of the int. L'+ the sum of the ext. L'=2n rt. L'.
But by Corollary 1,
the sum of the int. 2 + 4 rt. 2 = 2rn rt. 2';
.. the sum of the ext. L°=4 rt. L".
Q.E.D.
2nd Proof

Take any point O, and suppose Oa, Ob, Oc, Od, and Oe, are
linesparallel to thesidesmarked,A,B, , D, E (anddrawn
from O in the sense in which those sides were produced).
Then the exterior L between the sides A and B=the Lab.
And the other exterior '=the boc, cod, d0e, eoa,
respectively.
.". the sum of the ext. L= the sum of the at O
=4 rt. L.

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 IV. Solve the following problem. 1x8=8
8. a) Locate the points (2, 0), (5, 4), (0, 4), (–3, 2), (-2, -3), (0, –3),
(2. -3) on cartesian plane in your answer sheet
Doáojes (2, 0). (5, 4), (0, 4), (-3, 2), (-2, -3),. (0, -3), (2, -3) oKo

(Or)
b) In the gure lines XY and MN intersect at O.
IfZPOY=90°and a:b=2:3, nd c.
Stoes* XY 3JDcáwMN Õpes O 36 šeudw. aššé POY = 90°
oSosw a:b=2:3 sowd cso SSfSo&.
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 Propositions are of two kinds, Theorems and Problems.

A Theoremproposes to prove the truth of some geometrical

statement.
A Problem proposes to perform some geometrical construc-
tion, such as to draw some particular line, or to construct
some required gure.
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 SOLUTIONS/HINTS
1. We know from defnition
When the sura of two angles is two right angles or 180,
Each of two angles 1s 8aid to be supplement of the other.
Hence,
Supplementofone-balfofa right angleis 2 rt. 5 Tô,29
orrt. 2S, orthree-halvesof a right angle, or x 90°,
135°.
Supplement of four-thirds of a right angle is 2 rt. 29
rt, 2s, or rt. S, ortwo-tbırdsof a ight angle, or
90°, or 60°
Supplement of 46° 1s 180°-46", or 134°.
Supplement of 149° is 180°-l49°, or 31°,
Supplement of 83° 1s 180°-83°, or 97°.
Supplement of 101", 15' is 180°-10 1", 15, or 78°.45,
2. We know from defnitbion
When the snm of'two angles is one rıght angle or 90°.
Each of twO angles 1s waid to be complement of the other.
Hence,
Complementof two• fths of a ight angleis l rt. L~
t64°,
L,or rk, 0rtbreeff.hs ofa rıghtangle,or x 90°,
Complement of27 18 90°-27°, or 68°.
Complenentof 88°. 16' is 90-38° 16, or 51°,44,
Complermentof 41'. 29, 30° is 90*-41', 29'. 80°,
or 48 30'30°
8. Let AB, CD be aDy two staaighb lınes interseoting at
0, and let A0C be a rıght engle.
It 1s required to prove thab the other
three angles COB, BOD and A0D
Are also righs angles
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 Proof -Because 00 stands on the straıghb lino AB at
0,
:. the 5 A0C andC0B.aretogetherequalto 2 rb. 49;
(Theor. 1)
Bat the L A00 1 given a rt. e.
Hence, the COB 19 also a rt L.
Again beoause A0 sbands on the atrmght lıne DC ab 0
.. tbe z5 A0C and A0D are togather equal to 2 rt. 45.
(Theor. l)
But the L A0C IR given a zt. 2
HeDce, the 2 A0D 1Faleo a rt L.
Agan becaas DƆsbandaon tte straught lino AB at 0:
.. the 9 A0DandDOBaretogetherequalto 2 rt s.
(Theor. 1)
But the L AOD 1eproved to be a rt.
Hence, the DOB is alvo a rt Lo
each of the tbree angles COB, A0D and DOB 19 a r& L-

4. Let ABC be a triangle in which the angles ABC and

A.
ACB are given equal The side BC is pr0
duced bosh wAys to the pounts D'aad E, as
shown 1n the diagram.

I: is reqaired to prore that theangles ÁBD and ACE

eqial,
Proof.--B-es 199 AB stands on DE at B,
.. the s ABD snd ABCare togethsreznal to two
bt angles. (Theor. 1)
Aleo becaz9 AC stnde on DE at C,
:. the zs ACE aad ACB aretozetherequal to tro rigab
gles. (īneor. 1)
. the z8 ABDandABCtozether=the L5 ACE and
CB togetber.
But the ABG= the L ACB (byhypothesie)
:. the ABDhe L ACE.
 5. Let ABC bs a triangle in bich tae sngles ABG and
CB are given eqna. The eide AB i: pro- A
nesi besond B to ang pont D and LC is
rodacsd besoad G to sny point E.
It is requirei to proTe taat thg angles
BCE and CBD aro equal.

Proof-Because BC stands on AD st B,
.". the 25 ABC and CB are togather equi to tro
igat angles. (Taeor. 1)
Again beATE4 BC stends on AE at C,
.:. the s ACBandBOEaretogesherequalto to right
znglet. (Tasor. I)
the z ABC and CBD19g:thr=the2 AC3snd
BGE ogeer.
Batthe . ACB=tbe ABC(bybypothesis)
.". the L CBD=theL BOE.
6 Let the etraıgbt lune GD stand on another straıght
line AB at C makıng tbe adjacent angles F
BCD and DCA. CE bisects the sogle
DOB and CE bisects the angle DCA. A B

It 1s reuired to prove that she an gle FCE 1s a rigbt

angle.
Proof.--Broanee CD stands on AB at C,
.. the BCDandthe ACDvogetber=2 rt s
(Theor. 1)
.. the ZLBCDand the ACDtag-ther =one rt L.
Bnt the L DOE ie balf of the e BCD and tbe L DCF
is baif of tbe 2 ACD (bybypothesıs)
.. tbe DCE and the DCFtogetbermonerb L
e, the L FCE18& rt. L.
 CHAPTER 2: On Lines and Angles

7. Let the straıgbt lioe B0 atand an AC at 0 making

the sdjneent angles B0A ana B0C 0X is
bIeotor of tbe angle BOA apd OY 1s bisect
or of the angle BOC

It isrequredtoprovethatthe 5 A0X and COY are

complementarg.
Proof.-Beesuse 0B standson CA at 0,
.the BOAand th0 B0Ctogether=2 rt. 28 (Theor. 1)

.. the L BOAand the L BOC=onert. L.

Busthe 2 A0X is half of the L B0A and the COY
balf of the L BOG,by hypothesıs)
the A0X and the C0Y together=one rt. L
tbe s A0X and G0Yarecomplementary.(fromde nion)

8.

Let B0 stADd on the straight lıne AC at 0 making tbe

aljncent angles BOA and BOC. 0X 1< 1sector of the angle
AOB and 0Y is brsector of the angle BOC.
It is reqnired to prore that the angles BOX end COX
are supplemontary , aud also that the angles AOY and B0T
are supplementary.
Proof.-Recaneo 0X stands on AC,
. the $ A0X andXOCaretogetherequalto two right
angies. (lbeor t)
Bat the A0X=the BOX (bshypothesis)
.. tbe s BOXandX0Ctoge.her>2 rt L5
ie, the s B0X and BOX are supplementary(from
deiaitioD)
Agaın becanse 0Y stands on CA,
:. the $CGOYand YOA together-=2 rt. z$ (Theor. 1)
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