Bridging the Gap between Saudi Students Translator Training

Programmes and the Needs of the Saudi Translation Market

Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Translation Studies

Supervised by Professor David Johnston and Dr Piotr Blumczyński

School of Arts, English and Languages

Faculty of Arts, Humanities and Social Science
August 2016

Ahmed Saleem Altuhaini

BA English Literature and Translation, Saudi Arabia
MA Applied Linguistics, USA
Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to extend thanks and appreciation to those who provided support and guidance

during this long journey. Primarily, I am indebted to my supervisors, Professor David Johnston

and Dr Piotr Blumczyński, for their valuable insights, amazing support and useful advice

throughout my PhD experience. They have always been responsive to my queries in each step

of this endeavour, offering holistic and specialised knowledge in translation research and

Translator Training. Special thanks go to all Saudi and Spanish translation students, trainers,

administrators, professional translators and managers of translation agencies for dedicating part

of their valuable time to inform the results of this study through interviews, focus groups or

questionnaires. Their insightful feedback served as a basis to highlight the importance of

making links between Saudi TT and the market. Specifically, I am grateful to supportive

colleagues from Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University, King Saud University and

other Saudi universities. Their generous support and assistance contributed significantly to

gathering this project’s data. I shall not forget to thank QUB Translation Studies PhD

programme staff and students for their support, the useful discussions we have had over many

TS and TT issues and our collaborative work over the past three years.

Above all I am deeply grateful to my late parents who were behind many of my achievements,

including this one. Their unwavering belief in my work and progress was and still is a main

drive for many of my successes. Finally, I dedicate this thesis to my marvellous wife, Tahani,

and children, Mishary, Nawaf, Shoug and Gala, for their patience, comforting love, endless

support and charming presence in my life.

I
Table of Contents

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... I
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... V
List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................. VII
List of Figures ..........................................................................................................................IX
List of Tables ...........................................................................................................................XI
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
0.1 Background: The State of the Art of Translator Training (TT) ....................................... 1
0.2 Research Problem ............................................................................................................. 2
0.3 Rationale for the Use of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) in TT ..................................... 5
0.4 Context of the Study....................................................................................................... 12
0.5 Research Question and Aims ......................................................................................... 13
0.6 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 13
0.7 Thesis Structure .............................................................................................................. 15
Chapter One: Changing Roles of the Translator and Global Trends in TT ............................. 18
1.1The Role of the Translator: Current Trends and Future Expectations ............................ 18
1.2 Translation Competence: Definition, Models and Significance .................................... 23
1.2.1 Defining Competence .............................................................................................. 23
1.2.2 Models of Translation Competence ......................................................................... 28
1.2.3 Empirical Models of Translation Competence ........................................................ 30
1.3 Historical Account of Translator Training ..................................................................... 35
1.4 Types of Institutional TT................................................................................................ 39
1.5 TT Pedagogical Approaches and Models....................................................................... 42
1.5.1 TT Approaches ........................................................................................................ 42
1.5.2 Using Electronic Learning in TT ............................................................................. 52
1.5.3 Challenges in TT ..................................................................................................... 55
1.6 Incorporating Theory into TT ........................................................................................ 59
1.7 Current Trends in TT...................................................................................................... 65
1.7.1 TT in European Higher Education Area: The Impact of the Bologna Process ....... 70
1.7.2 TT Programmes and Requirements ......................................................................... 72
1.7.3 Translator Training/ Education as a Component of Modern Languages Degrees .. 75
1.7.4 Formal Institutional Translation Education ............................................................. 76

II
 1.8 Case Studies ................................................................................................................... 78
1.8.1 The University of Granada, Spain ........................................................................... 78
1.8.2 The Autonomous University of Barcelona ............................................................ 101
1.9 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 108
Chapter Two: Training Needs Analysis (TNA) and Situational Analysis in TT ................... 111
2.1 Relevance of Training Needs Analysis to TT .............................................................. 115
2.2 Significance of TNA .................................................................................................... 116
2.3 Initiating TTCDC: Selecting and Forming the TT Development Team ...................... 119
2.4 Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle (TTCDC): A Need-Based
Systematic Approach to Developing and Managing TT Curriculum ................................ 121
2.4.1 The Planning Phase ............................................................................................... 122
2.4.2 The Implementation Phase .................................................................................... 153
2.4.3 The Evaluation Phase ............................................................................................ 155
Chapter Three: Curriculum Development in Translator Training ......................................... 162
3.1 Prescriptive and Descriptive Views of Curriculum...................................................... 162
3.2 Defining Curriculum: A Journey of Planned and Unplanned Activities ..................... 166
3.3 Components of and Influences on the Curriculum ...................................................... 171
3.3.1 Curriculum Components........................................................................................ 174
3.3.2 Influences on the Curriculum ................................................................................ 181
3.3.3 Action Plan and Feedback ..................................................................................... 184
3.4 The Need for Curriculum Assessment, Evaluation and Review .................................. 185
3.5 The Hidden Curriculum ............................................................................................... 187
3.6 Curricular Content ........................................................................................................ 190
3.6.1 Academic or Vocational ........................................................................................ 191
3.6.2 A Comparison of TT at the Undergraduate and Postgraduate Levels ................... 192
3.6.3 Level of Specialisation .......................................................................................... 193
3.7 Approaches to Curriculum Design in Translator Training........................................... 194
3.7.1 The Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education ............................... 200
3.7.2 Competence Frameworks and Workplace-oriented Translator Training/Education ...
………………………………………………………………………………………….203
3.7.3 Task-based and Competence-based TT Curricula ................................................. 212
3.7.4 The TNA-Based Approach to TT Curriculum ...................................................... 216
3.7.5 Market-based TT Curriculum ................................................................................ 218
3.7.6 Ethics in Translator Training ................................................................................. 222
3.7.7 Incorporating Innovation and E-Learning in Translator Training ......................... 228

III
 3.7.8 Provision of Further Training and Professional Development for Translators ..... 234
3.8 Conclusion.................................................................................................................... 235
Chapter Four: Developing TT Programmes in Saudi Arabia ................................................ 240
4.1 Situational Analysis of TT in Saudi Arabia using TTCDC: Study Findings and
Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 240
4.1.1 Research Methodology .......................................................................................... 240
4.1.2 Context for the Study............................................................................................. 242
4.1.3 Procedures and Design .......................................................................................... 245
4.1.4 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 248
4.2 Stakeholder Mapping ................................................................................................... 249
4.3 Academic Stakeholders ................................................................................................ 252
4.3.1 Administrators and Trainers .................................................................................. 252
4.3.2 Students ................................................................................................................. 261
4.3.3 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 291
4.4 Market stakeholders ..................................................................................................... 292
4.4.1 Professional Translators ........................................................................................ 292
4.4.2 Translation Agencies ............................................................................................. 304
4.4.3 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 322
4.5 Conclusion and implications ........................................................................................ 324
Chapter Five: Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 326
References .............................................................................................................................. 336
Appendices ............................................................................................................................. 367
Appendix 1. Saudi Professional Translators’ Interview Questions: .................................. 367
Appendix 2. Saudi Translation Agencies’ Interview Questions: ....................................... 368
Appendix 3. TT Administrators’ Interview Questions: ..................................................... 369
Appendix 4. Translator Trainers’ Interview Questions:..................................................... 370
Appendix 5. Saudi Students’ Questionnaire’s Items:......................................................... 371
Appendix 6. Consent Form ................................................................................................ 375
Appendix 7. Informed Interviewee Release Form ............................................................. 376

IV
Abstract

This study aims to develop a systematic, need-based approach to curriculum development in

Translator Training (TT), informed by international best practice for identifying the extent and

nature of the need for revision and renewal of current TT provision in Saudi Arabia. Social and

global changes such as the advancement of public and private institutions, international

politics, economic competition, foreign direct investment and rapid development of new

information and communication technology place tremendous pressure on educational

institutions to respond to a rapidly developing job market. Today’s translation departments

must not only continuously update their curricula and teaching/ training methodology and raise

their programmes’ standards and evaluation measures, but also predict short- and long-term

future training needs. Towards this end, TT institutions must collaborate with relevant

stakeholders to establish strong relationships and partnerships to enrich the discipline and the

industry. TT experts, Translation Studies (TS) scholars and professional translators have

criticised TT programmes’ detachment from the professional real world, a likely result of the

inability of existing TT curricula and methodologies to cater for the digital modern market and

student needs. This thesis suggests that one way of solving this problem is to use training

principles and concepts that have proven effective and successful in other disciplines such as

training needs analysis and situational analysis, which are widely used in the field of Human

Resources Development, professional corporate training and Education curriculum

development studies.

By applying a systematic need-based approach to designing TT curricula, this study aims to

promote ways to consider emerging social, professional and disciplinary needs and meet the

expectations of all relevant stakeholders. This is achieved by enhancing the effectiveness and

efficiency of the design process through situational analysis, analysing the environment,

V
mapping and identifying key stakeholders, setting SMART (Specific, Measurable, Achievable,

Resourced, and Time-bound) objectives, analysing training needs and key areas for

development and using a quality assurance-based and a transparent implementation and

evaluation approach.

VI
List of Abbreviations

CAT Computer-assisted Translation

CBT Competence-based Training

CEN European Committee for Standards

EC European Commission

EGPS European Graduate Placement Scheme

EHEA European Higher Education Area

EMT European Master’s in Translation

EU European Union

HEIs Higher Education Institutions

HRD Human Resource Development

IMISIU Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic University

IT Information Technology

KSA Knowledge Skills and Attitudes

KSU King Saud University

MOOCs Massive Open Online Courses

MT Machine Translation

OPTIMALE Optimising Professional Translator Training in a Multilingual Europe

PACTE Procés d’Adquisició de la Competència Traductora i Avaluació (Process

VII
 of Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation)

PATT Professional Approach to Translator Training

PEST Political, Economic, Social, and Technological

PR Public Relations

SAOLT Saudi Association of Languages and Translation

SLA Second Language Acquisition

SM Stakeholder Mapping

SMART Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Resourced and Timebound

TC Translation Competence

TM Translation Memory

TNA Training Needs Analysis

TransCert Trans-European Voluntary Certification for Translators

TS Translation Studies

TT Translator Training

TTCDC Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle

TQM Total Quality Management

QA Quality Assurance

VIII
List of Figures

Figure 0.1 A TQM approach to Translator Training 10

Figure 0.2: Illustration of the thesis structure 15

Figure 1.1: PACTE Model of Translation Competence 32

Figure 1.2: Holmes’ conception of Translation Studies 61

Figure 1.3: Middlesex programme structure 69

Figure 2.1: TNA as a bridge between current and desired KSA 117

Figure 2.2: Key phases of the Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle 122

Figure 2.3: Planning Phase of TTCDC 122

Figure 2.4: Example of SM for developing TT curriculum 135

Figure 2.5: Sample of relevance-based SM for developing TT curricula 136

Figure 2.6: EMT competences of Translator teachers/ trainers 146

Figure 2.7: Implementation Phase of TTCDC 153

Figure 2.8: The Evaluation Phase of TTCDC 155

Figure 2.9: The complete TTCDC 160

Figure 3.1: A flow diagram showing the dynamic and cyclical relationship between key

components (C 1-4) of curriculum and related influencing factors (I 1-5) 173

Figure 3.2: A model of emergent translator competence 207

Figure 3.3: An evolutionary model of a Translation Studies curriculum 209

IX
Figure 3.4: The emergence of phronetic workplace competence through authentic work

projects 210

Figure 3.5: The KSA matrix 220

Figure 4.1: Initial coding filters linked to study aims 246

Figure 4.2 Initial SM 249

Figure 4.3 Final SM 250

Figure 4.4: The extent to which BA TT programmes meet students’ expectations 265

Figure 4.5: Students feedback on translator trainers 267

Figure 4.6: What students liked most or least about the BA in TT 268

Figure 4.7: Students suggestions to improve TT BA 270

Figure 4.8: BA students’ employment plans after graduation 270

Figure 4.9: The extent to which MA programme meet their students’ expectations 274

Figure 4.10: MA Students feedback on translator trainers 276

Figure 4.11: What MA students liked most/least about their MA programmes 277

Figure 4.12: Students suggestions to improve TT MA programme 279

Figure 4.13: The extent to which PhD programme meet student expectations 283

Figure 4.14: Students’ perception of PhD programme’s approach 285

Figure 4.15: PhD student views on translator trainers 286

Figure 4.16: Students’ views of the most/least popular aspects of the PhD programme 288

X
List of Tables

Table 1.1: Study plan for UGR BA in translation and interpreting studies 82

Table 1.2: Profiles of UGR interviewees 84

Table 1.3: SWOT analysis of UGR participants' data 86

Table 1.4: Profiles of UAB interviewees 104

Table 1.5: SWOT analysis of UAB participants’ data 104

Table 2.1: PEST analysis 127

Table 2.2: SWOT analysis 132

Table 2.3: A summary of empirical studies’ findings 134

Table 3.1: Prescriptive definitions of curriculum 163

Table 3.2: Descriptive definitions of curriculum 164

Table 3.3: Transferable generic skills and translator competences 238

Table 4.1: Examples of Saudi Institutions offering integrated or full-fledged TT 244

Table 4.2: Academic Stakeholders 250

Table 4.3: Market Stakeholders 250

Table 4.4: Profiles of Saudi TT administrators and trainers 253

Table 4.5: PEST Analysis of TT administrators’ data 254

Table 4.6: SWOT Analysis of TT administrators’ and trainers’ data 259

Table 4.7: All Saudi Students’ profiles 262

XI
Table 4.8: SWOT analysis of all students’ data 263

Table 4.9: SWOT analysis of professional translators’ data 293

Table 4.10: Profiles of professional translators 295

Table 4.11: Profiles of translation agencies’ managers 306

XII
 Introduction

0.1 Background: The State of the Art of Translator Training (TT)

The world is witnessing a boom in Translation Studies (TS) with the emergence of new

university programmes which seek to integrate both theory and professional practice. Despite

the provision of translation degrees, representatives of translation markets in many countries,

including those in the Middle East and Saudi Arabia in particular, still complain that university-

trained translators are not up to the challenges and expectations of the industry and that many

of them even lack the necessary entry-level skills. This issue is the focus of the current study,

which seeks to determine its nature, symptoms, primary causes, effects and recommended

solutions.

In addition to a large number of short conventional and online professional TT courses,

current surveys reveal that there are over 500 university-level schools globally (Pym, 2013)

offering various types and levels of TT, including certificates and degrees at both the

undergraduate and graduate levels, and focusing on practice or research or a combination of

both. This number is likely to increase given the rate of growth in China, where approximately

ten new programmes are launched each year (Pym, 2013). Christina Schäffner (2012) has noted

a rise in European postgraduate TT programmes as part of the Bologna process, which aims to

create a European Higher Education Area founded on international cooperation and academic

exchange. Indeed, TT continues to grow as evidenced by the exponential rise in the volume of

TS and TT conferences, seminars, workshops, associations, books and other publications.

Although only two journals specialise in TT, The Interpreter and Translator Trainer (ITT),

launched in 2007, and Revista Electrónica de Didáctica de la Traducción y la Interpretación

(REDIT), launched in 2009, recent figures indicate that there are over 150 specialised journals

in TS worldwide, and more than 50,000 publications in TS (including books, chapters in edited

1
books, journal articles and doctoral dissertations), more than 40,000 of which were published

within the last two decades (Dombek, 2013). In short, the field has considerable momentum,

and the whole landscape of is bright and encouraging.

The translation industry is similarly booming. A survey carried out on behalf of the

European Commission in 2009 revealed an approximate annual growth rate of 10% in the

language industry in the European Union (Schäffner, 2012). This growth ‘means more and

more qualified professional translators are needed in order to ensure quality’ (ibid., p. 31). The

US translation market is also witnessing rising demand and growth, according to a Proz.com

report (Brauer, 2012) that indicated that approximately 70% of translators are translating more

volume now than they were two years previously, while slightly less than 70% had experienced

steady or increasing volume between 2011 and 2012. According to a recent Common Sense

Advisory report, the outsourced language services market was valued at US$33.523 billion in

2012 (ibid.). In addition, recent figures show that the language services market is growing at

an annual rate of 12.17% (up from 7.41% in 2011). The US Department of Labor estimates

that employment of interpreters and translators is likely to rise by 42% in 2020, considerably

faster than the average for all occupations. Other recent reports have shown that between 2007

and 2012, translation and interpretation services grew by approximately 50% in the US (ibid.).

0.2 Research Problem

Despite the growth of TT programmes and the translation market, the former appears to be in

need of alignment with the needs of the latter. That gap is the focus of this study, which aims

to contribute to the profession of translation by helping to align TT programmes with the needs

of the translation market and industry. Despite the positive news about the increasing number

of TT programmes worldwide, Schäffner warns that:

2
 A resulting challenge for universities is to make sure that translation programmes prepare graduates
who are qualified for the needs of the diverse profession in the rapidly changing market. This means
that programmes need to bear the market needs in mind, and they need to ensure a good match
between graduates’ competences and employers’ requirements (2012, p. 31).

A number of leading Saudi academics have stressed the importance of analysing the needs of

the translation market in Saudi Arabia. Alhussain Almahdiah (2007), a professor at King Saud

University (KSU) in Riyadh, reports that some public and private organizations have

complained about graduates of Saudi universities. He highlights a detachment between

university translation curricula and the needs of the public and private sectors in contemporary

Saudi Arabia. He concludes that there is a need to review and renew translation curricula in

Saudi universities and conduct a training needs analysis to satisfy the demands of the

translation market. Likewise, Reima Al-jarf (2008), a professor of translation at KSU,

postulates that one possible factor contributing to the weakness of some Saudi university TT

programmes is the shortage of qualified and specialised translator trainers or teachers. Only

33% of KSU’s translation faculty members have a BA, MA or PhD in translation. Ahmed

Alzu’be (2012) of Almajma University in Central Saudi Arabia emphasises the need to

facilitate communication between the universities and the market periodically and

systematically in order to improve the quality of Saudi graduates and cater for the needs of the

market.

Many professional translators maintain that there is a gap between market demands and

curricular provision, and that this gap must be bridged. According to the professional translator,

translator trainer and blogger Claudia Brauer,

The associations, the universities, [and] the cohorts of translators and interpreters are not doing
enough to educate current and future translators and interpreters about the tectonic shifts that the
industry is undergoing and how the future looks, the skills that will be required, and the needed
collaboration we have to start seeking with the giants in the software and hardware industry, who
are changing the rules and creating the future. And we need to learn to partner with other

3
 stakeholders by creating power structures that are significant and have a unified purpose. Oh, by the
way, I think that the future is already here (Brauer, 2013).

Thus, current and future TT programmes need to respond to emerging short- and long-term

demands of the translation market. Dorothy Kelly and Catherine Way state that the field of

translation has been institutionalized to respond to the ‘ever more specialized multilingual and

multicultural communication demands worldwide’ (2007, p. 1). While this argument has merit,

there are other contributing factors, including the growing interest in TS research and the need

to investigate effective ways to equip translators with the knowledge, skills, ethical stance and

tools required to respond to the demands of translation and interpretation. Not only are the

demands on ‘multilingual and multicultural’ services rapidly growing, but the duties,

responsibilities and tasks of translators also have changed and gone beyond linguistic and

cultural transfer. In addition to language proficiency and knowledge of the subject matter of

the text, today’s aspiring professional translators are expected to be proficient in various areas

such as documentation, terminology, desktop publishing and knowledge of specialised texts

(Aula.int, 2005, p. 132). Many TS researchers, scholars, teachers, professional translators and

students have criticised the detachment of TT programmes from the real needs of the profession

(e.g. Pym, 1993a; Li, 2000a, 2000b; Kelly, 2005; Aula.int, 2005). It is likely that this criticism

of the academic/vocational dichotomy stems from the inability of existing TT programmes’

curricula and methodology to cater for modern market and student needs. TT needs to be

developed in several areas related to pedagogical practice, curriculum design and the potential

contributions of research. Evaluation also may be a problem since internal criteria are

disconnected from professional practice (Pym, 2011).

4
0.3 Rationale for the Use of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) in TT

But how do we begin to solve these problems? Training experts have emphasised that TNA

should be the basis for effective, efficient and successful training, regardless of its type.

Therefore, for the purposes of this study, TNA will be used throughout. The American Society

for Training and Development makes clear that effective training should start with needs

assessment. Winfred Arthur Jr et al. (2003, p. 235) specifically assert that ‘a systematic needs

assessment can guide and serve as the basis for the design, development, delivery, and

evaluation of the training program’. Dorothy Kelly (2005) and Moustafa Gabr (2007) agree

that social, market and student needs must be identified before the formulation of learning

objectives, while Defeng Li (2000b) argues that needs analysis and assessment are crucial for

the planning and restructuring of translation courses. Their findings support the use of needs

analysis and assessment to both measure and ensure the success of TT programmes.

In addition to analysing training needs, this study incorporates new concepts into the

TT curriculum planning and design process such as stakeholder mapping (SM through which

the most relevant stakeholders are selected for the TNA), and useful tools for situational

analysis such PEST analysis (Political, Economic, Social and Technological) and SWOT

analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats). A detailed investigation of these

concepts and tools and a clear illustration of how they can be applied in TT curriculum design

and planning are offered in Chapter Four of this thesis.

Recent studies have explored learners’ needs and their expectations of TT programmes.

Investigating a translation programme of a Hungarian college, Adrienn Kàroly (2011) found

that needs and expectations differ from one student to the next and that a gap exists between

their understanding of translation and their expectations of the courses in which they are

enrolled. Furthermore, the study concludes that if teachers aim to develop students’ translation

competence functionally, TNA could be used to identify important factors such as individual

5
characteristics, linguistic ability, needs and expectations. Haidee Kruger (2008) believes that

TT should link with other fields and disciplines that can inform its research and practice.

Highlighting the interplay of TT and Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Alessandro

Zannirato (2008) states that, in contrast to past decades when TS students were bilingual from

an early stage, today’s students of translation or interpreting are not bilingual; instead, they

develop an interest in this area and require intensive (SLA) courses. Kelly (2008) and Way

(2008) also investigate competence in the context of exploring criteria to measure translators’

skills and abilities. Rejecting outdated teacher-centred approaches, Way emphasises the

importance of engaging students in training that reflects and responds to the needs of the real

world.

Kelly’s (2005) account of the contributions made by various scholars to TT provides a

useful basis for a brief overview of the main approaches to the field. Although valuable, her

history of the development of TT is somewhat selective, and ignores contributions made before

1980 (e.g. by Wolfram Wilss 1976). Kelly cites Jean Delisle (1980, 1993, and 1998) as one of

the first authors to stress the importance of establishing teaching objectives in TT. Delisle was

one of several TS scholars who used a linguistic approach, proposing a teacher-centred,

contrastive-linguistic model. Later, Christiane Nord (1988, 1991) proposed a learner-centred

model, which focuses on preparing trainees for professional practice. Using a functionalist

approach, Nord argued for the importance of text analysis in order to draw out the function of

the text before translation. Hers was one of the first contributions to focus on the process rather

than the product of translation.

Another functionalist approach was taken by Vienne (1994) and Gouadec (1994), who

argued for a situational approach to TT in which teachers act as initiators of the translation task

(Kelly, 2005). Like Nord, Gile (1995) is oriented towards process and professional practice:

‘The idea is to focus in the classroom not on results, that is, not on the end product of the

6
Translation process, but on the process itself’ (cited in Kelly, 2005, p. 14). Kelly notes three

distinguishing features of Gile’s work, namely combining interpreting and translator training,

providing a critical review of the literature at the time and proposing methodological changes

as the training progresses (2005).

A major author in TT and probably the pioneer of the cognitive approach to the field

is Donald Kiraly. In his seminal monograph, Pathways to Translation (1995), Kiraly lists nine

major challenges to the development of TT. His cognitive and psycholinguistic approach is

evidenced by his use of a think-aloud protocol study, and his insistence on the importance of

the translator's self-concept. In a later work, A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator

Education: Empowerment from Theory to Practice (2014a), Kiraly uses a socio-constructivist

approach to advocate for the teaching of translation through authentic translation tasks

involving members of the public. Hurtado Albir (1999) and Gonzalez Davies (2004) also take

a task-based approach, which focuses on in-class activities designed to achieve specific pre-

defined learning objectives.

In the context of this research study, three authors offer the most significant insights.

The first of these, Hong Kong scholar Defeng Li, is very important to TT in general and to the

proposed study in particular because of his role in advocating for needs assessment. Like the

author of the present study, Li (2000a, 2000b) believes that there is a gap between academics

in TT programmes and the real professional world in Hong Kong. As part of a needs analysis

he conducted in Hong Kong among professional translators, Li asked participants about the

training they had received, the challenges they had faced at work and what they thought about

the suitability of their training to real professional needs. The data led Li to propose a better

way of tailoring TT programmes to professional needs (2000a). In another paper (2000b), Li

discussed the issue of needs assessment in detail and asserted its vital role in TT, arguing that

7
‘when curriculum content, materials, and teaching approaches match social needs, student

motivation and success are enhanced’ (2000b, p. 297).

In 2002, he published a paper describing a needs analysis he had conducted in Hong

Kong with a sample of 70 translation students. Using surveys, focus groups and one-to-one

interviews, he collected useful and revealing data regarding students’ needs and perceptions of

their course of study. For instance, while a large number of the students he surveyed

emphasised the practical side of TT, more thought theory should be part of the curriculum.

Others preferred greater balance between theory and practice. Despite Li’s seemingly

representative sample, some relevant stakeholders – including translation associations, public

and private end users of translation services, regulators and university administrators – were

not surveyed. While a number of empirical and non-empirical studies have attempted to survey

various stakeholders in an endeavour to screen the professional expectations of the market from

TT programmes, unsurprisingly, given the time, effort and resources required to do so, not a

single study has yet been able to include all possible relevant stakeholders. Another interesting

observation is that a large number of the students surveyed, like the professional translators in

similar studies, emphasised the importance of incorporating translation theory or balancing

practice and theory in TT programmes.

The second influential figure in TT is the late Moustafa Gabr, whose articles in

Translation Journal reflect his focus on curriculum development and programme evaluation.

The first to apply theories of human resource development and Total Quality Management

(TQM) to TT, Gabr’s death meant that he ‘never had the opportunity to fully develop his ideas

in a book-length study’ (Gabr, 2007, p. 65). Although his life was tragically short, his work has

made a significant and valuable contribution to the field of TS and TT. In one article (2001a),

for example, Gabr discusses the importance of evaluating TT programmes, opposing the view

that such evaluation is unnecessary since training is a good thing in itself. According to Gabr,

8
this evaluation should consider feedback from students and instructors as well as from

independent evaluators. He proposed the Comprehensive Quality Control Model to ensure

‘accuracy in designing and implementing each step in the training effort and, eventually, a

quality product’ (2001a, p. 5).

In his next paper (2001b), which focused on curriculum development, Gabr proposed a

full systematic model. The model begins with a pre-development stage in which market and

student needs are identified. This is followed by a development stage, in which objectives are

defined, materials are prepared, teaching methods and trainers are selected and lesson plans are

developed. It is at this stage that student and course evaluation instruments should be selected

and designed. It is in his 2002 paper, ‘Quality Assurance in Translator Training’, that Gabr

introduced TQM and explained why it is needed in TT, arguing that TQM is customer-focused,

quality-centred, fact-based, team-driven, management-led and process-oriented. Referring to

the literature on TQM and human resource development, he related those qualities to the

implementation of TT and concluded the paper by clarifying how we can begin applying TQM

in TT. In 2003, one year before his death, Gabr submitted his most important paper, ‘A TQM

Approach to Translator Training: Balancing Stakeholders' Needs and Responsibilities’, to the

4th International Conference on the Translation Industry Today. This paper developed the ideas

he had introduced previously and discussed in detail the possible application of TQM principles

to TT. The following excerpt is relevant to both the main point of enquiry of and rationale for

the current study:

This [TQM] approach leads to the conclusion that it is imperative for translator training programmes
to be developed in accordance with proper assessment of three inextricably linked needs: the needs
of the market, the needs of translation departments and – equally important – the needs of students
(Gabr, 2007, p. 66).

9
Figure 0.1 below illustrates this point fully:

Figure 0.1 A TQM approach to Translator Training (Gabr, 2007).

The previous criticism of her account of the history of TT notwithstanding, Kelly is the third

important contributor to the field. Providing a useful guide for translation teachers and trainers,

her proposed curricular design process, which is well-presented in her book, A Handbook for

Translator Trainers (2005), begins by identifying social and market needs. These needs are

used to inform the next major step, formulating learning outcomes, which is also influenced by

social, professional and disciplinary considerations. Prior to designing the course content,

10
student needs are analysed. The extent of students' prior knowledge, their personal

characteristics, their preferred learning styles, their expectations and motivations must be

understood to enable teaching content and approaches to be adapted to their needs. The next

step is the selection of resources and the training of trainers, whom Kelly views as significant

participants in the learning process (2005, p. 53). She discusses the main competences that

translator trainers should acquire and how best to design a training course for trainers. She goes

on to discuss the design of teaching and learning activities, course evaluation and

implementation as well as the final stage in this process, programme evaluation and quality

enhancement. Although this model is systematic, which is an advantage, it does not appear to

offer a complete recipe for TT. In fact, it provides only general guidelines on curriculum design

and development based on TNA in any given context.

This study aims to expand on Kelly’s curricular design cycle and Gabr’s TQM approach

to TT. Towards this end, a review of the literature on total quality management/training,

particularly education-oriented resources, is essential. Examples include Thomas (1992),

Johnson (1993), Beich (1994) and Haworth and Conrad (1997). The study will also benefit

from the works by Li in relation to needs assessment in TT. The literature of needs assessment

will also be used to evaluate previous TNAs in Saudi Arabia. Some examples in this regard are

Brindley (1984), Stufflebeam et al (1985) and McKillip (1987). Many other scholars who have

contributed to TT have not been highlighted here, but their work too will be consulted as part

of this research study; these include Dollerup and Lindegaard (1994), Gile (1995, 2009),

Kussmaul (1995), Schäffner and Adab (2000), Hatim (2001), Hung (2002), Colina (2003),

Malmakjær (2004), Tennent (2005), Way (2008, 2009, 2012, 2014), Biel (2011), Washbourne

(2012), and Kearns (2012).

11
0.4 Context of the Study

One of the countries in which TT programmes are expanding and are in need of review and

renewal is Saudi Arabia, which is developing at an overwhelming pace and undergoing rapid

change and expansion industrially, economically, socially and educationally. These changes

also have transformed the country’s ability to attract Foreign Direct Investment. As shown by

its membership of the G20, a group of twenty major economies accounting for 85% of the gross

world product (GWP) and 80% of world trade, Saudi Arabia has one of the twenty largest and

strongest economies in the world, and has been a key player in the regional and international

business and economic arenas. As a consequence, a large number of foreign companies have

been attracted to do business in Saudi Arabia and invest considerably in major new projects in

the real estate, transport, hospitality, education, tourism, health and energy sectors.

This expansion has also been evident in the education sector, which caters to the needs

of both the public and private sectors as well as those of one of the fastest growing young

populations in the world. Over the last ten years, many new colleges and universities have

opened. Now there are over 55 government and private universities and colleges, at least thirty

of which offer translation degrees; some of these are fully focused on translation and

interpreting while others are housed within the English department. Assuming that TT

programmes and their curricula in Saudi universities were implemented in response to market

needs and changes, there is a pressing need to evaluate these programmes and examine their

suitability for today’s new demands – i.e. to assess their validity, efficiency, effectiveness and

ability to cater for the needs of the market and their students.

12
0.5 Research Question and Aims

Because the current study aims to explore issues of quality assurance and management, it looks

at training of translators from the perspective of Total Quality Management (TQM), in which

translation students and the target market are treated as customers whose demands should be

systematically catered for. While this approach to educational contexts has been used

extensively in other disciplines, its application to and use in TT are relatively recent.

This study will focus on bridging the gap between Saudi TT programmes and the needs

of Saudi translation students and the Saudi market. The main question this study seeks to

answer is how and to what extent Saudi TT programmes are suitable for today’s Saudi

translation students and the (Saudi) translation market. In addressing this question, the study

aims to 1) explore the experience of translator trainers, TT curricula and methods in Saudi

Arabia; 2) identify the training needs of university-level translation students in Saudi Arabia

based on TNA; 3) assess and customise existing international best practice of TT to fit the

Saudi setting; and 4) propose a potentially customisable TT curriculum development model

that could be useful for TT programmes in the Saudi context.

0.6 Methodology
This survey-based study could be described as qualitative and evaluative. It relies on collecting

qualitative data (from interviews and focus groups) and quantitative data (from open-ended

questionnaires) from which it extracts themes and recurrent patterns. At the same time, it is

explorative in that it investigates the existing practices, policies, methods and approaches used

in the implementation of TT and also explores training needs in Saudi Arabia. This design will

provide a descriptive account of TT programmes in Saudi Arabia, based on field observation

and analysis of qualitative and quantitative data.

13
 To answer the research question requires an evaluation of representative samples of

Saudi TT programmes, focusing on the level at which they meet their training needs. After

extensive investigation of international best practice, this study will offer evidence-based

recommendations for a customised, modern and sustainable TT curriculum development model

for Saudi universities. In fact, this study originated from the researcher’s personal interest in

training professional translators and developing the quality of that training. To determine the

specific area of investigation, an extensive review of the literature on Saudi and international

TT practices was undertaken. The study involved analysis of selected case studies of TT

programmes and of data gathered from current or former students and employees of both fully

dedicated TT university programmes and integrated TT components within English studies

(modern languages) programmes. In so doing, the study investigated existing practices, policies

and approaches used in the implementation of TT in Saudi Arabia and the translation education

and training needs of students, educators and practitioners. Adopting an interpretivist

constructivist research paradigm and a mixed method approach to collecting data, this study

proposes to fill a gap in knowledge and provision of need-based TT programmes by reviewing

the curricula, methodology and approaches of undergraduate and postgraduate TT programmes

at Saudi universities. The testimony of Saudi students and employers suggests that an enormous

gap exists between TT programmes in Saudi Arabia and the needs of the market. By examining

these programmes at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, this study aims to determine

how and to what extent they fall short.

14
0.7 Thesis Structure

The structure of the thesis is designed in a gradual sequence starting from mapping the current

landscape of TS and TT to explore emerging new roles and expectations of translators and

translation education and training institutions. This is, then, followed by suggesting ways of

analysing these new roles and basing TT curricula on the analysed demands of the new roles

of translators. The remainder of the thesis supports the proposition of a model for developing

modern TT curricula to help customise suitable solutions for the Saudi Arabian TT context.

The Following figure illustrates the thesis structure:

Chapter Five: Conclusion

(Remmendations and implications
of current study for developing
modern need-based systematic
Saudi TT programmes)

Chapter Four: Develping TT

programmes in Saudi Arabia (
Data-based application of
Translator Training Curriculum
Development Cycle)

Chapter Three: Curriculum

Development in TT (exploring
existing approaches to TT curilcum
devleopmnet and their suitablitiy to
current students and market needs)

Chapter Two: Training

needs analysis (TNA) and
situational analysis in TT (
exploring concepts and tools
that could help narrow the
gap to justify a need-based
systematic model in TT)

Chapter One: Exploring

the changing roles of the
translator and global
trends in TT (locating
the gap in knowledge
and skills

Figure 00.2: Illustration of the thesis structure

15
The changing roles of today’s translators and global trends in TT are highlighted in Chapter

One, which examines current translation education/training best practice. The following case

studies are presented: 1Middlesex University in the UK (BA degree) as an example of a TT

model in English-speaking countries, and the University of Granada in Spain (BA and MA

degrees) and the Autonomous University of Barcelona (PhD degree) as examples of TT models

on the European continent.

Training needs analysis (TNA) and situational analysis in TT are explored in Chapter

Two, which posits them as criteria through which the validity and suitability of TT programmes

can be measured. Drawing on concepts and practices from other disciplines such as Human

Resources Development (Quality Assurance) and from the corporate world (Situational

Analysis and SM), an optimal need-based systematic model called Translator Training

Curriculum Development Cycle (TTCDC) is suggested for use in planning, implementing and

evaluating TT curricula. Hopefully representing a major contribution to the field of TT, the

TTCDC model adopts the principles of TNA, situational analysis and Quality Assurance to

maintain its effectiveness, suitability to short- and long-term needs and sustainability.

In line with the evaluative nature of this study, Chapter Three explores major aspects

of TT curriculum development. These aspects include prescriptive and descriptive views of

1
In response to the main question of the thesis on TT programmes suitability to translation students
and market, Middlesex University T&I programme has been selected. This selection has been made
for various reasons including (1) its link with the interpreting and translation industry and its training
in both disciplines, (2) combining language-specific translation classes with the study of new theories
taught by industry-oriented leading research academics, (3) building your professional competencies
through placements, (4) availability of a study abroad option, (5) specialist subjects, such as legal or
medical interpreting, computer-aided translation and audiovisual translation, in addition to a wide
range of language combinations include English and Arabic, French, German, Italian, Mandarin
Chinese, Polish, Russian, Spanish, and Turkish. UGR and UAB have been selected based on similar
measures as TT-dedicated programmes at the MA and PhD levels.

16
curriculum, defining curriculum as a journey of planned and unplanned activities, and

components of and influences on the curriculum. Highlighting the need for curriculum

assessment, evaluation and review, the chapter goes on to explore the concept and influence of

the hidden curriculum. This is followed by discussion of curricular content with particular

focus on the debate over academic or vocational TT, differences between TT curricular content

at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, and the importance and degree of specialisation

that should be incorporated into TT programmes.

To draw the various strands of the thesis together, Chapter Four suggests a customised

TT curriculum development model for Saudi Arabia based on the new and projected roles of

translators, the TNA of primary stakeholders and international TT best practice. Using data

collected from academic stakeholders (such as BA, MA and PhD students, trainers and TT

administrators) and market stakeholders (such as professional translators and their employers),

the findings from questionnaires, interviews, focus groups and currently available literature on

the curricula offered by Saudi universities are the main sources informing the TNA. The

suggested TTCDC model is gradually applied in this chapter to illustrate its usefulness both in

designing TT curricula and in monitoring and maintaining their suitability to the needs of

relevant stakeholders. Conclusions of the whole thesis and participants’ feedback on Saudi TT

programmes, their implications and the researcher’s recommendations for action and future

research are all provided in Chapter Five, the final closing chapter of the thesis.

17
 Chapter One: Changing Roles of the Translator and Global
Trends in TT

This chapter aims to explore how new and potential future roles of translators have emerged in

today’s highly technical globalised market and how they impacted modern TT curricula. In

addition, there will be an investigation of a number of exemplary TT programmes in different

international contexts. In general, there are three primary types: those which are heavily

devoted to TT, others which focus on the study of translation and those that are based on

translation theory and practice. Some of these programmes are private and others are public. In

this chapter, case studies of TT of programme are presented, and their various approaches and

curricula are examined. The case studies represent various levels of study, including an

undergraduate degree in translation, a master’s degree in translation and interpreting studies,

and a doctoral programme in TS. Prior to investigating case studies of TT, it would be

appropriate to provide an overview of the new roles of translators, an investigation of the

competences they are expected to acquire and how TT was historically initiated and developed.

1.1 The Role of the Translator: Current Trends and Future Expectations

TT programmes aim to graduate highly competent and professional translators who can fulfil

their roles to the highest international standards and meet the expectations of their clients.

Before investigating how current TT programmes achieve that aim in various countries around

the world, it is essential to investigate the various roles translators play and the competences

that make them suitable for today’s translation industry. With a clear understanding of these

roles and competences, it will perhaps be easier to evaluate existing TT programmes and

measure their success. Towards this end, this section will explore how TS scholars envisage

18
the role of the translator. It will also define and discuss 2Translation Competence as the

prerequisite for successful translation and successful translators.

To begin with, it is important to specify the skill sets demanded in the business sector

and particularly the workplace of language professionals. This is especially necessary for

educational institutions, which train and prepare them for this work, and for the organisations

or other employers who use their services either full-time or part-time. In response to the rising

demand for professional language services, the traditional role of the translator has expanded,

primarily to cope with customer-based technological advances and developments that aim to

raise the level of productivity, efficiency and quality in order to achieve client satisfaction or,

in highly competitive markets, to exceed client expectations. The traditional conception of

translation as the transformation of text from the source language into the target language is

only one of a wide range of tasks demanded of today’s translators (Massey and Ehrensberger-

Dow, 2010).

Today’s translators perform a variety of tasks, including customising texts for different

types of media (print, broadcast, digital, hypermedia, social media, etc.) and adapting the same

text (or texts) for different readerships and contexts to ensure each audience comprehends the

text fully and digests all its social, cultural and political aspects. In this way translators are like

actors who wear different masks to play different roles and thereby offer a window through

which the audience can appreciate the depth and detail of the story being told. The wide range

of duties now involved in translation is indicative of the significant change in the translator’s

role and the demands of the translation industry, which can also be observed in today’s

professional translation market where translators self-revise their translations and revise texts

2
The concepts of Translation Competence and Translator Competence are contentious and debatable in TS and
TT. In general, they refer to translation general (generic) transferable competences (Knowledge, Skills and
Attitudes or KSA) taught at the undergraduate level and these are usually (but not necessarily in all TT
programmes) called by some scholars as Translation Competence. Specific/ specialised subject area competences
usually trained at the postgraduate level are referred to by some scholars as Translator Competence. (Kelly 2005)

19
translated by other translators or colleagues. They input the text into machine translation (MT)

and post-edit the output. Introduced in the 1950s, MT is the translation of text by a computer,

without human involvement, and it is also called automated translation, automatic or instant

translation.

Moreover, translators’ clients expect them to have texts ready and to align them for

translation memories (TM, a gradually built linguistic database from which translators can

draw stored phrases and passages continually capturing one’s translations as he/she works for

future use.). Today’s translators are expected to master the systems of MT and TM, localise (to

adapt content for a specific local or regional cultural and linguistic audience), be competent

terminologists, manage terminology databanks and revise translated texts. Translator’s roles

and duties can also be observed in the descriptions of recent translation services regulations

such as the European standard EN 15038:20062, ‘which establishes and defines the

requirements for the provision of quality translation services’ (Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow,

2010, p. 128).

Over the last three decades, TS has turned towards affording translators more freedom,

empowerment and professionalism. Their role has evolved into something more than that of a

faithful copier of someone else’s text. Gentzler (2001, p. 71), for example, describes a

revolution ‘around the faithful vs. free axis’ that has resulted in a clear change from the

conception that held sway for two thousand years. Scholars also have attempted to free

translators from the confines of traditional office jobs and to confer upon them a more

professional and powerful status to reflect the new and continually emerging demands of their

tasks.

Translators are ‘crossing boundaries’ (Bassnett, 1997, p. 11) and are ‘nomads-by-

obligation’ (Cronin, 2003, p. 126). The move towards more freedom has given translators an

20
ever more active role in creating and recreating meaning. The centredness of the translator is

emphasised by Gengshen (2004) who concludes that translation scholars have not given

enough attention to the primary role of the translator in translation. Putting the translator in the

centre gives the field and discipline of TS ‘a new dimension’ (ibid., p. 116).

Further, translators ought to become mediators (Hatim and Mason 1990), or ‘cultural

mediators’ (Katan, 2004). In fact, translation is a cross-cultural communication delivered

through a medium and in situations that are limited in time and place. Each specific situation
determines what and how people communicate, and people communicating change it. Situations are
not universal but are embedded in a cultural habitat, which in turn conditions the situation. Language
is thus to be regarded as part of culture. And communication is conditioned by the constraints of the
situation-in-culture (Nord, 1997, p. 1).

Thus, Nord asserts that translators are cultural mediators, who ‘act as purposeful agents’ doing

a professional job with ‘an ethical attitude of loyalty toward their partners’ (2009, p. 120).

Snell-Hornby (1992) believes that translators are ‘cross-cultural specialists’, while Obenaus

(1995) views them as ‘information brokers’.

Gouadec (2007) provides a useful description of the roles of the translator in his manual

for new translators:

The ‘new’ translator must in fact be ready […to become] an information management expert,
technician, terminologist, phraseologist, translator, adapter, proof-reader, reviser, quality control
expert, post-editor, editor, graphic design expert and web page designer, technical writer, Web site
designer, web page integrator, file manager, macro-command writer and in some cases IT
specialist, all rolled into one (Gouadec, 2007, p. 120).

Creative, managerial and specialised in turn, the various roles played by translators all help to

dispel their ‘invisibility’. More recently, scholars’ attention has been directed to the ‘specific

political commitment’ of the translator and to the ‘inevitability of [his/her] political

engagement’ (Brownlie, 2007, p. 136). Schäffner (2000b, p. 9) draws attention to the new

‘focus on culture as being linked to notions of power, asymmetries, difference and identity’,

21
which has shifted the role of the translator towards being an ‘agent of social change’

(Tymoczko, 2003, p. 181). Others claim that this shift has been towards the role of ‘an activist’

engaged in the re-narration of the world (Baker 2006, 2008; Scarpa, 2008).

Translators have a multi-faceted role. Robinson (2007) lists a number of characteristics

and roles of translators, whom he describes as omnivorous and voracious readers. The nature

of their work may require them to be actors, mimics and/or impersonators, hungry for the real-

world experiences that come from travelling and living in other countries (ibid.). He adds that

translators ‘develop remarkable recall skills that will enable them to remember a word (often

in a foreign language) that they have heard only once’ (ibid., p. 22). Global politics also exert

an influence over translation decisions, which perhaps is the reason why translation has been

called ‘a process of power’ (Wolf, 1995).

Today, technology, Web 2.0, multiculturalism, overwhelming data transfer and

explosion, major political upheavals and globalisation have together facilitated an exponential

increase in the pace of advancement and change in general which has had an impact on the

whole discipline, its industry and the way translators work. The expectations are much higher.

Translators must work faster, while mastering a wide range of tools, abilities and skills, which

are not necessarily or directly related to the processing of text. They are expected to learn about

marketing, programming and project management while staying abreast of constantly

developing technology and maintaining advanced linguistic and specialist expertise.

TS as a discipline has gone through a number of ‘turns’. Recently, there has been even

more emphasis on professionalizing the discipline as evidenced by the emergence of TS

research areas such as professional translation competence, professional translators, the

translation industry, TT and translation management. One of the main points of concern here

is the concept of the ideal professional translator especially that they are living in a complex

22
world that is increasingly troubled by political and economic conflicts. Baker stresses,

ironically though, that it may not be easy to find

highly professional translators [and] who belong to the same ‘world’ as their clients, who are
focused on professionalism and making a good living, and who are highly trained, confident young
men and women. These professional translators and interpreters go about their work in a conflict-
free environment and live happily ever after (2008, p. 22).

In ‘The Changing Landscape of Translation and Interpreting Studies’, Baker (2014, p. 22)

emphasises the vital role of translation and interpreting in formulating ‘patterns of dominance

and of resistance’ with regard to social or political issues in a globalised world. Baker illustrates

this with reference to the reliance of major industries, such as cinema, news and publishing, on

translators and interpreters to make an impact on the global audience, or to use Baker’s phrase,

‘global publics’ (ibid.). Given that the role of the translator has evolved, and may continue to

do so, to include an overwhelming range of tasks and responsibilities that are not all directly

related to the act of translation, perhaps it is more appropriate to focus on the essential task of

translation and nothing else. Once this task is clearly defined, then one can consider other

supplemental competences. In order to determine the essential characteristics of the

professional translator, it is necessary first to explore the concept of Translation Competence,

a contentious topic that has been the focus of attention for TS scholars who seek to evaluate,

analyse, and specify the abilities and skills of successful translators.

1.2 Translation Competence: Definition, Models and Significance

1.2.1 Defining Competence

Since the 1990s there has been growing interest in Translation Competence (TC). One reason

for this could be the increasing use of the psycholinguistic approach in TS, as indicated by the

relatively large number of process-oriented studies, which seems to lead inevitably towards the

23
study of translation competence. Secondly, however, as institutional TT programmes began to

flourish over the last forty years, efforts grew more focused on the core skills and abilities

required to carry out translation tasks; hence, the increasing focus on translation competence,

although the meaning of the term is still not clearly defined.

Over the last few decades, numerous scholars have attempted to develop a clear

framework for translation competence from cognitive and didactic/pedagogic perspectives.

Previously, as translation training manuals began to appear, experts and scholars began to

consider the concept of translation competence as a key component in TT and translation

education (Delisle, 1980). Translation competence is understood as the underlying knowledge

or ability required to successfully conduct a translation job or carry out a translation task.

Towards the middle of the 1960s, the concept of competence was first introduced and

investigated by linguists (e.g. Chomsky, 1965) who were mainly interested in defining and

categorizing linguistic competence. Over the last thirty years, research on translation

competence has developed considerably and the focal points of difference and debate amongst

TS scholars revolve around defining translation competence, recognising it or assessing it in

practice. Competence is essential for success in any profession, and the field of translation is

no exception. Traditionally, translation competence was assumed to indicate a form of

bilingualism, a conception that was popular in the field of TS till the 1970s. But this limited

understanding of the concept did not last for long as it could not accommodate increasing

technological changes and the expanding skill sets required by the translation industry.

Competence is a requirement for successful translation because it reflects the summation of

translators’ training and experience, and their readiness and aptitude to enter confidently into

this dynamic profession.

It appears that the much-debated and contentious topic of TC has not been clearly

defined because different scholars approach it from different angles. It could even be argued

24
that the disciplines of knowledge and scientific orientations of the scholars who attempted to

define it influenced the way they conceptualised it. This variety is reflected in the different

names by which it is referred to in the literature, including translation skill (Lowe, 1987, p. 57),

translation performance (Wilss, 1989, p. 129), transfer competence (Nord, 1991, p. 161),

translation ability (Pym, 1993b, p. 26), translational competence (Toury, 1995, pp. 250-251;

Hansen, 1997, p. 205), translator competence (Kiraly, 1995, p. 108), or translation competence

(Vienne, 2000). Referring to a number of TS scholars and experts, Munday maintains that

‘most proposals relating to the modelling and functioning of TC are componential models

which focus on the description of components (or subcompetences) of written translation’

(2009, p. 64). Any serious attempt to define TC comprehensively could generate a long list of

skills reflecting the interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary nature of the current or potential

roles of the translator. Yet existing definitions do not seem to account for all specialities of

translation. But the question that could be posed here is “do we need a comprehensive model

of TC that accounts for all specialities of translation?” If so, is it possible to have it, given the

different requirements of each speciality? I would argue that it would be helpful to have a deep

understanding of the knowledge, skills and attitudes (ethics and behaviours) required of

translators, but this would depend heavily on the contextual and situational demands of the

specific translator and the translated text. Accordingly having one TC model to fit all contexts

and sub-areas of translation seems to be a challenging task.

Certainly, many TC models have aimed to combine ‘a number of different sub-

competencies that seem to include the world, the universe, and everything and are intricately

interrelated’ (Beeby, 2000, p. 185). Recently these have been replaced by a more

comprehensive, multi-componential model, such as the model developed by the Process in the

Acquisition of Translation Competence and Evaluation (PACTE) research group based at the

Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona, which goes beyond linguistic requirements by giving

25
more room and weight to new skills, abilities and knowledge. By including, for example,

information technology (IT), mediation and analytical skills and specialist subject knowledge,

the new models have adopted new functional approaches to the act of translation, bearing in

mind the significance of the translation brief and mediation between all the different partners

engaged in the process of translating various products.

Other TS scholars have challenged these models. Pym (2003), for example, believes that

translators are influenced and driven by institutional interests and that they are not able to cope

with the pace with which the industry has advanced. In a recent interview with the researcher

(Pym, 2014b), Pym claimed that existing TC models are not based on solid empirical data and

therefore cannot be considered reliable frameworks. Instead, in an earlier article, he offered a

minimalist model which could ‘define translating and nothing but translating’ (Pym, 2003, p.

488) for use as a guide for training and orientating translators who aspire to develop their

performance skills.

While Pym’s criticism seems to be valid, it does not follow that existing models have

little value. On the contrary, these models have provided reasonable measures and guidance

for those who need to evaluate translators’ skills and abilities. Perhaps what is needed now is

to further validate these models with more representative empirical data. It could be argued

that no empirically proven perfect model yet exists, nor is there one suitable for all types and

specialities of translation as each area has its own nature and different requirements that may

demand a different set of specific skills. However, there are general commonalities among all

areas of translation, whether literary or non-literary. This will be illustrated when we explore

the different models of TC.

Three major components of competence are suggested by Neubert (1994, p. 412):

language competence, subject competence and transfer competence. Other TS scholars offer

26
different definitions of the concept of competence with regard to translation. Hurtado Albir,

for instance, maintains that competence is ‘the ability of knowing how to translate’ (1996, p.

48). By contrast, Schäffner and Beverly (2000) advocate teaching translation theory to develop

the various skills acquired in one or more foreign languages and cultures, along with the mother

tongue, for better and more effective communication. Likewise, Neubert (2000) argues that

translation practice and teaching translation require a single competence that can integrate a set

of competencies encompassing the source and target languages.

The PACTE Group, which has been carrying out empirical-experimental research into

TC and its acquisition in written translation (2000, 2005, 2011a and 2011b), defines TC as ‘the

underlying system of knowledge required to translate’ (2011a, p. 33). Neubert (2000)

concludes that a number of factors must be taken into account prior to defining TC, including

the complexity of the demands made on the cognitive faculties and skills of translators, the

heterogeneity and approximate nature of the translator’s knowledge. Accordingly, he lists five

parameters within which to define TC: language competence, textual competence, subject

competence, cultural competence and transfer competence. The PACTE Group are more

inclusive in this respect based on their distinct empirical and experimental approach (PACTE,

2003, 2005, 2011), which will be investigated in detail in the next section.

Despite the different definitions and categorization of TC, many scholars, if not all, tend

to perceive TC mainly as linguistic competence in the source language and the target language.

They differ with regard to the emphasis they place on minor or sub-competences such as

transfer, psychological aspects, culture and others. To examine TC further, it is essential to

investigate the various models offered by scholars of TS in the next section.

27
1.2.2 Models of Translation Competence

TS scholars do not disagree only on the definition of TC; their opinions differ over the value

of these models and over which model is most suitable. However, of the various ways of

modelling TC, two trends predominate, namely, the pedagogical and the empirical.

Pedagogical models of TC were developed for the purpose of improving the quality of TT

programmes, and their theoretical and methodological background has a pedagogical basis, as

is clearly evident in the work of scholars who have an interest in TT such as Christina Schäffner

and Olivia Fox. Schäffner’s model, for example, is comprised of the following elements:

 Linguistic competence in the languages concerned.

 Cultural competence – general knowledge about the historical, political, economic and

cultural aspects of translated materials, etc.

 Textual competence – knowledge of regularities and conventions of texts, genres and

text types.

 Domain/subject-specific competence – knowledge of the relevant subject, the area of

expertise.

 (Re)search competence – general strategy competence to resolve problems specific to

the cross-cultural transfer of texts.

 Transfer competence – ability to produce target language texts that satisfy the demands

of the translation task (Schäffner, 2000a, p. 146).

It is clear that these competencies are linked and that their linkage depends on the nature of a

given translation job or task. Transfer and research competences are transitory, procedural and

dynamic in nature, while the other competences are static (Schäffner and Beverly, 2000).

Furthermore, competence may not be scrutinised apart from other requisite concepts that are

28
associated with the task of translation; these are mainly knowledge (declarative and operative),

skills, awareness, expertise and influence of their integration on translators’ performance (ibid).

Another recent and interesting example of a pedagogical TC model is that of Šeböková

(2010, pp. 56-57) which centres on TC that translators must master during their training.

Informed by her observation of trainee translators, she has developed a product-oriented and

binary errors-based model with the following parameters:

1) Core translation competence

2) Linguistic competence

3) World/Subject competence

4) Research competence

5) Tools competence

6) Cultural competence

The usefulness of these models in TT will depend on a number of factors beginning with their

validity, applicability and the conviction of translator trainers of these models relevance to their

classes and students. Moreover, some models may be found more applicable in certain contexts

than others. For example, in a literary translation tradition oriented TT programme, a useful

model would be the one that focuses on text genres and the competences required for it.

Certainly some models may be subjected to major changes or minor modifications depending

on how they evolve and the changing requirements of translators’ roles in the job market, hence

the need to make some adjustments. At any rate, the more one learns about the functions of TC

and its acquisition process, the better TT curricula can be designed which, in turn, will feed

into proper preparation of professional translators.

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1.2.3 Empirical Models of Translation Competence

Over the last twenty years, empirical experimental research has been conducted to investigate

TC and the process by which it is acquired. The research into empirical models has attempted

to investigate many issues, such as the use of think aloud protocols (TAPs an extensively used

method in process-oriented TS collecting data about translators’ thoughts at the same time they

verbalise them) (Jakobson, 2003), and contrastive performance between novice and expert

translators and bilinguals and other groups of language professionals (PACTE, 2005). Others

have looked at the mapping of translators’ cognitive rhythms (such as pause analysis and

different stages of the translation process) and have analysed the components of TC (PACTE,

2003, 2005, 2007; Hurtado Albir and Alves, 2009). Empirical models differ from pedagogical

models in that they are made using longitudinal studies to structure ideal models of TC such as

those of Campbell and PACTE based on findings and their observations of those who

participated in their studies. In ‘Towards a Model of Translation Competence’ (1991),

Campbell suggests that TC can be recognised using translation tests and that this helps outline

the typical model of TC. As a result, this model reflects the actual process of translation

(Campbell, 1991). Although this model’s approach is not totally convincing as it ignores to

examine subjective aspects of the translator that could be discerned in his/her psychological

competence. Šeböková (2010) asserts that an important aspect, worth emphasizing in TC

models, is the attitudinal and psychological element, i.e. the subjectivity of the translator.

As previously noted, a prominent example of an empirical model is the PACTE model,

which aims to determine a) what TC is, b) how TC can be acquired and c) how translation sub-

competences integrate and amalgamate with each other. The methodology employed by the

PACTE Group to answer those questions was process-based rather than product-oriented. In

the PACTE model (PACTE, 2011a and 2011b), TC has five sub-competences, as well as

psycho-physiological components. These are:

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1) Bilingual sub-competence – predominantly procedural knowledge required to

communicate in two languages. It comprises pragmatic, socio-linguistic, textual,

grammatical and lexical knowledge.

2) Extra-linguistic sub-competence – predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit

and explicit. It comprises general world knowledge, domain-specific knowledge,

bicultural and encyclopaedic knowledge.

3) Knowledge about translation – predominantly declarative knowledge, both implicit and

explicit, about translation and aspects of the profession. It comprises knowledge about

how translation functions and knowledge about professional translation practice.

4) Instrumental sub-competence – predominantly procedural knowledge related to the use

of documentation resources and information and communication technologies applied to

translation (e.g. dictionaries of all kinds, encyclopaedias, grammars, style books, parallel

texts, electronic corpora, search engines, etc.).

5) Strategic sub-competence – procedural knowledge to guarantee the efficiency of the

translation process and solve problems encountered. This sub-competence serves to

control the translation process. Its function is to plan the process and carry out the

translation project (selecting the most appropriate method); evaluate the process and the

partial results obtained in relation to the final purpose; activate the different sub-

competences and compensate for any shortcomings; and identify translation problems

and apply procedures to solve them.

6) Psycho-physiological components – different types of cognitive and attitudinal

components and psycho-motor mechanisms, including cognitive components such as

memory, perception, attention and emotion; attitudinal aspects such as intellectual

curiosity, perseverance, rigour, the ability to think critically, etc.; abilities such as

31
 creativity, logical reasoning, analysis and synthesis, and so forth (PACTE, 2011, pp. 4-

5).

Figure 1.1 illustrates the PACTE model and shows the relationship(s) between these

competences:

Figure 1.1: PACTE Model of Translation Competence (adapted from PACTE, 2005, p. 610).

Initial research by PACTE (2005, 2007, 2008) to verify this model ‘has been promising’

(Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow, 2010, p. 130), in that it verifies findings from other studies

(e.g. Livbjerg and Mees, 2003; and Trikkonen-Condit, 2005, cited in Massey and

Ehrensberger-Dow, 2010, p. 130) which asserts that the instrumental sub-competence is

32
detrimental in differentiating between problem-solving decisions made by expert translators

and those made by non-experts. Reflecting on the value of PACTE’s model, Massey and

Ehrensberger-Dow state that:

The research done by the PACTE Group is only now yielding concrete empirical results, and more
work is clearly needed. It is also open to question whether the PACTE model is fully applicable to
workplace processes, practices and demands. For example, while sharing many features with skills
sets defined by EN 15038: 2006, the model makes no particular distinction between forms of
checking/revision and actual translation, despite the importance attached to this activity not only by
EN 15038:2006, but also by job descriptions for senior translation positions in the private sector and
at international organizations such as the EU, UN, OECD, WTO, ILO, and IMF. There is thus a
strong case for more extensive empirical research in this […] and other areas to determine whether
empirical evidence would justify extensions for the model, similar to those proposed by Gopferich
(2008, p. 155) (Massey and Ehrensberger-Dow, 2010, p. 130).

As shown in Figure 1.1, the PACTE model emphasises the integration and amalgamation of

the different competences. Unlike other models that have been developed using approaches

that are not product-oriented or process based, this model has gone through stages of

development and has been tested in a longitudinal study before reaching its final form. Three

of these elements are considered common to all multilingual producers of texts: the bilingual

and extra-linguistic sub-competences and the psycho-physiological components. However, the

other three (the translation-knowledge, instrumental and strategic sub-competences) are

assumed to be specific to translation. The translation-knowledge sub-competence involves

knowledge of the principles and profession of translation, which can be assessed in interviews

and questionnaires. The instrumental sub-competence includes research, information literacy

and IT skills, which can be observed as translators perform their tasks. The strategic sub-

competence is assumed to control the entire translation process and can only be assessed

indirectly when translators reflect on their actions and decisions.

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 Another way of understanding TC could be based on aptitude layers and a command

calibre approach. Daniel Gile (2009, pp. 8-10), for example, maintains that translation and

interpretation competence contains four major aptitudes:

1. Good passive knowledge of passive working languages (the ability to understand

discourse with which the translator works).

2. A good command of active working languages (usually the native language).

3. Sufficient knowledge of the theme.

4. Knowing how to translate, i.e. procedural knowledge (techniques and skills).

Unlike other complex TC models, Gile’s appears to be relatively applicable and simple

covering the main competences expected of a translator. The way it is applied in TT

programmes and how useful it is for translation trainers and students remain unclear and would

require validation by trailing it in different contexts.

Due to the significant influence of internal and external variables and factors linked to

various theoretical bases and methodological approaches (i.e. empirical vs. pedagogical and/or

process-based vs. product-based approaches), defining, categorising or modelling TC is a

complex task. Clearly, the TC models discussed above directly or indirectly signify the

necessity of mastering competence at an acceptable standard if translators are to carry out their

tasks successfully and achieve their communicative aims. Thus, as illustrated in the preceding

discussion, although it could be difficult, it is nevertheless possible to devise a model that can

account for certain types of translation activities, but not for every single Speciality of

translation. Perhaps the main task of translation ought to remain the same and the specific

demands for each Speciality should be considered in different ways and through various types

of training and preparation using the necessary tools. Perhaps, to evaluate translators’

suitability to carry out translation tasks, we still need a model that is comprehensive and

34
flexible enough to accommodate the wide range of translation specialities and that can be

customised to each case and context as required.

Even more important, however, than developing a single, all-encompassing and

sufficiently flexible model is how well those who educate and employ translators implement

or make use of existing models for the benefit of translators, the translation profession and

industry. To achieve this, all stakeholders must find a way to work together. This includes, but

is not limited to, TT institutions, translation scholars, professional translators, translation

business regulators, language services end users and translation organisations (employers). The

significance of the stakeholders involved in TT will be discussed in further detail in Chapter

Three. However, having seen how TT developed and understood the role of translators and

their required competences, it would be plausible in the next chapter to explore existing

examples and trends of international TT best practice.

1.3 Historical Account of Translator Training

Formal and institutional TT programmes have been proliferating since the fourth century.

Sometimes the subject is referred to as ‘training’ and at other times it is called ‘education’.

Both terms have been used extensively in relevant research studies and publications. The two

terms reflect the varied approaches taken to the subject. Generally, it can be said that ‘training’

is usually favoured by scholars and pedagogical experts who follow a more vocational or

market-oriented approach to developing the skills and competences of translators and

interpreters. The term ‘education’ is preferred by those who place the training and acquisition

of such skills in the more comprehensive social context of higher education. However, the

distinction is not entirely agreed upon (Bernardini, 2005). Sometimes, the term ‘pedagogy’ is

used to cover both concepts and encompass both approaches (Kelly and Martin, 2008).

35
 In comparison to other professions, there does not seem to have been a tradition of

institutionalised TT until the middle of the past century. Historical accounts of the subject

indicate that some translator or interpreter training programmes evolved in response to specific

social or political demands at certain points in history. The 1669 Colbert decree in France, for

example, established formal training for interpreters between several languages, mainly

French-born interpreters working primarily with Turkish, Arabic and Persian (Caminade and

Pym, 2001). This was achieved by trial-and-error methods, through unstructured

apprenticeship and other types of translating exercises that were integrated into the learning

and teaching of foreign languages (ibid.).

TT takes various forms and is delivered in different ways and through different

approaches underpinned by various principles and theories. In Europe and North America, the

motive behind the movement was to meet the demands and pressures created by the

globalization (Pym, 2011). Pym (2011, p. 476) suggests that it existed ‘in the form of master-

apprentice relations’. One can find more structured training programmes in the Chinese

institutions for the translation of Buddhist texts beginning in the fourth century and continuing

until the ninth century, including the House of Wisdom in ninth century Baghdad (ibid.). Thus,

it has been argued that ‘a certain degree of institutionalisation certainly ensued when translators

were associated with Islamic colleges of the classical period, with cathedral chapters as in

twelfth-century Toledo, or with court scholarship from the thirteenth century’ (Caminade and

Pym, 2001, p. 281).

The European colonisations provided further opportunities for TT (ibid.), as did the

interaction of civilisations on the fringes of empires and at certain periods in history. This is

evidenced by the training of French interpreters in Constantinople from 1669. It was also

carried out in the Oriental Academy for diplomats established by Empress Maria Theresa in

Vienna in 1754. Meanwhile, the ambitious European spread into other parts of the world

36
produced interesting reactions. For example, the Egyptian translation school now known as Al-

Alsun was founded in 1835. Similarly, towards the beginning of the nineteenth century,

Chinese government officials who handled foreign affairs realised the need for translators to

assist them in their international dealings. Accordingly, they established institutions for the

purpose of training translators in areas such as weapons manufacture and shipbuilding (ibid.).

In all these cases, the purpose of institutionalising TT was to guarantee a certain degree

of quality and more importantly to ensure the loyalty and allegiance of the translators (ibid.).

It is certainly wise to attract those intercultural (or linguistic) mediators working with the other

party and make them serve your purposes by recruiting and educating them. At certain times

in history, winning the allegiance of cultural mediators was prioritised over ensuring their

translation was of high quality (ibid.). For example, the training of Spanish diplomats and

translators who worked in the protectorate of Morocco took place in Beirut even though

Lebanese Arabic was different from Moroccan Arabic, because ‘they were less likely to be

identifying with the Moroccan cultural other’ (ibid., p. 476). Hence, government-dominated

training may be envisaged as favouring certain members of the community that are expected

to be in contact with other communities (ibid.).

The institutionalisation of TT also was given impetus at the time of World War II. For

example, translation schools were founded in the German-speaking part of the world, as in the

case of Heidelberg (1930), Geneva (1941) and Vienna (1943). After the war, victorious nations

were eager to glean technical data from the German language (for the purpose of manufacturing

weapons such as bombs and rockets). It is interesting that the Nuremberg trials highlighted the

role played by translators and interpreters in the foreseen future of global institutions.

Gradually, independent university-level programmes and institutions emerged in the regions

formerly controlled by the Third Reich (Graz and Innsbruck) in 1946, Germersheim in 1947

and Saarbrücken in 1948. In 1949 Georgetown University in Washington DC established its

37
school of translation. French institutions (ESIT and ISIT) followed in 1957. At that stage, the

unification of Europe was a key encouraging driving force (ibid.).

By 1960, a number of specialised institutions had been established in Western Europe,

while at Moscow Linguistic University, whose translation school opened in 1930, TT was

integrated into foreign language institutes. This model still exists in Russia and a few Central

European Countries (ibid.).

It is fair to say that the specialised translation schools and institutions of the West

provided good quality training in translation and interpreting. All were members of CIUTI

(Conférence Internationale permanente d’Instituts Universitaires de Traducteurs et

Interprètes), an international association of institutions of Higher Education offering master’s

degrees in translation and interpreting which was founded in 1960. According to CIUTI’s

website, its partners form a cooperative network with the aim of promoting quality in training

and research, thus enhancing the employability of their graduates. CIUTI has thirty members

and claims to be an organisation dedicated to excellence in translation and interpretation — in

research as well as training. It is multinational and accommodates members from all continents

and within different national and cultural settings. However, the number of TT programmes

around the world now exceeds 500, meaning that CIUTI includes fewer than 10% of those

programmes. More and more TT programmes emerged in the 1960s and 1970s outside Europe

and some of those programmes competed with and indeed outperformed Western European

programmes (Caminade and Pym, 2001). Pym suggests that in Western Europe TT

programmes developed in continuous response to the stop/start process of the Unification of

Europe. Nevertheless, the non-European growth in the field exhibits a ‘smoother response to

economic globalization’ (Pym, 2011, p.477). Both western and non-western streams have been

impacted by various reforms that have changed university education, paving the way for an

emphasis on vocational goals and gradually embedding TT into the structures and curricula of

38
academic university programmes. Such a process has been emphasised and adopted in Europe.

For example, it has had a great impact in Spain where the number of TT institutions jumped

from only four in 1992 to more than twenty-three in 1997.

1.4 Types of Institutional TT

Starting from a small number of translation teaching courses in a few universities such as

Heidelberg and Ottawa in the 1930s to the exponential rise in the number of current TT

programmes (Pym, 2014a), approaches, attitudes, curricula and pedagogical perspectives of

the field have developed and multiplied (Pym, 2009).

According to the Intercultural Studies Group (ISG) database, there are different types

and forms of TT programmes. Some are full undergraduate programmes that last three, four or

even five years and can be found in countries such as Germany, Belgium, Spain and Canada.

At a higher level, there are postgraduate degrees that take one or two years as in France, Spain,

the USA and the UK. Others are typically integrated within academic departments, and involve

research studies and projects. Some of these programmes emphasise theory more than practice.

On the other hand, there are programmes that are offered by institutions which are not

necessarily part of or affiliated to universities. These institutions tend to offer and award

vocational diplomas and therefore teach little if any theoretical content (Kelly and Martin,

2008). The content of such programmes primarily depends on the aims of the particular

programme.

As for translation, looking at generalist undergraduate education as the paradigmatic

form of institutional teaching and learning, we can identify a number of common practices and

trends. One is the requirement that students choose and work with two foreign or acquired

languages. This trend likely reflects the influence of early programmes designed to cater for

39
the translation needs of international organizations. With the exception of those in diglossic

and international communities, most institutions tend to work with one mother tongue.

Accordingly, institutions organise their curricula based on students’ language combinations

‘despite the fact that increased student mobility and the internationalization of higher education

mean that many students find themselves learning in artificial language combinations’ (Kelly

and Martin, 2008, p. 295).

The second main trend relates to the way institutions organise their programmes into

modules or courses in areas including language skills, culture or civilization, translating,

interpreting, instrumental skills such as Computer Assisted Translation, documentary research

or terminology management; institutions also tend to offer subject area options. This way of

organising curricula is in line with the major areas of competence expected in professional

translators. This type of programme seems to be favoured by market-driven institutions should

work well if it is customised to the specific pedagogical and social needs of an institution and

those of its students. Provided all relevant stakeholders have been involved in the curriculum

designing and planning stages, it is likely that the programme will be successful in achieving

its overall teaching and learning objectives. It should be noted that not a single institution is

thought to have attempted to develop ‘cross-curricular learning for whole undergraduate

programmes based on alternative organizational concepts such as the translation problem’

(Kelly and Martin, 2008, p. 295). However, some scholars have argued persuasively for the

need for this kind of innovation, and some interesting examples of this concept have been

adopted at the postgraduate or course unit level (Kiraly, 2014a; Gouadec, 2003).

In the third trend of institutional TT globally, specialised translation is situated towards

the final one or two years of the programme, implying that it is more advanced and therefore

should be placed after the less complex, non-translation components have been covered earlier

in the programme. This kind of structure lends itself to common categorisations of specialised

40
translation that can be linked generally to the main subject areas in which translation work is

done. These include commercial, legal, scientific and technical, and in some cases literary

translation. Some programmes have introduced other new areas such as audio-visual

translation, multimedia translation and localisation, ‘where the basis of the classification is not

the subject area but the medium through which texts are made public’ (Kelly and Martin, 2008,

pp. 295-296).

In addition to the numerous institutional TT programmes, there are other providers who

offer non-institutional professional training for translators. These are primarily professional

agencies or bodies and major employers. The professional translation associations which exist

around the globe tend to offer short professional training activities or courses for their

members. These courses normally centre on the current needs of practicing translators such as

terminology management, new technologies, revision, marketing, copyrights, translation

business setup issues and skills and marketing translation services, among others. Other

professional associations offer longer programmes which have been well-received and have

proven very useful for the continuous professional development of practicing translators. An

example is the American Translator’s Association (ATA), which even has a mentoring plan

through which more experienced senior professionals provide guidance to new colleagues or

novices over a set period of time. In this way, newcomers experience an easier and more

confident induction into the profession, an excellent approach that should be replicated by other

associations. Moreover, ATA offers a Continuing Education Programme through which

members are expected to earn a minimum of twenty points over three years to stay accredited.

Other leading associations and societies in the field include the European Society of Translation

Studies (EST) and the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies

(IATIS), which, through their training teams and committees, have been successfully

41
organising workshops and seminars and putting together bibliographical data as well as

supporting translation-related research projects.

1.5 TT Pedagogical Approaches and Models

1.5.1 TT Approaches

In principle, university TT programmes should focus on what their societies expect from

translators and interpreters, that is, to translate and interpret. Despite the tremendous volume

of publications and research studies in TT and the exponential rise in the number of TT

programmes globally, there is no unanimity on the best approach to training translators, nor is

there clear agreement on the basis for TT or translation education or translation pedagogy.

There are, however, shifts from one approach to another. For example, there is ‘a shift in many

places from a teacher-oriented approach to a learner-centered approach, or rather a mixture of

approaches’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 163).

Gambier makes three interesting general observations in relation to the discipline. First,

there is clear variation among TT programmes in terms of their structure and length. In general,

there appear to be more MA programmes in translation and interpreting than there are

undergraduate programmes in the same field. Gambier’s second observation relates to how

attitude, perception and conception of training, education and translation have changed as a

result of reforms to higher education policy at the national (or continental) level in our highly

competitive and globalised world. This change in attitude and conception is also caused by

advancement in communication, information transfer and computer technologies. Thirdly, a

recent affective challenge is the concept of professionalization, which has introduced new

needs such as employability, flexibility in order to rise to the challenge of varying job profiles

and professional integration. The need to train translators silences the classic debate between

42
academia and vocational training in translation education. Today’s training emphasises the

need to equip students with various skills, knowledge and tools demanded by the different

professions in the translation market (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012).

Currently, it seems that the general trend of TT programmes is to qualify highly

competent translators by ‘transforming students with language competences into professionals

able to translate, localize, revise, etc.’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 164). Such

programmes would be categorised as competence-based training (Hurtado Albir, 2007) which

emphasises ongoing assessment of ‘learning outcomes’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 164).

Training can begin at the university at the undergraduate level and may be undertaken in

various forms later as specialised training at the postgraduate level. It can also be carried out

as continuous professional development in the form of short intensive professional training

courses, self-training, e-learning, distance learning or lifelong learning. Current potentially

successful examples of TT include the European Masters in Translation (EMT) and

OPTIMALE, where underlying principles and rationale in over seventy universities in Europe

and the structure of curricula and courses are investigated in terms of achieving their overall

goals and methodological frameworks.

In translation didactics three main approaches can be identified. The first is the process-

centred approach, which uses various types of activities designed to instil a considerable

volume of metacognitive monitoring. This includes activities that assist translation students in

reflecting on their beliefs about translation and their own self-concept and understanding of

translators (Stefanink and Bălăcescu, 2009). It also includes activities that motivate students.

It is believed that a student’s ability to think and be creative could help reduce inhibition and

learning anxiety (Kussmaul, 1995). Other activities that can be signalled here are those that

facilitate students’ ability to sense the meaning of the text. Translators are not conventional

readers aiming to search for information or achieve pleasure. Rather, ‘they sense allusions,

43
double meanings, ambiguities, connotations, polysemy, etc.’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p.

165).

These activities also include those that assist students in locating problems and solving

them. In addition to recognising translation problems when they encounter them, students are

expected to verbalise problems and to develop a mechanism through which they are able to

identify them by name and ultimately find a suitable solution. Other activities include those

which provide opportunities for ad hoc knowledge acquisition and management and teach

students how to look for valid and relevant information sources and resources, to become

familiar with new types of information and to assess or filter the information that is offered by

the internet (Gonzalez Davies, 2004; Gile, 2009). These types of activities could be organised

according to a sequential model of translation composed of two-phase process operations, the

first being comprehension and the second reformulation (Gile, 2009). Another, more complex

sequence of activities involves tasks and operations pertaining to pre-translation, information

retrieval, transfer, proofreading, editing and post-translation (Gouadec, 2007). This process-

oriented approach is likely to enable students to develop their ability to reflect on their own

practice, which eventually and gradually leads to ‘routinized behaviour’ (Gambier and

Doorslaer, 2012).

The second approach is the situational which involves a number of activities concerned

with the analysis of the translation commission. These focus on who the commissioner is and

to whom, for what purpose, how, and when the translation is requested. These types of activities

generally can be categorised in relation to two keywords: simulation and immersion (ibid.).

In simulation, the main goal of activities is to enable students to grasp the importance

of the translation assignment and the target audience, the impact of deadlines and quality

requirements (Gouadec, 2005). Students can work in small or large groups as both lend

44
themselves to simulation. Students are provided with opportunities to organise their roles in

terms of who will do the required tasks and how and when those tasks will be completed.

Further, they need to determine the distribution of tasks and work, work collaboratively and

demonstrate effective time management. They also need to decide which e-tools to use and

how to use them, and to assess what consequences that use might have on the quality of their

translation, given that their work will be completed in and/or out of class time. This

collaborative type of learning and training in translation should be successful if its aim is to

identify problems, acquire information, analyse information and solve problems (González

Davies, 2004).

It is assumed that projects carried out collectively and collaboratively facilitate

students’ engagement in various tasks and their ability to work as a group to accomplish a final

product. These types of projects facilitate and enhance interaction between students and

negotiation with the commissioner. (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012). However, using group

dynamics in the way described above may not always be helpful to all students in the same

manner or to the extent predicted because individual students have different learning styles and

preferences and may not be engaged in group work easily. A number of variables must be

considered when implementing collaborative projects. We need to consider the time

appropriate to implement team work-based activities in the learning process. We also need to

ensure that all members of the group are motivated, able and actively engaged, and that they

are working collaboratively with each other.

Immersion is a consequence of the multicultural and multilingual classroom and is

normally accomplished through student mobility. In this case, students are given activities

which they undertake while living in a target culture or working in a professional environment.

‘In both cases, they are confronting what they have already learnt with what the new situation

“teaches” them’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 166). Such activities are carried out through

45
various types of exchange and mobility programmes such as Erasmus in Europe, and study

abroad programmes. During such activities, students are provided with ample opportunities to

advance their second or foreign language competency, experience the target culture, develop a

deep understanding of the host country, learn through different and new teaching

methodologies, reflect upon how different their home country is, take new courses and subjects,

increase their motivation for studying, question the overall outcomes of their programmes and

become more confident in and more responsible for the organisation of their studies (Kelly,

2008).

Other very useful and effective forms of immersion are practicums and internships.

Almost all the students and professional translators interviewed for this study asserted the

significance of these types of immersion. That said, organisers of such immersion programmes

should note that evaluation/assessment criteria and procedures are of paramount importance to

ensure the successful execution of practicums and internships. These criteria and procedures

should be in line with clear learning objectives and outcomes. This includes what student

trainees are going to be doing during the internship or practicum and how they are going to

achieve it. The agencies or companies that are hosting the internships must be selected carefully

in terms of the relevance of their activities to the students’ needs and the quality of their work.

In Europe for example,

Through the POSI project (Praxisorientierte Studieninhalte / Practical orientation in Studies in T &
I), launched in 1996 and co-developed in 12 European countries over the period 1997-1999, and
today via internships and through different surveys, the needs of users of translation services have
been refined and quality control in translating training has been set up. Such co-operation between
the different agents (translation companies, associations of free-lance translators and higher
education institutions) can only reinforce the relevance and adequacy of the training programme
(Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, pp. 166-167).

Cooperation between different key players and stakeholders from the translation

market/industry, service providers, regulating bodies, educational and training institutions and

46
other relevant areas is vital for sustainable development and improvement of TT programmes,

a concept that will be explored in Chapter Five of this thesis.

The third approach is text-based, which focuses on the various types of texts in relation

to their conventions of presentation and style, use of parallel texts and electronic corpora (Yuste

Rodriguo, 2008; Beeby et al., 2009). The text-based approach to translation views texts as acts

of communication. These acts occur in various culturally significant contexts. Accordingly,

translation becomes more than an inter-linguistic transcoding exercise. The source text is

regarded as a coherent sum of lexical items and is analysed globally at the supra-sentential

level by looking at its overall meaning, textual features and communicative function(s). The

translation unit is no longer the word or sentence but the text as a whole. The translator’s task

is to produce a translation or target text which is textually and communicatively equivalent to

the source text. This is accomplished by encoding the source text information into equivalent

target culture textual prototypes (Neubert and Shreve, 1992).

Reiss (2000) notes that translators deal with different types of texts, which she categorises

as informative, expressive and operative, and currently include new multimedia texts. Each of

these professional genres has posed a challenge for translation teachers and trainers. It is not

an easy task for trainers to select texts. Texts need to be suitable, meaningful and authentic as

well as being situated in a certain cultural, social and communicative time, space and context.

In order to determine if a text is suitable for translation, a number of factors should be taken

into account. In general, the choice is based on the predicted learning outcomes and the types

of competences that one wants students to be able to master (Nord, 2005). This implies that we

should be targeting other competences in addition to the textual or sociolinguistic sub-

competences (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012).

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 Using the text-based approach, students should be trained to focus on textual meaning,

advanced reading comprehension skills and abilities, successful reading strategies and the skill

of inference. Such important skills and strategies tend to be ignored or overlooked in most TT

courses and programmes. This is especially the case today, when students are used to hypertext

which fragments reading with each successive link. It is also essential that students complete

exercises focusing on error analysis and interference. This will help trainers locate areas where

students misrepresent text-type focus, make incorrect assumptions or misinterpret

argumentative markers and other similar problems (ibid.).

In translation education or training, the focus should be on the “how” of translation rather

than the “what”. This does not imply that one excludes the other but the emphasis ought to be

on the process of translation, not the product. In other words, it is the process of translation,

not the product, which should be the basis of our curricula. In general terms, the field of TT

and translation education can be divided into two main areas, the first being what we want to

teach and learn and the second being how we teach and learn it. The how is investigated in

detail by scholars in the field of education science. People can take a course on how to teach,

how to design a course and how to design a programme, and considerable research has focused

on this area. Equally significant for the sake of this discussion is the what, which in this case

refers to translation. Logic dictates that the what (content) is closely linked to the how

(process). Translation is not just a neutral activity that can be taught in the same way as other

subjects such as mathematics or physics. Putting the how and the what together reveals why

translation is a challenging field in which to work or conduct research. Scholars have

emphasised that translating involves numerous variables and is not just a matter of trying to

imitate the source text. It is a complex cognitive operation and a complex social operation with

some degree of mystery. For many it is still puzzling how it is possible to receive a message in

one language and reproduce it in another without losing its linguistic, cultural and other explicit

48
and implicit features. How can that be done successfully? We still have not unravelled all the

mysteries involved in this process. The complexity of the task can be very appealing and it has

made a considerable number of scholars and researchers curious to study this field of activity.

Equally appealing is the process of learning. How do we move from one stage of knowledge

or capacity to act to the next? Some learners perform very well and others face challenges

performing or learning. How is the mind able to learn? Combining these questions creates an

interesting subject for research and investigation.

In the main, however, studies to date have focused more on the product rather than the

process of translation. When trainers or teachers say that they are going to teach students

translation or how to translate, they tend to conceive the act of translating as comprising a set

of skills whose focus is on knowing how to do something. Further, translation students are

expected to have a certain type and level of knowledge, such as knowledge of commonly-used

translation memories, knowledge of translation ethics and norms, knowledge of how to do deal

with clients, how to manage the finances of their business (or their agency’s business) and

knowledge of charging schemes, knowledge of the source and target languages, knowledge of

the material they are assigned (or choose) to translate and various other types of knowledge.

All this knowledge is vital.

In addition to skills (i.e. knowing how) and a knowledge of what, the third element that

students need to get from their education is attitude. Students must be made aware of current

events and their position in the world. They need to develop an interest in various types of

knowledge. In addition to becoming trustworthy, reliable, and punctual, students are expected

to develop other important traits during their three or four years of translation education. Those

traits are called attitudes, and these are of paramount importance as many private and public

agencies give such traits priority when screening and recruiting potential employees, including

translators and interpreters. Thus, educators and trainers of translators must consider the

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development of students’ professional attitudes and behaviour in their pedagogical curricula

and methodology.

When TT experts speak of what translators should be taught, they often refer to

competence or translation competence. Competence (sometimes called competency; as there

is no clear distinction between the two terms, ‘competence’ will be used throughout this thesis)

encompasses skills, knowledge and attitude and is embedded (or not) in many TT programmes

worldwide. As TC was discussed in Chapter One (see Section 1.2), it suffices to mention here

that all TT programmes need to centre their curricula around it, regardless of the angle through

which they conceptualise it.

Often there are short-term TT programmes that range from two days to four weeks, six

months or even a year. This type of training, more often than not, focuses on skills, namely on

the how e.g. knowing how to do translation or related skills. Students enrolled in a longer-term

programme which lasts 3-5 years or longer (e.g. a BA followed by an MA in translation as in

the case in Europe, North America, Asia and the Middle East) normally receive training in all

three components described above, in other words, various types of relevant skills, an extensive

range of required knowledge and the expected attitudes of professional translators. Students

start at the age of 18 and leave when they are 23 or even older depending on the requirements

of the programme and on individual performance. Translation trainers and educators expect to

see character development during this period.

Success in TT requires effective teaching/training methods that facilitate the engagement

of students and the collective construction of knowledge by students and their teacher/trainer.

In his introduction to A Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education, Donald Kiraly

(2014a) stipulates that translation teachers/trainers receive little and sometimes no education

in the methods of teaching translation. In fact, they are employed in their respective educational

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or training institutions and requested to attend classes trained or taught by senior colleagues to

learn how to teach. In response, Kiraly developed the social constructivist approach, which is

based on his idea that ‘individuals have no choice but to create or construct meanings and

knowledge through participation in the interpersonal, inter-subjective interaction’ (ibid., p.4).

Thus, students gain knowledge collectively and collaboratively through social and

interpersonal activity using cognitive and personal thinking processes. Kiraly (2014a) rejects

the classic transmissionist approach, arguing that knowledge is not simply transmitted to

learners by their teachers but rather constructed by learners themselves, emphasising a shift in

authority that gives the student responsibility for and control over the learning process. In fact,

all educators (and trainers) should not be controllers of their students’ learning but rather of a

learning climate that is learner-focused, not teacher-focused. Kiraly’s approach seems to lend

itself to the needs of today’s translation students in that it is empowering, provides active and

interactive learning opportunities and offers flexibility for various contexts and courses

contents. Nevertheless, when designing activities based on this approach clear objectives

should be set for each task given to students to help them achieve it successfully.

Speaking at the 6th International Maastricht-Łódź Duo Colloquium in May 2015, Kiraly

highlighted the need to move beyond the static competence impasse in translation education.

Certainly the translator’s competence has been a key focus of interest and debate in TT and

translation education for the last three decades. Numerous publications have referred to various

models of two-dimensional translator competence. TS and other disciplines have emphasised

competency-based teaching and training, and this concept has attracted many scholars and

researchers in education. Kiraly (2015) postulates that while acknowledging the potential value

of the various competence models in terms of their power to advance understanding of the

translator’s skills and capabilities, we could add a third dimension, which is time. It takes time

to demonstrate and improve one’s understanding of the dynamic nature of competence

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development. From its very beginning, the discipline of TS has been interacting with other

disciplines, borrowing concepts that serve its purposes and development. By contrast, its

applied branch of TT or translator education has been somewhat hesitant even to consider let

alone embrace potentially useful findings of relevant sub-areas of education such as

educational psychology, educational philosophy, educational sociology and educational

ergonomics. Kiraly (2015) describes the example of the common distinction between more or

less positivist epistemologies to highlight the dramatic impact these belief systems can have on

a wide variety of affordances in the educational environment we create for our students, the

respective roles of students and teachers in the teaching and learning processes, the ergonomics

of the learning setting and the objectives, structure and sequencing of course and activity types

throughout the programme of studies. Furthermore, Kiraly explains that a post-positivist

epistemology could be combined with a dynamic three-dimensional model of learning design

to provide systematic yet flexible and praxis-oriented curricula and learning opportunities for

future TT and education.

1.5.2 Using Electronic Learning in TT

Many institutions globally have introduced e-learning methods in their teaching or training

courses. E-learning, also known as Open Learning, Distance Learning, or online learning, can

be delivered in different forms. TT institutions have been offering various degrees, courses or

modules of translation online for many years. The University of Birmingham, for example,

offers an MA in TS online. Other examples include the audiovisual translation course offered

by Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (the Autonomous University of Barcelona) in Spain,

and New York University’s online certificate and MA degree in translation. Many private

agencies and companies also offer TT courses online, including Logo Group, Proz.com, SDL

and TGP Consulting.

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 E-learning based-translation training takes different forms, including virtual learning

environments using chat facilities, discussion e-mails, synchronous and asynchronous

activities and online assessment; translation courses especially developed, written and designed

for the Web, with course and tutorial material; the use of a platform, such as Moodle and

Prometheus, for sharing documents, resource materials and individual contributions to and

comments on group translation projects (i.e. “learning while doing”) and self-training (Gambier

and Doorslaer, 2012).

Virtual teaching of courses in general has been adopted by many educational institutions

around the world. The concept of the Open University has been relatively successful globally.

For example, in addition to the Arab Open University branches in several Saudi cities, the

Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia has dedicated a full-fledged university to teach all of its

courses and subjects electronically. The Saudi Electronic University (SEU) was launched in

2011 as a government educational institution and a leading distance education provider in Saudi

Arabia offering both undergraduate and graduate degree programmes and life-long education.

Fortunately, SEU is planning to launch a new online undergraduate programme in TT

in 2016 / 2017. SEU describes the programme as follows:

Over the course of four years, prospective bachelor’s degree students will be exposed to
linguistics, language skills, and translation courses, with translation designated as the program’s
primary area of focus. At the outset, students will enroll in the preparatory year program for two
semesters to achieve degree-level language competence. Upon successful completion of this
program, students will enter the mainstream English program, where they will take courses in
linguistics, advanced language skills, and additional translation courses, as well as a number of
educational courses. Aspiring translators in the English language program are required to (a) attend
basic education courses to fulfill university requirements; (b) complete courses prescribed by the
Department of English, including skill-building courses to consolidate and develop their general
language skills, general linguistics courses, and translation courses in all areas of translation and
interpretation studies; and (c) pursue a minor of their choice in the fields of law, administration,
or health informatics. The total number of credit hours is 127. Specialized study at the senior level
should enable students to direct their careers, internalize the concepts they will be working with

53
 in the future, and gain efficient knowledge and practical experience in translating and interpreting
(SEU booklet, 2016).

The information given above and in other material promoting this new degree in Translation

and Interpreting studies suggests that SEU’s Bachelor’s Degree in English Language and

Translation has until now been one of the most workplace-oriented TT programmes on offer.

Of the 127 credits that comprise this degree, 44% is dedicated to specialised translation and

interpreting courses, including Introduction to Translation, Legal and Business Translation,

Consecutive and Bilateral Interpreting, Principles and Practice of Computer-Assisted

Translation, Summary and Sight Translation, Technical and Scientific Translation,

Simultaneous Interpreting, Issues in TS, Media Translation, Conference Interpreting, and

Translation Project. These are in addition to three courses in Arabic language skills and nine

courses in English language skills, representing 29% of the total credits. Moreover, there are

seven linguistics courses (23% of degree credits) and one elective as a non-specialised course

(3%). Given that SEU adopts modern interactive learner-based training methods and TT

technology, this degree seems promising and may be on the right path to cater for the needs of

today’s Saudi translation students and market. SEU expects graduates with this degree to work

in media, military and security industries, law, diplomacy, business, commerce, health,

tourism, the airline industry and publishing.

Despite the advantages of virtual learning and teaching, including cost-effectiveness,

wider target audiences, flexibility of management and accessibility among others, educators

and education policy makers nevertheless must assess the online learning/teaching experiences

of their respective institutions by reviewing the effectiveness of current setups and online

course designs and feedback from learners and teachers and by comparing the achievements of

students engaged in online and conventional learning. But these issues should be further

investigated and assessed (Pym et al., 2003). It is also essential to clearly define and state what

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students need from an online training course as well as the learning objectives and competences

to be acquired by trainee translators. On this point, Gambier posits that:

The online collaborative learning exchange, the ways of participating in shared-knowledge making
practices, cannot be only a matter of technology, of globally networked learning environments.
They challenge traditional teaching boundaries, binary categories (on-/off-line,
national/international, local/global) and redefine the position of the teacher assuming versatile roles
(tutor, mentor, facilitator). However, simulation, problem-solving exercises, team work and large
group projects can be common to any kind of training – in the classroom or online. Whatever the
support is, the learning objectives and the competences one wishes to work on must always be stated
beforehand (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 168).

Taking Gambier and Doorslaer’s assertion regarding learning outcomes into consideration, the

virtual mode of TT has been and will always be a great asset for TT institutions, translation

students and professional translators for the purpose of knowledge-sharing and skills building.

All translators come across situations where they are challenged by a text (or texts) that requires

specialist knowledge in various areas and disciplines. No TT programme can ever fulfil all

specialist knowledge requirements or fill all possible gaps. Online training can be very handy

in this respect by offering need-based courses and workshops. Massive Open Online Courses

(MOOCS) have great potential as a remedy for translators seeking to fill gaps in their

knowledge. MOOCS are gradually becoming popular and are being offered in a wide range of

specialities and by many different educational institutions around the world.

1.5.3 Challenges in TT

There are several challenges that may impact TT programmes directly or indirectly. These are

related either to what content needs to be included in the curriculum or to how the training is

carried out and organised or both. Some of the more important questions that lie at the heart of

planning and deigning effective TT programmes deal with the type of students who should be

trained as translators. Of particular importance are the entry-level skills, abilities and

competences that new entrants to TT programmes are expected to possess in order for

55
universities and students to succeed in their training efforts, and to meet the expectations of

their future employers. In other words, training institutions need to consider what market they

should be training for. Other important issues to which universities must give serious thought

include who should be training translation students, how these trainers are selected and how

they themselves should be trained or developed. It is not enough that those who teach or train

translators have accumulated professional translation experience over the years; they should be

qualified teachers or trainers. A balance between proper certification and professional

translation experience should be observed when hiring or selecting translator trainers/teachers.

Moreover, there is a continuing debate amongst TT scholars over what should be given

priority in regards to training outcomes, that is, whether we should train specialised translators

in certain translation fields or specialists in general cross-cultural knowledge and

communication. Commenting on the Spanish situation, Mayoral claims that

Given the kinds of students that we have and the demands of the market, both these options should
be available within the one curriculum. Only some of our students will become professional
translators or interpreters, and particularly all those that do reach this stage will require skills and
competencies that go beyond the field of translation and interpreting. The necessary skills concern
professional activities in the field of general communication, particularly in linguistics (Mayoral,
2003, pp. 5-6).

To some extent, it is true that not all graduates of translation education programmes take

translation as a professional career. In fact, a number of translator trainers interviewed for this

study have confirmed this observation. In Saudi Arabia, for example, many graduates of

translation programmes from King Saud University and Al-Imam Mohammad Ibn Saud

Islamic University have jobs outside the profession, but instead have achieved great success in

high profile jobs as language consultants, in the media, public relations, diplomatic circles and

human resources departments or in managerial/executive positions. However, Mayoral does

not specify the skills and competences he refers to as ‘beyond the field of translation and

interpreting’, nor does he make clear how both options could be embedded in the same

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curriculum. Among the deciding factors in this respect are the length of the programme, its

context, its focus, the level of flexibility given to programme’s designers and directors and its

students’ needs as well as other external factors relating to national, local or institutional policy

makers. Specialisation can be categorised in three ways: first in terms of domain specialisation

(i.e. legal, technical, commercial, medical or scientific expertise), secondly in terms of specific

types of medium through which texts are translated (such as localisation, audio-visual

translation), and thirdly in terms of closely-related practices (for example revision, technical

writing) (Lavault-Olléon, 2007). Taking all three ways of specialisation into account in TT

curricula is optimal.

Other challenging issues in TT pertain to the programme structure, the number of credits

and the volume of contact hours; the emphasis placed on certain subjects, skills and abilities

relative to others; who should be involved in the planning, writing and designing phases of

curriculum development; the training approach taken (e.g. whether to include introductory

courses in certain thematic areas); and the job profile of trainers (i.e. translation

specialists/experts, professional translators, university academic staff). All these issues have a

direct impact on the types of activities offered in a given TT programme, which can range from

basic exercises in the use of dictionaries or in terminology to very advanced practical seminars

and workshops in editing. These could be compulsory or optional depending on the

programmes’ focus and priorities (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012).

Another challenging issue in training or teaching translators has to do with evaluation

and assessment. Scholars reflecting on evaluation in translation teaching/TT have highlighted

the need for correcting and rating scales (Delisle, 1993; Hurtado Albir, 1995). Some have

focused on how errors in translation operate (Gouadec, 1981, 1989; Pym, 1993b; Kussmaul,

1995; Nord, 1996) while others have investigated the notion of the translation problem, a point

of inquiry close to and linked with translation error (Nord, 1988; Presas, 1996). The issue is

57
clearly controversial due to ‘the multiplicity of parameters to take into account, the various

causes of translation errors and the relative nature of quality’ (Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012,

p. 169).

Indeed, the main problem with assessment is that it is inherently subjective. If assessment

parameters are clearly defined and reviewed and more assessors are involved, it may be

possible to mitigate against this. For example, in addition to the trainer/teacher, students

themselves could be involved in the assessment process, together with peer students, field

specialists and other professional translators (González Davies, 2004). It is pedagogically

significant that students are involved in the learning and evaluation processes so that they

realise their successes, the types of errors they have made, why the errors are considered errors

and how to correct their errors and improve their skills and abilities so as to perform better in

future assignments or projects. Various types of assessment have been used in TT including

diagnostic, formative, summative, peer assessment, self-assessment and professional

certification. Today’s universities adopt a wide range of assessment tools and methods

(González Davies, 2004), and TT scholars and experts have published several assessment

scales for grading students (Mahn, 1989; Kussmaul, 1995; Hatim, 1997; González Davies et

al, 2001).

Other challenges to TT lie in the provision of highly qualified translator trainers, their

profile and competences, and this in turn has a direct impact on how well TT programmes can

develop their students’ translator/translation competence or deliver their product- or process-

oriented training. The competence of translator trainers is vital to the success and quality of TT

programmes. Universities offering such programmes are obliged to thoroughly investigate the

background and experience of their current and prospective translator trainers, their profiles,

the competences they have or are expected to have and the relevance of their expertise to the

real needs of the training programmes. All of these points could be used as primary indicators

58
of how fit a translator trainer is for a modern TT programme. That said, ultimately what matters

are the specific needs of a given programme in a given context. Nevertheless, for training

programmes to maintain an acceptable level of success and quality, their trainers should have

a profile that is congruent with today’s social and market needs.

Regarding TC, Gambier and Doorslaer (2012) reiterates Gouadec’s assertion that

There is no unique model today of translation competence acquisition, of translator competences.

However, training is more practice-oriented: i.e. translation activities are defined in terms of
professional goals, learners are becoming aware of the translation process, the translation strategies
and tactics and their own learning process (with a role given to meta-cognition and meta-language
used in the training). The lack of a consistent, systematic, scientific methodology/pedagogy is being
compensated little by little by a more empirically-based pedagogy, with more explicit objectives
and learning outcomes (Gouadec, 2007, cited in Gambier and Doorslaer, 2012, p. 169).

Therefore, taking into account contextual, professional and disciplinary needs, TT institutions

should always strive to update their programmes and review them based on the most recent

empirically-based methods. This effort should be informed by the results of carefully

conducted situational and training needs analyses involving all possible relevant stakeholders.

Further analysis of situational and training needs in the context of designing TT curriculum is

presented in Chapter Three.

One major issue that has proved very challenging to many TT programmes around the

world is whether TT curricula should be purely theoretical, professional workplace-based or

theory-practice balanced. How TT programmes have addressed this issue is the focus of the

next section.

1.6 Incorporating Theory into TT

The inclusion of translation theory in TT programmes seems to be a contentious issue. The

debate began in the 1970s, when ‘growing interest in opening up more academic space for the

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study of translation began to find expression in the project of creating an independent discipline

fully devoted to the area, a project that is the central topic of James Holmes’s “The Name and

Nature of Translation Studies”, first published in 1972, and to this day one of the discipline’s

most recognizable early documents’ (Arrojo, 2013, p. 122). Holmes believes that it is the goal

of the theorist to develop a complete and inclusive theory that can illustrate and predict all

types of phenomena that are in the domain of translating or translation while excluding all types

of phenomena that are considered outside of it (ibid.). He views most theories as either too

inclusive or too exclusive, being solely a collection of axioms, postulates and hypotheses, and

as such serving only as prefatory remarks to or observations in regard to the type of theory he

proposes (ibid.).

Simply put, to be informed about the theories of translation is to know, among other

things, what scholars and experts in the field have said about it, its processes and goals, how to

make a judgement on translation content accuracy, meaningfulness and other relevant stylistic

linguistic and functional issues. It means being informed about how to translate to achieve

specific goals, what responsibilities translators have, and whether they are primarily

responsible to the author, the original text, the reader or the customer who commissioned the

translation.

It is true that some practitioners have been able to translate without studying translation

theory. Nevertheless, those who study translation in school and disapprove of theory, claiming

that learning or training can only be achieved by translating, are themselves adopting a kind of

translation theory. They may not be conscious of it, however, hence their inability to critically

examine specific assignments.

Holmes’ 1988 division of TS illustrates the position of translation pedagogy in the

discipline. He separates TS into “Pure” studies and “Applied” studies, explaining that the

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former purports to enhance the understanding of the nature of translations, translational

phenomena and the impact of related factors, while the latter employs insights, theoretical

models or hypotheses and experimental or descriptive studies to develop ways of helping or

training translators and translation critics. He then divides Pure TS into Theoretical (General

and Partial) and Descriptive sub-areas, with Descriptive TS branching out in a further three

areas: research-function, process-oriented and product-oriented. The full map of the discipline

as Holmes conceived it is shown in Figure 1.2:

Figure 1.2: Holmes’ conception of Translation Studies (Toury, 1991, p. 181).

As this map demonstrates, translation theory can be regarded as a fundamental, rational basis

for Holmes’ ‘applied translation studies’, ‘which would directly address the practice of

translation in all its aspects’ (Arrojo, 2013, p. 123). Backed by theoretical models, this applied

branch would inform the determination of the goals and roles of translation and those involved

during this process (ibid.), which Holmes conceives as having three components: translator

training, translation aids, and translation criticism (Holmes, 2000, p. 190).

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 However, practicing translators, including those interviewed for this study, and some

scholars, including Holmes, have expressed their dissatisfaction with the divide between theory

and practice and the gaps in knowledge and skill development ignored by translation specialists

and theorists. On this point, Arrojo posits that:

Holmes’ disappointment with what he finds available in the area and his expectation that universally
valid definitions and principles could indeed be achieved seem to be often shared by translators as
well. Emma Wagner, a translator and translation manager at the European Commission in
Luxembourg, for instance, has expressed her disappointment with available theories in Can Theory
Help Translators? A Dialogue between the Ivory Tower and the Wordface, the book co-authored
with Andrew Chesterman for St Jerome in 2002. Wagner finds it frustrating, for example, that
translation specialists have not managed to produce ‘clear guidelines’ that could discipline the
profession across the board: ‘on how to select people for translator training, how to assess a
translation, how to specify the purpose of a translation, how to measure and thus ensure reader
satisfaction’ (Arrojo, 2013, p. 123).

Furthermore, professional translators are also frustrated that theorists have not developed an

agreed language through which all those concerned can talk about translation, and which could

be an initial step towards advancing the discipline (Chesterman and Wagner, 2002, p. 5). The

core issue, however, is whether to incorporate theory into the teaching and training of

translators. Although theory has been recognised as fundamental for the establishment and

development of TS as a separate academic discipline, the question of whether or not to include

theory in translation education or training remains highly debatable.

No one doubts the fact that institutional TT has made great strides in the last thirty years,

given the expansion and increase in the numbers of TT programmes around the world. In 1970,

there were only forty-nine such programmes globally (Caminade and Pym, 2001) but by 2014,

their number had reached over 500, with around ten new programmes opening yearly in China

(Pym, 2014). However, the lack of a well-grounded, systematic pedagogical framework or

methodology has been criticised (Hurtado Albir, 1999, Venuti 2017). House draws an

unequivocally dark picture, claiming that

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 The teacher of the course […] passes out a text (the reason for the selection of this text is not usually
explained). This text is full of traps, which means that the teachers do not set out to train students in
the complex and difficult art of translation, but to ensnare them and lead them into error. The text is
then prepared […] for the following sessions and the whole group goes through the text sentence by
sentence, with each sentence being read by a different student. The instructor asks for alternative
translation solutions, corrects the suggested version and finally presents the sentence in its final
“correct” form […] This procedure is naturally very frustrating for the students (House, 1981, pp.
7-8).

There is, then, a gap or maybe even gaps in translation teaching/training methods. Therefore,

trainers and teachers of translation, most of whom are not trained to be translator trainers,

devise their own methods, learn from each other or perhaps apply methods they have borrowed

from other disciplines. These methods can be effective and can work for the trainers in their

specific contexts, but there is no clear evidence that they are the best methods for delivering

translation classes, neither do we know how effective and useful students find them.

Nevertheless, Baker (2001) and Perez (2005) assert that unexpectedly translation pedagogy has

been growing in quantity and quality over the last thirty years. Perez (2005) contends that this

is due to the integration of theory and practice by teachers of translation.

Scholars have referred to the impact of translation theory in various ways. Melby

(1996), for example, states that there are two branches of translation theory: the first deals with

dynamic general language and the second with domain-specific, controlled language. This is

known as the ‘general/domain distinction’ (Melby, 1996, p. 157). Translation theory for

general language would account for human translators while translation theory for controlled

language would be geared towards developers of machine translation systems employing

modern techniques. Melby’s third branch is intended to develop a methodology for analysing

whether texts are fit for machine translation and to provide criteria for assessing their

suitability.

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 There is nothing in translation theory that is intrinsically against translation practice or

the teaching of translation. What seems wrong in today’s teaching of translation is not the

excessive emphasis put on translation theory at the expense of practice, but rather the inability

of programmes to incorporate the correct (or required) kind of theory for translation

teaching/training. Nevertheless, the questions that arise here include what theory should be

incorporated in teaching translation, and whether we are going to abandon old ways of teaching

and embrace the new, broader route of translation education in a new, ‘revolutionised’ era of

translation. (Maia et al., 2002, p. 9).

One means of facilitating the smooth and successful incorporation of theory in teaching

translation could be by having qualified and professional translator trainers who have both the

right academic qualifications and relevant professional translation experience. There is

disagreement amongst scholars over who makes a more suitable translator trainer, however.

Lederer, for example, alleges that

Not all expert translators […] are endowed with pedagogical skill, which is one of the reasons why
language teachers who have received training in pedagogy feel they might be better than translators
at teaching translation. I would suggest, however, that it is easier and quicker for expert translators
to acquire some theoretical principles to help them teach a skill they master, than for language
teachers to become expert translators (Lederer, 2007, p. 17).

Market-oriented TT programmes would surely benefit from having some experienced

professional translators as translator trainers. Naturally they will be carefully selected and

gradually given the proper academic qualification and orientation to ensure their success as

translator trainers. This is indeed a much more efficient option than having language teachers

with no translation experience and qualification train aspiring translators. That said, many of

the existing translator trainers in many academic institutions around the world come from

language teaching backgrounds. However, the majority of those have built great interest in TS

and TT and have obtained the proper qualification and gained professional translation

64
experience. The problem remains in non-specialists with no professional translation who still

mislead aspiring translators in university classrooms.

Balancing theory and practice is indeed required of today’s TT programmes, given the

demand for the former in advancing TS research and the latter in enabling aspiring translators

to enter the real world. I would argue that if a reasonable balance is to be struck between a

highly specialised translation degree and professional translation and teaching/training

experience, trainers should be able to teach translation courses, given that trainers are provided

with training opportunities and undertake regular professional development. Highly

professional and academically advanced translator trainers, need-based TT curriculum and

market-oriented TT programmes are ingredients for a theory-practice balanced TT programme.

1.7 Current Trends in TT

In the UK, for example, TT was introduced at the postgraduate level, where programmes were

primarily offered to train interpreters at Westminster in London (1963) and Bath University

(1966). Subsequently, in 1976, a four-year Bachelor’s degree programme was launched at

Heriot-Watt University, but the UK model is predominantly for training translators in one-year

or two-year postgraduate programmes. This model has been implemented in Surrey (1985),

Bristol (1994), Middlesex in London (1994), Leeds (1996), Edinburgh (1992), Salford (1992),

Aston in Birmingham (1997), Swansea (2000), Imperial College London (2001), Hull (2002)

and Roehampton in London (2003).

The University of Essex has been offering a programme in literary translation since

1966. Since 2005 many more programmes have been established with a one-year Master’s

structure. In addition to serving aspiring translators and interpreters from within the UK, the

majority of these programmes also cater to European and international students. International

65
students pay very high fees and therefore are major contributors to the economic stability and

continuity of UK-based TT programmes and academic institutions. Some of the programmes

are theory-based with some practical training courses in certain language combinations. Other

programmes emphasise practice in specific language pairs with some theory modules or

courses, while others make an effort to balance both theory and practice. It would be fair to say

that these programmes cater for the international market for English language education more

than the local translation market in the UK (Pym et al., 2012). Recently, however, there has

been alarming news that due to financial constraints and not being able to fill vacant seats in

modern language and translation programmes in the UK, the number of universities closing

those programmes is accelerating. Elsewhere, the opposite is true, as Vincent (2014) explains:

The problem is that, when it comes to languages, the market is deciding against the interests of the
UK and in favour of Denmark and other countries that introduce similar policies into their education
system. The State of the Nation report published by the British Academy in February 2013 showed
how, even as languages are declining in British schools and universities, our businesses are crying
out for employees at all levels who have language skills (Vincent, 2014).

In the UK, due to the spread of English as a global language and the resulting low importance

of translation in the English-speaking countries, there are fewer TT programmes in the UK

compared to other European countries, especially at the tertiary level. Only recently has the

number of TT programmes begun to rise, particularly at the postgraduate level. There are very

few undergraduate programmes in the United Kingdom. ‘A recurring argument in favour of a

postgraduate programme is the assumption that a high level of linguistic competence can be

taken for granted. Thus, it is thought to be easier to focus on the provision of translation

competence, since language training need not to be provided at the same time’ (Schäffner,

2000a, pp. 143-144).

For some institutional providers of translator training, this remains a puzzling issue.

Anderman (1998, cited in Schäffner, 2000a, p. 144) posits that ‘without a first degree in the

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foreign language(s), students may easily find themselves in a situation where they are forced

to combine varying stages of language learning with the process of trying to acquire required

translation skills’. Moreover, students do not necessarily have the prerequisite background

knowledge about their target culture or cultures because they have not had the opportunity to

experience them by living abroad. Many four-year TT programmes require their students to

spend their third year in a country where their target language/culture is native. Accordingly,

Anderman (ibid.) concludes that ‘attempting to develop translation competence in students, not

yet linguistically proficient or sufficiently culturally and socially aware, may be a case of trying

to make them run before they walk’. This seems to be a major reason for the weak levels of

translation/translator competence amongst TT programmes that admit students to BA or even

MA degree courses without ensuring that they possess the prerequisite linguistic and cultural

skills and competences that are vital for successful specialised translator training.

Meanwhile, in Europe, TT at the tertiary level has been comparatively successful

despite the fact that ‘concern has often been voiced about the level of language knowledge’

(Schäffner, 2000a, p.144). This could be due to a number of factors, including the high quality

of pre-university education and the fact that mostly high achieving high-school graduates with

very good linguistic proficiency and competency levels are accepted into these programmes.

For example, translator trainers at the University of Granada stated in a recent interview for

this study that Translation and Interpreting Studies Departments rank second after medical

studies in terms of importance and choice of specialization for new college applicants in Spain.

Students throughout Spain, the trainers added, achieve a mark based on their final year at

secondary school and an entrance exam to universities. The FTI and the Medicine Faculty at

UGR have alternately had the highest required mark of all faculties in Spain.

Kirsten Malmkjær (2006) posits that the complexities resulting from the

affective/affected relationship between TT programmes and (or with) the market are extremely

67
important and must be born in mind. Those complexities include firstly the general public’s

perceptions of the subject and the profession; employers and students as pressing forces of the

market; academics’ perceptions of where, when and what a translation programme should be;

problems accumulated from all these factors and finally, the types of solutions possible.

In the UK the normal length of MA programmes is one year and in general the focus is

more on research and abstraction than hands on-practical training. According to Malmkjaer

(2006, p. 9), the dilemma is that ‘translation tends to be taught in the UK at a level where

programmes are too short to allow for both education and training of students’. MA

programmes have addressed this issue either by focusing too heavily on education (or theory)

or by emphasising practice at the expense of theoretical or research depth. ‘I personally think

that neither is right, but the former is best, but I have not solid evidence to draw on’ (ibid.).

Focusing effort on language education and skills teaching at the undergraduate level could be

the key to preparing students in the UK to succeed at the specialised one-year MA in translation

(ibid.). While striking a balance between translation education (theory) and skills training

(practice) is optimal, this may be difficult to achieve in a four-year programme if a high number

of BA degree non-translation courses are included. In order to address the complexities

resulting from the pressures Malmkjær described (including public perception of TT as a

subject and a profession, and the perception of employers, students and academics in relation

to the TT curriculum), TT programme administrators and curriculum developers need to

involve all of these stakeholders in analysing training/education needs in the planning stages

of their curricula design. This will undoubtedly minimise the pressures on TT institutions and

should significantly enhance their success in meeting their academic, professional and social

goals.

Malmkjær goes on to propose a programme based on a conviction that she shares with

Bernardini (2004) that undergraduate TT programmes should educate students abstractly and

68
not necessarily train them. The programme she suggests is also based on Middlesex

University’s common academic framework and limits imposed by student numbers and the

university’s ability to offer optional modules (ibid.).

Figure 1.3: Middlesex Programme structure (Malmkjær, 2006, p.11).

Figure 1.3 outlines Middlesex University TT programme structure. The Middlesex University

TT programme offers three tracks or “strands” of progression. The first is the Language

69
Development Strand in which the Language modules (Years 1 and 2) are intended to strengthen

students’ language skills. The programme is offered for Chinese, French, German, Italian and

Spanish. Those students for whom these languages are native/stronger follow modules on

English. Students with strong skills in two or more languages may replace some of their

language modules with practical translation modules, which enable them to work between

English and two other languages. The second strand is Practical Translation, whose Specialised

Translation modules (Year 2) provide practice in the translation of a variety of text types in

both language directions over the two semesters. Modules on Screen Translation and

Translation Tools are offered in the fourth year of study, subsequent to the student’s year

abroad and/or placement in a professional setting. The third strand is TS; the subject is

introduced to students in their first semester, and their knowledge and understanding of the

field, in both its practical and theoretical aspects, are continuously widened and deepened

throughout the programme. Middlesex University’s translation education is a good example of

the many similar model-based programmes offered throughout the UK.

1.7.1 TT in European Higher Education Area: The Impact of the Bologna Process

The Bologna Process declaration was signed in 1999 by 29 European countries, and since then

has become the blueprint for reforming higher education in Europe. For the last decade, it has

had a great impact on the design and content of TT programmes in those countries (Rico, 2010).

While having a unified curriculum across Europe would seem to have clear benefits for

governments, their education systems and individuals by facilitating the movement and transfer

of students between States, the picture is not all bright. There is a downside to this unification

as each educational and social context has different specific requirements from those in other

states. As Rico (2010) explains,

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 the reform process initiated with the enactment of this instrument aimed to bring about a
structural renovation of higher education in an attempt to foster students’ acquisition of industry-
validated competences and mobility across Europe. By 2010, the signatories of the Declaration
are to have created the European Higher Education Area (EHEA), conceived as ‘a new
framework for compatible and comparable, more competitive and more attractive studies for
Europeans and for students and scholars form other continents’ (Bologna Process 2009). The
introduction of a three cycle system (bachelor/master/doctorate), new quality assurance
procedures and common guidelines for the recognition of qualifications and periods of study
feature among the main priorities of this process (Rico, 2010, p. 90).

EHEA reform objectives have focused primarily on a number of ambitious gains, most

importantly building a “Europe of knowledge” through various means and ensuring the

compatibility and comparability of European systems of Higher Education by adopting a

common or shared curricular structure that fosters global competitiveness and employability.

This new pan-European structure of curricula has two cycles, the first being an undergraduate

degree lasting a minimum of three years. Success in completing that cycle paves the way into

a higher degree in the second cycle at the MA and/or PhD level. Achieving compatibility

requires high levels of sustained coordination and cooperation in maintaining quality assurance

management measures. This can only be accomplished by developing pan-European

assessment/evaluation measures and methods (Rico, 2010). EHEA goes further by establishing

a shared system of credit accumulation and transfer referred to as the European Credit Transfer

System (ECTS), thereby facilitating the smooth movement of students from one European

educational institution to the other. One of a number of positive gains for European citizens

and relevant educational institutions and non-educational organisations, this is indeed a

significant achievement for which EHEA should be given credit. But changing systems on such

a massive scale has not been easy and is, unsurprisingly, resented by some individuals and

organisations that do not necessarily expect its success in the long-term. Hence the initial stages

of EHEA have produced mixed reactions. Opponents (Alexandre et al. 2008, p. 1) have argued

that the new curricula are ‘compressed versions of longer programs, and that there will not be

71
enough time for assimilation, reflection, and a critical approach to learning, which will

undermine the quality of the degree’, making it difficult, potentially, for graduates to find jobs

(but this is not always the case; for instance in the University of Granada graduates’

employment levels are still high according to data obtained from its trainers for this study).

Criticism has also been voiced by other scholars and education experts regarding EHEA’s focus

on the political dimension at the expense of academic scholarly integrity (Tomsuk, 2006) and

the weight it places on economic advancement to the detriment of intellectual development

(Walker, 2006).

These criticisms notwithstanding, EHEA’s structural and methodological changes seem

to be congruent with recent widely recognised training concepts in translator training, in that

they emphasise a student-centred approach that stresses active learning and modern interactive

concepts of the student-teacher relationship. In conclusion, it is ‘worth noting that this new

pedagogical trend runs parallel to recent development in translator training, such as social

constructivism (Kiraly, 2014a) or task-based learning (Hurtado Albir, 1999; González Davies,

2004), which also revolve around the student as the centre of the learning process’ (Rico, 2010,

p. 92). It may be difficult to apply one generic solution to all educational contexts, but it is

certainly helpful to have an open positive atmosphere where higher education institutions and

TT administrators can benefit from each other’s successes in TT curriculum content

development, delivery and evaluation.

1.7.2 TT Programmes and Requirements

As the current study is primarily concerned with university-level TT, this section will examine

TT programmes at the various levels offered globally, exploring an undergraduate degree in

translation (in addition to that of Middlesex University, described above), a Master’s Degree

72
in translation and a PhD in translation. While some certificate programmes in translation are

designed as independent courses of study, others are intended to supplement undergraduate

degrees.

It can be argued that a significant proportion of the literature on TT affirms the

observation that the teaching of translation in TT degree programmes at the undergraduate level

does not necessarily focus on training translators. In fact, most BA programmes try to combine

training and education, but more often than not, they offer more education than training. In

many countries, translation education follows a deliberately holistic approach in order to

produce generalists. Yet even these programmes need to ‘take into full consideration the

holistic development of the students in their education as translator/translation specialist[s]’

(Tan, 2008, p. 589).

Given the needs of the current market, it seems essential that teaching translation should

centre on skills training while enhancing students’ understanding and command of language

skills. In many contemporary translation programmes, the curricula and the teaching

approaches are primarily based on skills and are oriented towards the professional training of

translators, as can easily be seen in many European and Chinese universities, for example. The

purpose of this section is to examine the various practices of TT worldwide by exploring a

number of current models of translator training.

In general terms, translators are responsible for converting oral and written materials

from one language to another; they therefore are expected to be highly competent in at least

two languages. This includes high linguistic proficiency and fluency, meaning that they must

be able to read, write, speak and understand a language other than English (for example) at

an advanced level. Although language skills can be developed in a variety of ways, some

professional translators working in the industry were raised in bilingual or multilingual

73
environments and grew up using two languages with almost equal fluency orally and in

writing. Examples of these include North African Spanish translators living in Granada

(Spain) who are competent in Arabic and Spanish. Another example can be seen in South

African translators who are competent in English and a number of African languages. In fact,

recent changes in the linguistic makeup have had interesting implications for language

learning and teaching as well as TT, with language learning being an integral element of its

curricula. New concepts of linguistic and cultural competences have emerged in today’s

globalised society as a result of mobility and change influencing the broad linguistic makeup

such as plurilingualism (the ability of an individual or a society to communicate and interact

using multiple languages or more and switch between languages whenever they feel it is

appropriate [Bernaus, 2007]) and pluriculturalism (various cultures and sub-cultures with

which an individual is in touch [ibid. ]). It is essential for language and translation educators

to realise that language proficiency(ies) is not as simplistic as it used to be. Rather it is part

of the linguistic capital(s) and trajectories of trainees/ learners and trainers/ teachers.

Therefore, new competences emerged including ‘plurilingual and pluricultural competence

[that] refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part

in intercultural interaction, where a person, viewed as a social agent, has proficiency, of

varying degrees, in several languages and experience of several cultures’ (Council of Europe,

2001, p.168). Unlike multilingualism (which refers to knowledge of different languages and

coexistence of those languages in a particular context [ibid.], ‘plurilingualism allows for the

interaction and mutual influence of […] languages in a more dynamic way (Canagarajah and

Liynage, 2012, p. 50). In many countries around the world (albeit at various levels), learning

and acquiring a second language can be accomplished through foreign language courses

offered in secondary school and through university programmes. Furthermore, in addition to

advanced written and verbal linguistic, cultural and communication skills, translators are

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generally expected to be proficient in using computers and various types of translation

technology software programmes. Despite the availability and variety of short translation

training programmes, feedback from owners of translation companies (in Saudi Arabia, for

example) supports the general observation that employers prefer to hire candidates with a

bachelor's degree who have received formal translation training. If new translators have some

experience, employers would be even more inclined to take them on board.

1.7.3 Translator Training/ Education as a Component of Modern Languages Degrees

TT can be integrated in modern languages degree programmes in various pedagogical

translation ways, for example as an aid to language learning, as a subject in its own right or as

a way of combining language learning with those cultural or area studies that make up the

modern languages programme. In English studies programmes (i.e. English as a foreign

language or English as a second language), translation was previously used as a teaching tool.

Towards the twentieth century, however, after the start of the era of communicative language

teaching, it lost its glamour and importance. Subsequently and over the last 20 years, there has

been a discernible and exponential growth around the world in fully-fledged undergraduate TT

degrees (such as those in Spain) and TT postgraduate degrees (such as those offered by UK

higher education institutions and all Anglophonic academic institutions). In the UK, for

example, institutions that offer TT postgraduate degrees include Birmingham, Cardiff,

Edinburgh, Queen’s University of Belfast, Leeds, Manchester, University College London,

Durham, Middlesex, and Westminster, among others. In the United States, the number of

academic institutions offering TT is increasing. Examples of those offering an MA in TS are

Amherst, Columbia, Denver, Kent, North Carolina, Rutgers, UTD, Wake Forest and

Wisconsin. Meanwhile, in Australia, there are a few institutions offering TT, such as Australian

National, Macquarie, Monash, New South Wales, Queensland, RMIT, Sydney and Western

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Sydney. In the Republic of Ireland, there are many institutions offering TT such as Cork,

Trinity College Dublin, University College Dublin, Dublin City University, Galway and NUI

Maynooth.

1.7.4 Formal Institutional Translation Education

Translation education programmes are growing in number and are made available by

universities and training institutes worldwide. Translation education can be offered in the

form of a degree or certificate programme, or as a component within a wider foreign

languages programme and broader curriculum. The language combinations offered by

universities globally vary depending on the focus of the specific programme and the

socioeconomic and educational context. Many programmes, for example, those in Europe

and the US, offer their students study abroad opportunities for many reasons. In the European

continent, TT starts at the tertiary level where students can specialise further at the

postgraduate level. Meanwhile, in English speaking countries such as the UK, TT is usually

only a component of undergraduate foreign language degrees and students may specialise in

MA and PhD programmes dedicated to TS. Although there are some dedicated TT BA

programmes in UK universities such as Herriot Watt and London Metropolitan University.

In other continents, some adopt a similar approach to the continental model but the English

speaking countries model is more common in many countries because it assumes that

undergraduate students’ linguistic competence is not yet advanced enough for them to

specialise in TS. In addition to the Middlesex programme examined earlier in this chapter,

the following section looks into specific case studies in the European context to investigate

TT programmes at various levels in depth.

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77
1.8 Case Studies

1.8.1 The University of Granada, Spain

1.8.1.1 Overview of programme

Historically, the boom in Spanish TT programmes has its roots in the end of the Franco regime.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Spain was expanding and looking outside its borders after a

long period of isolation. Because language teaching in Spanish schools was poor, Spanish

students had low linguistic skills, which obstructed Spain’s ambitions to trade with the outside

world and establish international economic links. Tourism, a main source of income in Spain,

requires strong language and translation skills, which also are necessary to avail of European

and international business opportunities and attract foreign investment. Companies began

importing a large volume of technology because Spain at that time lacked the industrial fabric

to produce it domestically. As a consequence of these developments, a need for translators

began to emerge.

The University of Granada (UGR) was founded in 1531 by the Emperor Charles V. It

is one of the oldest universities in Europe. Its Islamic roots go back to the original Palacio de

la Madraza, meaning ‘the Palace of the School’, established in 1349 by Sultan Yusuf I. Over

the last five hundred years, UGR has been a rich source of historical, intellectual and cultural

tradition and a significant educational centre among Europe’s universities. Today, it has more

than 60,000 students and a wide range of courses, making it one of the largest universities in

Spain. It has seven campuses and strives to meet the changing needs of the society it serves. It

is recognised for the quality of its teaching, research, cultural output and service both to the

University community and society in general. UGR is committed to playing a major role in all

national and international initiatives and places the internationalization of its list of courses, its

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services and the whole of the university community among its key strategies for development

and growth.

1.8.1.2 Translation Degrees at the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting, UGR

UGR began offering studies in the field of Translation and Interpreting in 1979 and has been

one of the pioneering Spanish universities in teaching translation. UGR offers a number of

degrees in translation and interpreting. According to the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting

(FTI) website (grados.ugr, 2015), the undergraduate degree in Translation and Interpreting is

geared towards new labour demands, a marketing statement used by many institutions that only

time and tangible results can prove wrong or right.

The FTI programme provides tuition in a wide range of languages, a luxury rarely found

in other TT programmes. In addition to their mother tongue (Language A, which in this case is

predominantly Spanish), FTI students choose two foreign languages to master and work in, the

first (Language B) from a range of four options (German, Arabic, French and English) and the

second (Language C) from a range of nine options (such as Arabic, Chinese, English, French,

German and Russian). In addition, during their third year, students may choose to pursue a

third foreign language from a range of twelve options: Arabic, Chinese, Dutch, English,

French, Galician, German, Greek, Italian, Polish, Portuguese or Russian. The fundamental

purpose of this degree is to train generalist translators and social interpreters or liaisons, in at

least two foreign languages (B and C). The applied objectives are to hone the practical and

active domain of the mother tongue and oral communication and to ensure the correct use of

the working languages. The technical objectives include the acquisition of vocational,

documentary and revision skills, including proofreading of texts and the management of

translation and interpretation tools.

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 Language A (i.e. Spanish) is not taught as a foreign language. It is Spanish for Spanish

students and this is similar to British students taking a university-level English class. FTI

recommends that visiting students should have a C1 level of proficiency in Spanish, as defined

by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) (Council of

Europe, 2014). For Language B, FTI recommends that students begin the degree programme

with a level of proficiency similar to B1 (ibid.), although in the case of Arabic, given its

specificities, level A2+ is recommended. As a general rule, students are not obliged to have

previous knowledge of Language C, which they can start as beginners. However, there can be

exceptions in languages such as English or French, which students may have studied

previously.

In addition, FTI offers a programme called Applied European Languages (AEL), which

enables participants to spend their second and third academic years abroad, studying in two

European universities, and their first and fourth years at UGR. AEL aims primarily to enable

students to apply their cultural and linguistic competences in the fields of Law, Economy and

Business, so that they can easily find a job throughout Europe, or further their education in the

area of languages applied to these professional fields.

The degree is structured over four academic years of 60 European Credit Transfer

System (ECTS) credits each. Each academic year is divided into two semesters, and students

can take up to 30 ECTS credits each semester. All subjects carry 6 ECTS credits, with the

exception of Language B1 and C1 classes which carry 12 credits. Each ECTS credit equals 25

hours of student work and one year equals 1000 hours of work. Students may study part-time

if they wish.

Electives offered to students are ‘Editing and layout’, ‘Introduction to Interpretation in

Specific Areas B / CI’, ‘Introduction to Interpretation in Specific Areas B / C II’, ‘Introduction

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to Translation in Specific Areas B / CI’, ‘Introduction to Translation in Specific Areas B / C

II’, ‘Literature and Translation B / C’, ‘Information Resources for Translation and

Interpretation’, and ‘Third Foreign Language and Culture’.

The following is an example of a plan that UGR students could follow to earn their

undergraduate degree:

FIRST YEAR

Fall Semester Spring Semester

Spanish Language A1 (6 credits) Spanish Language A2 (6)

Language B1 (12 credits) Language B2 (6)

Language C1 (12 credits) Language C2 (6)

Culture A (Spanish) (6)

Documentation (6)

Total: 60 ECTS

SECOND YEAR

Fall Semester Spring Semester

Language B3 (6) Language B4 (6)

A3 Spanish Language (6) Language C4 (6)

Language C3 (6) Culture B (6)

Linguistics (6) Culture C (6)

Computer Science (6) Translation B1 (6)

Total 60 ECTS

THIRD YEAR

Fall Semester Spring Semester

Language C5 (6) Language C6 (6)

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 Translation B2 (6) Translation B3 (6)

Translation Studies (6) Translation C1 (6)

Terminology (6) Interpretation I (6)

Elective (6) Elective (6)

Total: 60 ECTS

FOURTH YEAR

Fall Semester Spring Semester

Interpretation II (6) Final Paper (6)

Translation B4 (6) Translation B5 (6)

Translation C2 (6) Translation C3 (6)

The profession of Translator and Elective (6)

Interpreter (6)

Elective (6) Elective (6)

Total: 60 ECTS

Table 1.1: Study plan for UGR BA in translation and interpreting studies

1.8.1.3 Methodology

For a closer and more in-depth investigation of the UGR, the researcher visited the university

and specifically the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting. The visit provided ample

opportunities to explore FTI TT programmes, their curricula, training facilities, training

methodology, trainers and students. As a world leader in TT, the University of Granada is a

good example in establishing connections between university curricula and the professional

market. Recognising the significant impact of new technologies in translation and the

increasingly sophisticated theoretical environment of TT, UGR has introduced new

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programmes and degrees that aim to balance theory and practice and address the changes in

the field of TS.

To evaluate these programmes, six interviews were conducted at UGR, two with

students and four with trainers from the Faculty of Translation and Interpreting at UGR. More

broadly their purpose was to examine current trends in TT and translation education in Spain

and explore current curricular and pedagogical strategic directions. Through meeting with

translator trainers and translation students at UGR, data was gathered about the curricula and

methods adopted in its TT programmes and a discussion of all participants’ responses are

discussed in the following section.

1.8.1.4 Findings (via SWOT):

Trainers and students were asked to provide their views on FTI programmes and how suitable

they find them in preparing aspiring translators for the real world. The first trainer, called GT1

(Granada Trainer 1), in the discussion that follows, teaches BA and MA classes at FTI. The

other three UGR translator trainers deliver courses in the Arabic/Spanish TT BA and MA

degrees offered by FTI; in the discussion that follows, these trainers are referred to GT2, GT3

and GT4. Two UGR students (GS1 and GS2) were also interviewed. GS1 earned a BA in T&I,

an MA in Immigration and Law and at the time of the interview was completing an MA in

Translation, all at FTI. GS2 earned a BA in T&I at FTI. All of the interviews were conducted

in March 2015. Table 1.2 summarises the profiles of all six interviewees

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Code of Role Expertise Remarks

interviewee

GT1 Professor of English/Spanish Published author in Professional trainer of

translation, FTI legal translation, a translator trainers, over 25

member of the years of TT experience

Teaches BA, MA and PhD
editorial boards of a
students
number of journals

GT2 Professor / a senior lecturer of Extensive expertise Began TT in 2003,

Arabic/Spanish, FTI in legal translation published author

(Arabic-Spanish)
Teaches BA, MA and PhD

students

GT3 Lecturer of Arabic/Spanish with extensive Began TT at BA level in

translation, FTI translation 2010 and MA in 2012.

experience

GT4 Professor of Arabic/Spanish 20 years’ translation Began TT at BA level in

translation, FTI experience 2006 and MA in 2012

GS1 MA student Earned a BA from Completing an MA in

FTI, an MA in Translation at the time of

Immigration Law interview.

from UGR

GS2 BA student Earned a BA, FTI

Table 1.2: Profiles of UGR interviewees

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 All six participants provided a wide range of viewpoints on TT at FTI. To focus the

discussion on points relevant to the current study, a SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses,

Opportunities and Threats) was used to explore the internal factors influencing the situation of

the BA and MA degrees in TT at FTI. SWOT analysis is commonly used for organisational

situational analysis in human resource development and in the corporate world (Gregory 2015).

The technique will be explained in depth in Chapter 3, where it is used in the process of training

needs and situational analyses in planning the design of TT curriculum. Table 1.3 summarises

the major issues raised by UGRs participants based on SWOT analysis:

Strengths Weaknesses
Limited students’ linguistic and professional
Modern approach to TT (collaborative, student-
competences
centred, project-based and interactive)
Lack of a systematic approach to TT curriculum
Cutting edge education
Current economic environment
Process-oriented TT (strategies, problem
solving skills) Generational gaps (TT vs. non-TT specialists,
student-centred vs. teacher-centred TT, resistance
Many years of experience in TT
to CPD)
Graduate employability support (individual
Lack of institutional graduate employability
trainers’ efforts)
support
Trainer support and development (Mentoring,
Varying perceptions of university link with the
Train the Trainer workshops, induction)
market
Emphasis on quality and technology (MOOCs)
Controlled free-lance opportunities for full-time
Awareness of and tendency towards developing trainers
the curriculum
Optional internship at BA programme
Strong trainers’ links with market
Well-established research groups (e.g. Avanti)
Compulsory internship at MA level
Opportunities Threats
Positive approach to weaknesses and threats Too many government regulations
Proactive plans to address challenges Loss of university autonomy
Enhance TT quality and bridge gap between TT Restricted options for students
institution and market
Imposed admission criteria leading to mixed
Obtain accreditation and increase recognition linguistic competence level classes
Increase employability rate of graduates by State legislation imposing 70% same taught
institutionalising it subjects to all universities
Use already well-established image and Social and market challenges
reputation in TT to initiate links with

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 international partners (Middle East and
elsewhere)
Potential to diversify programmes and expand
The image and reputation of the programme
Loss of student interest in the
discipline/profession
Financial crisis ramifications

Table 1.3: SWOT analysis of UGR participants’ data

The issues highlighted by the SWOT analysis in the table above will be discussed in detail and

supported by data provided by UGR trainers and students in the following four sections.

Strengths

All interviewees highlighted different points of strengths of the BA and MA translation degrees

offered at FTI. One of the biggest strengths of the BA and MA translation degrees offered at

FTI that was highlighted by all interviewees is its modern approach to training translators.

Because FTI management does not impose any specific teaching/training methodology,

‘trainers are given the freedom to follow the approach they feel is suitable’ (GT4). All four

trainers preferred a collaborative, project-based and interactive training approach. GT3, for

example, stated that ‘I try to make my classes more student-centred. The students themselves

do the learning and work and I only guide them’. The general approach seems to be process-

based, training students on ‘how to translate, how to make translation decisions and how to

search for information’ (GT3). In other words, the focus is on translation strategies and

problem-solving skills rather than the product (GT2), while ensuring that the programme is

‘vocationally-oriented’ (GT2). Most trainers aim to train professional translators and,

therefore, find the functional approach to TT the best means to achieve their aim. Students’

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feedback on FTI trainers’ delivery methods and TT approach was generally positive. GS1 and

GS2 were both enthusiastic about the process-based, collaborative and project-based approach

to learning translation. This led students to be reflective and ‘think about what you’re doing

and how you’re doing it’ (GS2), and ‘to document, to look for terminology, to explain

everything, to understand’ (GS1).

Furthermore, some FTI trainers support students in finding job opportunities. GT1

stated that ‘I have email groups with all of my students. I have contact with students from 15-

16 years ago. I send them things, and vice versa; they tell me if there are job offers in their

agencies so that we can circulate them to the graduates. They do mentoring for recent

graduates’.

Other strengths include the availability of development and training courses and

workshops offered by FTI to help its trainers improve their teaching/training competences.

GT2 asserted that ‘the university is doing a great job. They are making a great effort, but all

the measures taken until now are not compulsory. Universities don’t oblige those lecturers to

attend those seminars’. Likewise, GT1 praised FTI’s professional translation seminar series

through which experts from the professional world are invited to FTI to speak about different

aspects of the profession. FTI also invites its own graduates to speak as well, so that the students

can see the types of professional jobs their predecessors hold now, which can also be a good

incentive for current students. The series is in addition to the course on “The Profession of the

Translator and the Interpreter”, which GT1 was teaching at the time of interview and which

brings in professionals from the translation industry to discuss their work.

Moreover, UGR takes the issue of quality and use of technology seriously. GT1

confirmed that they ‘now have a quality vice chancellor and there are constantly courses on

how to use technology and how to use MOOCs. It wasn’t compulsory when you joined to do

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the induction course and have a mentor. At the moment it’s compulsory’ and this development,

in GT1’s opinion, is a good thing.

Today, new staff members joining FTI enrol in an induction course through which

‘they have a mentor for a year’ (GT1). This mentor is a senior member of staff who meets the

new member informally and orients him/her to FTI training practices and methodology. Both

staff induction and development courses contribute significantly to building a strong cadre of

highly professional, collaborative, collegial and productive translator trainers. Nevertheless,

because perfection is hard to achieve, FTI has its share of areas for development and challenges,

which will be discussed in the next section.

Weaknesses (areas for development)

The student support mechanisms noted in the previous section are undoubtedly a credit to FTI.

However, such activity does not seem to be systematic or institutionalised, but rather an

individual effort that could easily be discontinued if the staff member who is providing it moves

to another institution. GT1 commented that where students end up is not very well documented

in Spain. GT1 believed that the faculty should follow up on this, noting that the university

‘have been asking me for data’.

Another area for development in FTI was the difference amongst trainers in training

methods due generational gaps existing between older and newer trainers. Some older trainers

still adopted old teacher-centred authoritarian approaches. GS1 and GS2 rejected those

approaches and felt much more engaged and comfortable with the new interactive collaborative

student-centred project based TT approaches.

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Threats (challenges)

Threats and challenges do not arise only from internal factors; they can also be imposed by

external factors influencing the organisation directly or indirectly (Gregory, 2015). Among the

main threats and challenges impeding the development of TT at FTI are government

regulations. The first example of challenges imposed by government regulations is loss of

autonomy for universities. GT1 stated that some FTI teaching staff were hoping to offer a

degree in translation and a separate degree in interpreting or an MA in interpreting, ‘but

unfortunately the government and the education authorities would not allow us to do that’.

Almost all trainers stressed that education is very much regulated and the situation is very

different in Spain than in other countries. GT1 stated that ‘it’s a big debate at the moment, this

autonomy of universities. In Spain there are hundreds of laws on university education. In the

UK, when I did my PhD (1988), there were two or three’.3

The second example of challenges imposed by regulations is the fact that there are too

many laws to be adhered to. GT1 added that education is very heavily legislated in Spain.

Students are required to take certain core subjects to be awarded a degree of any kind, although

fortunately this requirement is now beginning to disappear. The course has changed from a

three-year diploma to a four-year degree. The current programme, which has been offered for

only five years, includes many classes in language and culture as well as introductory courses

to translation theory and other classes. According to GT1, this variety is ‘perhaps too much for

my liking and for the students’ liking, [plus the course] has lost some of the introductory

translation courses that we had’. In the last ten years, there have been a number of systematic

higher educational changes. Initially, the durations of BA, MA and PhD degrees were changed

3
However, the situation has been changing in the UK. In May 2016 UK media news reports (such as BBC Radio
4) have revealed government plans to introduce OFSTED-style regulation of UK universities, with financial
penalties for under-performance such as the imposition of tuition fee caps, which some critics argue will simply
compound existing financial challenges some UK institutions are suffering from.

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from BA 3 years – MA 2 years – PhD 3 years to 4-1-3. At the time of conducting interviews at

UGR in April 2014, the government was thinking of changing the system again to 3-2-3, which

many students opposed due to the high cost of fees this change meant.

Thirdly, too many controlling government regulations in Spain resulted in restricted

options for students. Although students have considerable freedom to choose their itinerary,

there are some compulsory subjects, including Spanish language and their first and second

foreign languages, Culture, Computing, Research Skills, Terminology, Translation Theory and

Introduction to Interpreting. In addition, they begin an introduction to general translation.

TG1 added that there are certain course subjects that students must do. Then there are

some subjects that are compulsory at the University of Granada, because they have some

leeway to change the national degree curriculum, and then they have elective subjects.

Referring to the number of credits, which is very clearly laid out on FTI’s website, the

respondents reported that the core subjects required across the country must be agreed by

faculties throughout Spain, and that to make any changes to a degree programme is a very long,

laborious process. Consequently, the programme includes a number of core subjects which

have been dictated by the education authorities and which must be taught by all institutional

providers of the degree. FTI did reduce the number of core subjects recently, but then the

Andalusian regional government told UGR that 70% of subjects taught by Andalusian

universities must be the same. For GT1, this is at odds with the principles of autonomy and

freedom.

In Spain the idea is that all faculty should be the same, which is a fantasy, really. Even if you teach
the same subject, even in the same department. [The] European idea is going towards being more
individual, having greater specialization. So Granada is well-known for conference interpreting,
Arabic and legal translation, whereas in Castellón, they’re very good in audio-visual. So why not let
each university be specialised in the field they have the staff for, the expertise? It’s difficult for the
Spanish academic mind to understand that, I think. (GT1)

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Once students complete these core courses, they progress on to a higher level of study in

language B and C, and further study of the culture of that language; ‘So for English this is

American, British, and so on. Obviously for Arabic they don’t just look at one country either’. (GT1)

Moving on to another type of challenge which is linked to FTI’s admission criteria, GT3

believes that even though students might start the BA programme at a lower linguistic level

than expected, they would ‘have four years which allow more flexibility and there is ample

time to cover some linguistic and other types of gaps’. The main focus could then be on skills

in TT, developing students’ TC and their thinking as professional translators (GT3). Having

linguistically mixed-level students in the same class, however, could make it very difficult for

trainers to achieve training aims and learning outcomes (GT4). GT4, who teaches in the

Arabic/Spanish BA and MA in translation and interpreting, expressed frustration with mixed-

level classes containing ‘Spanish students with Arabic as a foreign language, Arabs (born and

raised in Spain) with Arabic and Spanish as native languages and a third category of Arab

students with Spanish as a foreign language’. GT1 stated that FTI used to have an entrance

exam which FTI then was told by government authorities could no longer be required. Now

there is a general system in Spain whereby students receive an average mark for their secondary

schooling, scored out of ten. There is also a university entrance examination through which

they are tested on everything that they did in the final two years of their secondary education.

Those marks are averaged and then ranked. Students could list two subjects that they wish to

study in order of preference (for example, they could put Law as their first choice and TS as

their second).

To get into translation schools with English as your first foreign language, I think that the lowest
mark last year was 9.6/10. English has been the highest in the rankings for the past two years. So
the students are very good. (GT1)

The mark required of students with French or Arabic as their first foreign language is slightly

lower. As for the use of psychometric tests, popular in other countries for student screening

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and admission purposes, GT1 indicated that in the past, FTI included such a test in its entrance

exam which focused on language testing, an approach taken by many faculties in addition to

testing general knowledge. Now, however, as GT1 put it, due to a change in government

regulations, ‘Unfortunately we are no longer allowed to do that’.

The situation is similar for exams. ‘We can’t do anything,’ GT1 explained, ‘we’re not

allowed to do it. We did use to, but now we can’t.’ Asked how this has affected FTI, the

respondent observed that because secondary schools vary in quality throughout the country,

some individuals may not have the skills or aptitudes necessary to become a translator or an

interpreter despite having excellent marks in school.

So I think that in the first couple of years we did notice a slight change. When I studied here [1989]
I took an entrance examination, and in fact from secondary schooling there were only three, four
students in my class. Everybody else had worked or studied in another country. It was a more mature
class. They had already worked in translating or interpreting, or certainly in other fields, [and] the
testing was not only looking at academic skills but at other skills too.

In GT1’s view, the current structure of the BA programme ‘is not working badly’.

A lot of my colleagues who are Spanish native speakers complain bitterly that students now write
terribly since they’re using these new technologies. But they’re excellent students, especially
because I have taught in other faculties, in Spain and outside, and that’s when you really see the
differences in the level of the students. I think they’re very curious and intelligent; it depends on
what you try to get out of them. I keep a lot of contact with graduates and they’re working in
excellent jobs. They’re finding jobs immediately. That can’t be a bad thing. I’ve spoken to agents
and companies who only want graduates from Granada. So we can’t be doing it all wrong.

Another challenge that FTI faces is how receptive some of its staff to their professional

development. Despite the availability of professional development opportunities for trainers,

there are problems related to attracting those staff members who most need to attend it. GT2

highlighted this issue, stating that:

Sometimes you feel that the lecturers that do attend the seminars are mainly those who are [already]
convinced […;] it’s like preaching to the converted. Sometimes other problems are related to the

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 age of the lecturers. You have to be very aware of that problem. People of 60 years of age, with a
horizon of only five years before retiring, they’re not interested in new technologies and new things.

As for involvement in curriculum design, some trainers asserted that although they had

had little involvement in the final degree course the faculty designed, they had been very

closely involved in the first two degree courses, including the design of the content of the

subject, both at an undergraduate and at a postgraduate level.

Most trainers confirmed that FTI had some links with the translation professional market,

but they added that more involvement is required. GT4 stated that FTI does not have strong

official links with the market and that all efforts that have been exerted in this regard are limited

and individual. GT1 shared this view, stating that market links were made but

more at an individual level by some of us who did design them, because within the faculty staff, we
are quite lucky because we have a lot of people who have worked professionally. Technically, in
Spain you become a civil servant when you become a senior lecturer so you cannot work unless it
is through the university.

Another governmental regulation negatively affecting TT at FTI is the fact that translator

trainers at Spanish universities are not allowed to work outside the university as freelancers.

Some trainers confirmed that the two roles are incompatible, but trainers can work through the

university’s business office, in which case the university keeps a percentage of what they earn.

An equally important question is whether the needs of the market are taken into account

when designing TT programmes. This is certainly the case at FTI, whose trainers are keen to

have a lot of interaction with the market.

For the MA course, for example, we needed letters of support from professional associations who
evaluated our proposal, and from businesses. They were sent with the whole proposal to the
authorities who had to approve it. It’s a very long process; a lot of people get to look at it. (GT1)

Asked if FTI was allowed to bring in professional translators as trainers, some trainers

explained that they were used exclusively as speakers due to the financial crisis, as a

consequence of which the Spanish government imposed a hiring limitation for part-timers on

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universities. However, there is a special type of contract by which Spanish universities may

hire an “associate”, i.e. a professional who dedicates a small amount of time to the university,

but the low salary is not always attractive to professionals. Sometimes, however, such a

contract can be a gateway to a better position. ’When I joined, I joined with that sort of contract,

because I was a professional interpreter and translator, and then later progressed to other

things’. (GT1)

Asked to describe their background and whether they were translation specialists or

qualified translators, GT2 explained that some of the older members of staff came from

language training and linguistics. Amongst younger staff members, however, there were more

TS/TT specialists with a BA, an MA or a PhD in translating and interpreting. This challenge

arising from generational difference could have an impact on how the two generations address

issues related to TT materials selection, and training and assessment methods. Another

challenge has to do with the fact that while some of the older staff had undertaken other studies

and had practiced professionally, some of the trainers now pursuing an academic career with

FTI have no professional experience.

Noting that translation is a relatively new academic discipline, GT1, who has conducted

extensive research on psychophysiological confidence and the image of the translator,

maintains that translators are often looked down upon in Spain.

Working with the law faculty as we do legal translations, it’s taken me years to explain to them that
I just don’t press a button to produce texts in English, that we do know what we’re talking about
when we’re translating a legal text. As far as prestige goes, I think it’s improved quite a lot. The
problem is that there are a lot of people who either translate or call themselves translators who are
not. It is improving.

One focus of the interview was on Spanish translation associations and the role they play in

protecting translators. GT1 explained that Spain has a system of professional associations

which is called “colegios”. These associations worked very closely together. This is now illegal

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under European competition law, which may limit those associations’ efforts in raising social

awareness of the profession. This, in turn, made it more difficult for translator trainees as well

because when they work in the real world, they have to educate the public (and their clients)

about what the role of the translator is. To enhance social awareness of the nature of the

translator’s job, FTI, for example, recently carried out a project with the law faculty to educate

law students on the importance of legal translators by involving students from faculties in

practical project-based assignments where aspiring lawyers and translators handle specific

tasks and understand each other’s roles.

As for postgraduate programmes in translation and interpreting, the trainers explained

that there are currently two MA programmes, one in professional interpreting and one in

professional translation, and that the latter was introduced only this year. While the current MA

contains research components that allow its graduates to continue on to do a PhD if they wish

to do so, the research MA programme has been discontinued.

We have not been allowed to continue it. This is a question of facts. The government now wants
everything to be professional. I think competition to attract students as well. Students want
something that will get them jobs. (GT1)

The faculty involved in the PhD programme at FTI are organised into different research groups;

one is primarily focused on interpreting and the other is cognitive. The third strand of doctoral

research is primarily terminology and linguistics. A well-known research group at FTI is called

Avanti, which has several different research interests including training, legal translation and

children’s literature. According to GT1, ‘you can do your PhD in translation and interpreting

almost in everything, as long as you find the right supervisor’. Supervisors must have a PhD,

be a senior lecturer and must have attained at least one six-year period of research recognised

by the government. As a consequence of these requirements, there are fewer and fewer trainers

who can supervise. FTI also limits the numbers of students each trainer can supervise. Funding

for training is limited, too. These limitations could have an impact on the future of the faculty.

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Some trainers expressed the belief that problems arising from these limitations could be evident

within a few years. The decision to pursue a PhD knowing what lies ahead is a difficult one, as

GT1 observed, although a considerable number of students do choose to do so and go on to

find work in other countries. Some trainers think that it is unfortunate that the institution that

trained them is then forced to lose them. Given how quickly they are accepted at other

universities, few are likely to return to FTI. Indeed, a large proportion of staff at universities

outside Spain is composed of graduates from Granada.

Regarding the issue of employing non-translation specialists as translator trainers,

almost all trainers thought that there are excellent trainers who do not hold translation degrees

and emphasised that the main criterion is that trainers are demonstrably committed to the

mission of the degree programme – i.e. to the development of professional translators and

trainers – and that they understand that teaching translation is a different project from language

teaching.

Almost all the trainers interviewed for this study agreed that Training the Trainers

should be a point of attention for TT administrators. The European Masters in Translation

(EMT) which adopts the translator competence model also produced a translator trainer model.

GT1 reported that previously in Spain, faculty members were promoted on the basis of their

research; teaching was not considered the main priority. That practice has since changed. As

noted above, new members of staff must take an induction course when they join the university,

and are paired with a mentor for a year.

All the trainers interviewed emphasised the use of translation technology by stating that

their programme provided a good background in its use. However, some warned against people

confusing the tool (technology) with the solution. Despite the belief of some students that if

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the information is on the internet, it’s correct, technology is not the answer to everything.

Nevertheless, GT1 maintained that one must be skilled in technology now.

At FTI, interviewed trainers stressed, students are encouraged to think critically about

their use of technology. Technology is presented as one of many tools, not the only tool. It is

necessary, very useful, but not the solution to everything. All trainers were more concerned

that students know how to translate and understand why they make a decision rather than know

how to use a programme.

During the interview GT1 explained that FTI had no compulsory practicum or internship

programme at the undergraduate level, but there was a university work programme through

which students could find work placements. This is compulsory in the Master’s course. FTI

has agreements including the European programmes and its students could travel to Swansea

or London on work placements. FTI signed agreements with several companies and it also uses

virtual work placements with agencies that are not stationed in Granada. In an effort to expand

this element of its programme, FTI is now negotiating with the International Monetary Fund

and the World Bank. GT1 pointed out that work placements have been somewhat

misunderstood in Spain. Some Spanish companies do not take internships seriously and use

students to photocopy, make coffee or cover a temporary absence of a worker. Student interns

do not receive much guidance. FTI discusses these issues with companies, explaining that

internships are intended as opportunities for in-house training and therefore must be used to

help students improve their skills and gain experience. Student interns are expected to write

reports on their internship experience in the Master’s course.

As for FTI’s links with the European Master in Translation4 GT1 explained that FTI has

looked into EMT model but decided not to adopt it, adding that it is geared towards the specific

4
The EMT is a partnership project between the EC and European higher education institutions which offer MA
level translation programmes. The project has a quality label that is awarded to participating university translation

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needs of the EU generally but not necessarily the Spanish context. GT1 elaborates that there

are different models, many of which have common components. Many of these components

are mere labels. They speak of ‘information mining and instrumental competence’ (EMT 2009,

p.6) which, in GT1’s view, is a mixture of concepts that is very much market-biased. GT1

explained that some FTI staff were unhappy with EMT when they first read about it because it

was too limiting.

You can’t say that you have included 15 languages in your own course, but actually what you mean
is including an Erasmus student in your programme. We design something and they always cut us
back on what we design. When it starts working, they change it. (GT1)

Opportunities

Despite the criticism of the case of FTI, it remains highly regarded by many as a world-class

TT institution at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels for its many years of

experience in the field, the wide range of language combinations it offers, and the involvement

of highly-qualified trainers and internationally-renowned scholars. A positive approach to all

challenges mentioned above could turn them into opportunities for development, creating

alternative and proactive plans and solutions to maintain the excellent image and reputation

that FTI and UGR have built over the years.

1.8.1.5 Discussion

The case of UGR-FTI offers several revealing and useful insights for TT institutions through

its unique and successful experience in providing an open and creative environment for its

trainers and trainees that enhances the quality of academic education and professional training

programmes given that they meet agreed professional standards and market demands. Based on an established
EMT translator competence profile, it aims to improve the quality of translator training and to prepare highly
skilled people to work as translators in the EU. More details on EMT are provided via their website
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/programmes/emt/index_en.htm

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of its aspiring translators. Even though FTI management offers freedom to its trainers to adopt

what they see as the most suitable teaching/training methodology, it still ensures their

familiarity with modern TT practices by offering Train the Trainer workshops. These

workshops help trainers explore current practices of TT material development (and selection)

and training and assessment methods. All FTI trainers and students supported the use of a

collaborative, project-based and interactive training approach, which, they thought, paved the

way for trainee translators to enter the real world.

Employability is generally used as an important indicator for TT programmes’ success.

Some TT trainers at FTI were well-aware of the significance of students’ employment support

and established their own databases of jobs available and had strong links with the translation

market. However, this is insufficient as it is only a personal effort that may discontinue the

minute those staff members transfer to another institution, Thus, it would be much more

beneficial and sustainable if TT institutions took this matter on board and established a database

of their alumni including the types of jobs they occupy, the time they spend looking for jobs,

the kinds of challenges they encounter looking for jobs, the level of market satisfaction with

their performance as they join the workforce, and their contact information to invite them as

speakers and successful graduates. More importantly this database could provide useful

statistics for future research on students’ job preferences, obstacles impeding graduates from

entering the professional world, and any data that may help improve the curricula.

Some initiatives taken by professional and highly competent trainers to link their

department and university programmes with the market should be supported by the top

management of those universities. It is a common issue for many universities where good ideas

and practices that could be the main reason for their success have come about purely as a result

of individual efforts. If such efforts are taken on board and implemented systematically, the

gains for these universities could be numerous. For example, in the case of FTI, the course on

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“The Profession of the Translator and the Interpreter” is an excellent window for aspiring

translators into the real world because it is presented by translation industry professionals who

are invited to discuss their work with translation students and trainers.

Moreover, it is imperative for TT institutions to cope with today’s quality standards in

the provision of knowledge and TT. This was evident in UGR’s seriousness in addressing the

issue of quality and use of technology by appointing a quality vice chancellor and offering

courses on the use technology (such as MOOCs) and having professional induction

programmes for new trainers.

Challenges posed by generational differences between older non-TT specialised

trainers and those who hold TS degrees could be addressed by offering staff professional

development and Train the Trainer workshops especially on modern practices of TT materials

selection, and training and assessment methods.

As for government regulations as an impeding factor to TT development, TT

institutions differ in how they address such a challenge. It is essential for TT management

officials to strike a balance between meeting government rules and doing the things that their

specialised academic staff believe are appropriate for the institution. It would be more effective

for all TT institutions in a given context to partner together and coordinate their efforts in their

approach to tackling problematic regulation issues and effects such as loss of autonomy for

universities and exaggerated imposed number of educational laws.

One of the most difficult challenges facing many TT programmes is translation

students’ admission criteria. The problem lies in the type and level of expected competences

(including linguistic, translation, general knowledge and skills) and secondary school marks.

If TT institutions raise their criteria too high or too low, there will always be difficulties. This

will either result in accepting too small a number of students which might be financially not

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feasible, or having classes with mixed ability levels. FTI chose the second option because they

believe that the focus in their programme is on the process of translation (enhancing students

thinking as professional translators) and four years are long enough for students to develop the

linguistic competence. This puts more responsibilities on students to develop both their

translation and linguistic competences simultaneously. However, TT institutions should aim to

have classes with students that have similar linguistic levels and learning abilities and aptitudes.

However, if governmental and organisational regulations impose linguistically TT mixed-level

classes on trainers (which may make it hard for teachers to achieve training aims and learning

outcomes), then focusing on the process and building students’ translation strategies and skills

is one way of dealing with such a challenge.

To sum up, there are many lessons to be learnt from FTI successful experience in

training translators and controlling a climate in which both trainees and trainers felt inspired,

creative and successful. It is undoubtedly an excellent example of international best practice of

TT that others seeking success can benefit from as a benchmarking measure.

1.8.2 The Autonomous University of Barcelona

1.8.2.1 Overview of Programme

The Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB) is internationally known for providing

quality and innovation in academic research and teaching. It prides itself on offering practical,

professional learning opportunities for its students and training young researchers. UAB’s

Faculty of Translation and Interpreting is the oldest in Spain, training translators and

interpreters since 1972. According to UAB’s website, El Mundo ranked it one of the best TT

centres in Spain in 2012 on the strength of its teaching quality, number of language

combinations and top-level facilities, which it makes available to trainee interpreters and

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translators. UAB’s FTI has 54 booths for training interpreters in simultaneous and relay

interpreting, and seven state-of-the-art multimedia classrooms with a capacity of a hundred and

sixty-two students. Currently it has approximately 1,500 students studying translation or

interpreting in the Faculty. Most of UAB’s exchange programmes involve FTI, which has

signed agreements with 135 universities in 70 countries.

In addition to a PhD programme in Translation and Intercultural Studies, the

programmes offered by the Department of Translation and Interpreting include Postgraduate

Certificate and Master programmes in audio-visual, legal and Chinese-Spanish translation as

well as IT Applied to Translation. FTI’s PhD programme obtained the Spanish Ministry of

Education Quality Assurance Agency (ANECA) Certificate of Excellence (Mención de

Calidad) 2003-2010 and 2011- 2013 (Mención hacia la Excelencia). Forty-one PhD theses and

eighty-five MA dissertations have been completed and defended since 1992, and more than a

hundred and forty postgraduate and research students from twenty-two countries are currently

studying in the Department.

Although the interviewees provided considerable information and feedback on a

number of FTI’s programmes, the main focus of discussion in this case will be on its PhD

programme. FTI’s PhD programme in Translation and Intercultural Studies, in the Department

of Translation and Interpreting at the UAB, offers its students opportunities to study different

tracks of research associated with the broad areas of knowledge: Translation and Interpreting

and East Asian Studies. The programme’ activities include the Permanent Research and PhD

Seminar, Young Researchers Symposium and the PhD Summer School. Different collaboration

agreements with other organisations also serve to make students in this programme more

mobile offering an interdisciplinary and inviting environment in which to conduct their

research. Candidates must possess a strong knowledge of TS concepts and methodologies and

be able to assimilate new knowledge. Professionally, FTI’s PhD programme allows its students

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to teach in the areas covered within its domain. It aims to prepare PhD students in translation

and interpreting and East Asian studies. Students access a wide range of resources including

five multimedia classrooms for experiments, three interpreting rooms (with 54 fully-equipped

booths), in addition to UAB’s libraries and labs for use by research groups where students can

work on their projects.

1.8.2.2 Methodology

Using semi-structured interviews to obtain feedback on UAB PhD programme, nine interviews

were conducted in March 2014 on the main campus of UAB in Barcelona, Spain. Four trainers

(thereafter coded UABT1-4) were interviewed as part of this study in addition to five PhD

students (thereafter coded UABS1-5). UABS3, UABS4 and UABS 5 were all working within

a project called Hybrid Broadcast Broadband for All (Hbb4all)5.

Table 1.4 provides brief profiles of all UAB interviewees:

Code of Interview Profile

UABT1 TT administrator, scholar and trainer.

UABT2 TT administrator, scholar and trainer

UABT3 TT trainer and coordinator of the PhD in

Translation and Intercultural studies

UABT4 TT MA programme coordinator and trainer

UABS1 PhD on use of MT in documentary films

5
UABS3, 4 and 5 PhD projects are part of the European project Hbb4All (www.hbb4all.eu) led by UAB and
coordinated by Dr Pilar Orero. The UAB and its partners created examples of audiovisual content from different
genres.

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 UABS2 PhD on cultural competence of translators

UABS3 PhD on audio description

UABS4 PhD on subtitling

UABS5 PhD on audio description

Table 1.4: Profiles of UAB interviewees

1.8.2.3 Findings (via SWOT)

Many important topics and issues on UAB PhD programme in TS emerged from the

participants’ responses and are summarised in the following SWOT analysis (Table 1.5):

Strengths Weaknesses
Limited students’ linguistic and professional
Many years of experience
competences
Cutting edge education
Lack of a systematic approach to TT curriculum
Awareness of and tendency towards developing
Current economic environment
the curriculum
‘Old school’ approaches
Strong trainers’ links with market
Opportunities Threats
Enhance TT quality and bridge gap between TT Social and market challenges
institution and market
The image and reputation of the programme
Obtain accreditation and increase recognition
Loss of student interest in the
Increase employability rate of graduates discipline/profession
Potential to diversify programmes and expand Too many government regulations

Table 1.5: SWOT analysis of UAB participants’ data

On the development of TT at FTI and the strategic direction of its various programmes, UABT1

explained that:

the evolution was from more professional to more research oriented. First the focus was on the
training of professionals; we haven’t forgotten that but we don’t exclude the training of researchers.
Our degree is oriented towards the training of professionals but we always think of our doctoral
programme and our Master’s degree.

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In addition to the professional track at the Master’s level, there is also a research-based MA

that allows young researchers to advance to FTI’s PhD programme. All of the interviewees

confirmed this offering is strategically market-driven. UABT1 elaborated that FTI is

part of the European Higher Education System. We have directions coming from this. This
association is not linked to the European Union in any way. One of the requirements for degrees is
that they are oriented to provide professional competences to the trainees. These are measured in
terms of very practical learning outcomes, “more money” practical. You can measure if a person has
acquired more competences. A major number of those competences established for a degree are
defined in terms of problem-solving in the workplace.

All FTI programmes are based on this philosophy, where ‘employability is the key word’

(UABT1).

As for statistics on numbers of graduates employed in the market, UABT1 explained

that surveys are conducted by the Catalan government and universities where they ask

graduates (including those of translation and interpreting programmes) three years after

obtaining their degrees whether they have found a job and how adequate their training was for

the workplace. FTI conducts these surveys as well.

On the issue of professionalising the discipline, UAB’s translation and interpreting

programmes have been influenced in two ways, the first is in the subjects such as audio-visual

translation, or technical translation, and the other is in its emphasis on the use of technology in

TT. On the strength of TT technology at FTI, UABT1confirmed that

We have invented translation technology, in this faculty, in this department. From the very beginning
technology was important, embedded in the programme, as a subject. There are two subjects in the
curriculum on the use of technology in translation. The department offers a Master’s degree in
translations technology, Tradumatica, which includes the practice of all those skills. It also includes
internships in companies.

UABT3 coordinates the PhD in Translation and Intercultural studies, which has been running

for more than 20 years. It was the first PhD in translation in Spain. Like Granada, Barcelona

faces a few regulatory challenges. According to UABT3, for example:

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 The programme as it is today, as it is in this course was implemented this year. The Spanish
regulation made us adapt our PhD to a new law. Last year we went through a process of external
accreditation, external assessment. It took us a year, it was a very long process, but luckily our
programme was verified, the assessment was successful. We started the new PhD this year.

The programme will have to go through an assessment process again after six years to achieve

accreditation. Every year thereafter the programme will be assessed. Currently FTI has ‘the

new PhD in Translation and Intercultural studies, the first year adapted to the new regulation,

but we still have students on the old one, which has exactly the same name’ (UABT3).

As for the number of courses and areas of specialization, UABT3 explained that the

current structure of the programme focuses on very important fields of research: Translation

and Interpreting with different research lines, in addition to East Asian studies. In the last few

years ‘there has been a group of researchers with a very strong interest in East Asian studies,

not only from the translation or language perspective, but from a broader perspective. We

coexist and cooperate within the same department, and we have ended up under the same

umbrella as far as the PhD is concerned’ (UABT3). Moreover, the focus on East Asian studies

offers opportunities for doctoral research in East Asian languages and literatures, East Asian

politics and international relations, East Asian societies, cultural thought and interculturality

and East Asian economies. Languages include Japanese, Chinese and Korean.

In regards to the strategic and theoretical direction of the programme, it is linked to the

research lines of the department and the research groups in the department of Translation and

Interpreting. This PhD programme follows the current trend in Spain which creates a strong

link between research and PhD studies with the aim of enabling students to be involved with

research groups. While this is not mandatory, the Spanish accreditation process requires PhD

programmes to clearly state which research groups are involved in the PhD. Basically, ‘you

really need very strong research groups, strong researchers. That’s what makes us proud, the

research that we’re doing with the research groups’ (UABT3).

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 New government regulations have had an impact on the recruitment of trainers and

professors, as UABT3 explained:

Until last year, before the assessment process, if you had a PhD, you could be a supervisor. In fact,
all lecturers in our department with a PhD could supervise a thesis. This has changed a little bit; it
has been difficult, controversial. By regulation we had to meet certain criteria, impact publications,
participation in research groups, etc., a lot more filtering. We did an internal process and we ended
up with a list of lecturers from our department that were included in that assessment. Internally we
would call them the ‘initial body’ of lecturers. Only they can act as tutors. There is one role which
is tutor, and they have the relationship with the PhD, advises training activities, etc. As far as the
PhD supervisor is concerned, anybody with a PhD and with a research track can be a supervisor. So
we’ve got different scenarios: one in which a lecturer in our department which was included in this
assessment is tutor and, at the same time, supervisor. But if a student wants a supervisor who’s not
part of this initial list, they must have a tutor from the initial list, plus a supervisor who’s external.

According to some trainers, the system is more sophisticated than the previous one, but also

possibly more complicated. They believe the department should adopt an internal process by

the end of each academic year to include more of its lecturers in the “initial body”, allowing

more faculty members to get involved.

This PhD programme does not promote a specific theoretical framework. As UABT3

put it, the only requirement is that students adopt a perspective that is ‘justified, meaningful,

and relevant to what you want to do. All sorts of approaches are feasible here, we’re open’

(UABT3).

1.8.2.4 Discussion

Notwithstanding the negative aspects highlighted by the interviewees from both UGR and

UAB, the institutes stand out as world leaders of international TT best practice in terms of TT

delivery, curriculum design, professional orientation of their curricula, harmony with industry

directions, enhancing student creativity, institutional innovation, translation technology

training, translator trainer support and TT quality enhancement. A major positive aspect of the

two cases is their emphasis on training students on the process of translation rather than the

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product where students are offered open space for creativity and a wide range of translation

theories to adopt and justify their adoption of a certain approach, strategies and decisions.

Despite the existence of some old-school trainers/ professors, the majority are

specialised translator trainers who implement modern student-centred, inductive and project-

based approach to TT. Moreover, it is clear that well-informed curriculum developers in both

cases have exerted huge efforts in ensuring that the offered postgraduate degrees are in line

with modern and future directions of the translation industry (such as audio-visual translation

and media accessibility-related TS studies) while placing emphasis on research skills and

linking their future young researchers with highly regarded local and international research

groups.

Even though there were too many quick regulatory changes in Spain influencing

translation and interpreting degrees at both the undergraduate and graduate levels, the two

institutes were able to strike a balance between fulfilling regulatory requirements and

maintaining their professional and disciplinary focus and innovation. There is no doubt that

many lessons can be learned from such successful TT world leaders.

1.9 Conclusion
Modern models and approaches of TT investigated in this chapter have supported the theme

and approach of the current study by encouraging a market-oriented, group-based and inductive

training class environment. The ultimate goal of our TT institutions should be to prepare

thinkers and doers at the same time, which is not an easy task; thinkers who are highly

intellectual, reflective and creative and doers who are professional and able to match the

expectations of their employers and society. For example, the strategic position of a country

such as Saudi Arabia in the political and economic world arenas necessitate that these

intellectual thinkers and professional doers perform at a highly advanced level to enhance that

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position, put paid to any attempts to distort it and present their culture and country at its best

to the other.

To achieve this challenging target, highly interactive and student-centred TT

approaches such as the socio-constructivist one should be adopted to support workplace

preparation of aspiring translators. Using this approach, trainers should be able offer and

control a conducive learning climate for their translation students, rather than controlling their

learning by old-school teacher-centred teaching methods. Moreover, it essential that less

experienced TT programmes benefit from the case studies presented in this chapter which have

proven the importance of offering TT programmes that have real-world relevance such as UAB

PhD students’ projects that are linked to Broadcast Broadband for All. Similarly, TT institutes

who are willing to serve the needs of their students and society could learn from UGR’s

approach in linking its students with the market by inviting professionals as speakers and

building an alumni database to obtain information on the types of jobs their graduates have

occupied or could occupy. Such a database and market strong link could inform TT material

selection and curricula development.

Furthermore, a lesson that can be learned from the two cases is how to address

government regulations in a carefully well-studied strategy to mitigate any risks involved.

Regulations may be viewed as daunting and empty task by some academics, but if one has to

deal with them, it would be best to use them for your programme’s benefit by enhancing quality

and adopting a systematic approach to teaching and content development. Both UGR and UAB

have had to conform to rapid changes in Spanish regulations and were able to make those

regulations serve the innovative nature of their degrees rather than limit it.

On the topic of introducing TT at the tertiary level before postgraduate level, many

successful scenarios in the UK, USA and elsewhere have supported the notion of focusing on

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translation education and transferable skills at the undergraduate level and TT at the

postgraduate level. This is based on the assumption that students’ linguistic command of the

target language when they start their postgraduate in translation is high enough that their focus

is on acquiring translation competence rather than language learning. This seems to be more

suitable to the Saudi context. To equip undergraduate degrees aspiring translators with

advanced linguistic and cultural skills of the target language/culture, they need to be well-

immersed into it by spending a year abroad in a country of that language/culture. To delve more

into ways of detecting the specific needs of our students and institutions, the next chapter

explores training needs analysis and situational analysis.

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 Chapter Two: Training Needs Analysis (TNA) and Situational
Analysis in TT

Chapter One of this thesis provided an overview of the status of TT in the world, the stages in

its development and current trends in practice at the tertiary level as well as postgraduate level.

In keeping with the main aim of this study, i.e. to bridge the gap between TT programmes and

the needs of translation students and the market – this chapter shall investigate a number of

potential methods for doing so using certain types of analyses during the training cycle. Some

of the most widely used analyses for training and development are training needs analysis and

situational analysis; TNA defined as the activities involved in gathering information which will

serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of a particular

group of students (Brown, 2001) and situational analysis understood as ‘an analysis of factors

in the context of a planned or present curriculum project that is made in order to assess their

potential impact on the project. These factors may be political, social, economic, or

institutional. Situation analysis complements the information gathered during needs analysis

(Richards, 2001, p. 91). Later in this chapter, the interconnection and inter-relationship between

needs analysis and situational analysis will be discussed specifically in relation to internal

factors and external factors in the planning phase that initiates the training curriculum

development cycle.

Any discussion of training needs analysis is based on the presumption that gaps in

students’ knowledge, skills or attitude are detectable through rigorous empirical analysis. This

point of departure is itself a matter of some debate, however. Porcher, for example, argues that

Need is not a thing that exists and might be encountered ready-made on the street. It is a thing that
is constructed, the center of conceptual networks and the product of a number of epistemological
choices (which are not innocent themselves, of course) (Porcher, 1977, cited in Bindley, 1984, p.
29).

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Deciding on what needs should be analysed, focusing on whose needs are to be analysed, and

who is authorised to make accurate judgments about these needs are all problematic issues that

should be handled with caution. A need is in fact

a result of a process of judgement that is moulded by that same process of judgement by which it
has been ascertained. If, for example, we were to say that a needs analysis had found that the
vocational requirements of students pursuing a particular translation training programme were not
being met in terms of the provision of specific word-processing skills that would serve them in a
professional environment after training had finished, this finding in itself reveals a number of
assumptions which the analysis made (consciously or unconsciously) at the outset’ (Kearns, 2006,
p. 151).

Examples of those assumptions include:

- Translation education ought to emphasise vocational skills;

- Training in the needed skills will end as soon as students finish a certain formal

education programme. Therefore, students are not able (or are not expected) to gain

skills in the professional world;

- Accordingly, these vocational skills (such as work-related word processing) ought to

be made a priority over other skills which are more generic ‘lifelong learning’ skills or

what Kearns and others termed as ‘transferable skills’ (ibid.).

It would not be appropriate (or fair to students) for TT programmes to tailor their curricula to

fit the narrow and specific needs of certain translation companies. This is due to the fact that

the translation market has many different translation companies with very different

employment needs. Besides, it does not seem right for TT institutions to succumb to the

pressures of the market blindly. Translation students would be more marketable and

employable if they possessed market entry-level translation competence, transferable skills and

‘lifelong learning’ skills, which would help TT graduates manoeuvre more freely, offer them

more job prospects and free them from restriction to a small range of unguaranteed jobs.

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 Two terms are used in the literature to refer to the analysis of training needs and gaps:

needs assessment and needs analysis. Those terms have been used interchangeably by training

experts and education scholars, nor does there appear to be a clear distinction between them in

terms of their use in training/teaching-related research. However, in some studies the term

“needs assessment” has been used to account for the identification and prioritisation of needs

while “needs analysis” has been utilised to arrive at possible causes of needs and their potential

solutions (Kaufman, 1985, p. 21). For consistency and better suitability to its point of enquiry,

this study shall adopt the term training needs analysis (TNA) as it is more widely used in both

academic and corporate settings in the way it serves to detect training problems’ possible

causes and their potential remedies.

Further, there is considerable variation in the approach educational scholars take to

TNA. Some (e.g. Dudley-Evans and St. John 1998) offer a holistic approach to TNA through

which different types of useful data on potential (or existing) students is gathered, including:

1. Professional information about the students, including the tasks and activities they

utilise language (and translation) for, in order to carry out target situation analysis and

specify objective needs.

2. Students’ personal information including factors that could affect the manner through

which they study and learn such as their previous educational experiences, cultural

background, why they have enrolled in the course, what they expect from it, their

attitude to translator training, their wants, means and subjective needs (i.e. felt needs).

3. Students’ linguistic background, including their existing skills and linguistic ability

accounting for current situation analysis,

4. Gaps in the knowledge, skills and attitudes (KSA) of existing students.

5. Information about language learning and translation/translator competence building,

and successful techniques for learning new KSA.

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 6. Professional communication information about students’ knowledge of how language,

skills and TC are used in the target situation – linguistic analysis, discourse analysis,

functional analysis and genre analysis.

7. Student expectations of the TT course/ programme.

8. Information regarding the environment (cultural and educational) in which the

course/programme takes place (adapted from Dudley-Evans and St. John, 1998).

Widespread agreement among scholars is that gathering such a large amount of vital data on

TT students through TNA supports the efforts of TT curriculum developers in writing realistic

need-based learning objectives and outcomes.

In the context of language studies, by contrast, the notion of learning needs has been

expressed in different terms. For example, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) distinguish between

needs, lacks and wants. They postulate that needs refer to what students must know in order to

function effectively, while lacks refer to what students should know but do not. Finally, wants

refer to students’ perceptions of what they need to know. This distinction could be helpful when

conducting TNA in TT programmes as those involved in curriculum design could bear

students’ training needs, lacks and wants in mind when writing programmes learning/training

objectives and outcomes. Naturally, without such data, it would be difficult to claim that TT

curriculum developers have designed training programmes that serve the interests of their

students.

Other scholars distinguish between objective and subjective needs (Brindley, 1989),

also referred to as “perceived” and “felt” needs (Berwick, 1989). Outsiders (i.e. curriculum

developers and designers) make decisions to define objective or perceived needs. Subjective

or felt needs, by contrast, are determined by students themselves and these needs are influenced

by cognitive and affective factors. Furthermore, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) identified three

major aspects of needs analysis: the first is product-oriented, target situation analysis

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investigating objective and perceived needs, the second is learning situation analysis examining

subjective and felt needs, and the third is the present situation analysis investigating the existing

knowledge of students. Thus, TNA has been regarded by many leading scholars as an important

pre-requisite for designing effective educational and training programmes. A definition of TNA

with relevance for the current study is discussed in the next section.

2.1 Relevance of Training Needs Analysis to TT

Generally, in corporate settings, TNA refers to the study of the types of training needed by an

organization's employees to fill gaps in their knowledge, skills or attitude (KSA). Similarly,

the assumption in educational settings is that successful curriculum development should be

based on careful and thorough analysis of students’ needs with the aim of filling gaps in their

KSA. The whole process and the procedures used to gather information about students’ needs

are known as needs analysis. As a major phase of planning educational programmes

(Stufflebeam et al., 1985), needs analysis appeared in the 1960s as part of the approach to

curriculum development and was also part of the philosophy of educational accountability

during that time. Most training experts agree that the basic function of TNA is to gather

information about a specific job need (task/area of speciality) that can be met by a specific

training or development programme, course or workshop.

Moreover, the concept of needs analysis gained more ground towards the middle of the

1970s. This was due to the increasing popularity of learner-centred and communication-based

methods and approaches to teaching language. Influenced by English for Specific Purposes

(ESP), needs analysis is used in ESP as well as for general language training purposes. Needs

analysis is necessary for designing and developing training courses simply because it provides

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an evidence base for their design and development and works as a backbone for other

components of a proper and systematic language-based curriculum (Iwai et al., 1999, p. 7).

As discussed in the introduction of this chapter, it has been decided that this study will

adopt the term Training Needs Analysis (not assessment) as the method of detecting training

needs and gaps, and leading to what and how training can meet those needs and fill those gaps.

In essence, TNA seeks to determine the specific level of students’ KSA at that time. This is

done using various evaluation instruments such as written and oral placement tests (if TNA is

carried out prior to students’ enrolment in the programme), review of student portfolios,

surveys, interviews, observation and feedback forms. Data can be collected conventionally or

electronically. For accurate results, administrators of these TNA instruments are expected to

take into account issues of validity and reliability in relation to the content and form of these

instruments as well as the way they are administered and analysed. The use of such TNA

instruments should highlight gaps between students’ current and desired level of KSA, and

these gaps, in turn, could be translated into training needs (Barbazette, 2006). Thus, the TNA

process functions to enable translator trainers and trainees to spot training needs and KSA gaps.

2.2 Significance of TNA

The significance of TNA lies in the fact that it enables TT programmes to ensure that their

students gain the KSA that the market, society and the students themselves expect from TT. In

turn, TNA supports TT programmes in enabling students to perform more effectively and

competently when they enter the real world. It assists TT programmes in detecting where

deficiencies are located, i.e. in students’ knowledge, skills or attitudes or perhaps in all these

areas. Moreover, it may lead to the identification of other types of deficiencies, for example in

the training methodology, training materials, facilities or training approaches and philosophies.

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 Many education and language scholars have emphasised the use and value of TNA in

curriculum design and development (Yalden, 2000; Brown, 2001; Richards, 2001; Hutchinson

and Waters, 2002; Shu, 2004; Wen, 2004; Ni and Liu, 2006). As mentioned in the introduction

of this chapter, a popular definition of training needs was proposed by Brown (2001), who

defined it as the activities involved in gathering information which will serve as the basis for

developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of a particular group of students (p.

35). Defined this way, the training needs form a gap or discrepancy between the current state

of a programme’s curriculum and a desired one (Berwick, 1989, p. 52). In other words, the

needs represent the gap between how things are and how they should be (Brindley, 1989, p.

63). Thus it supports the efforts of TT institutions to review and renew their curricula.

Given that the ultimate goal of training is to reduce, if not eliminate, existing gaps by

equipping TT students with translation-focused and translation-related KSA that enable them

to develop and enhance their own capabilities, TNA could assist TT programmes by enabling

them to bridge the gap between the current capability of students and the capability they desire.

Figure 2.1 is illustrative of the main role TNA plays in this process:

Translation students' Translation students'

current knowledge desired knowledge
skills and attitudes skills and attitudes

Figure 2.1: TNA as a bridge between current and desired KSA.

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Nor is this the only benefit of applying TNA in educational settings. In addition to detecting

areas for development in TT students’ KSA, it could serve as a useful tool to discover and build

on students’ accomplishments and abilities, allowing them to articulate knowledge and

competences they already have (Holt and Van Duzer, 2000). In doing so, TNA enables

translator trainers to capitalise on students’ existing KSA and use it as a starting point to

introduce new course content. By linking students’ existing and new translation knowledge,

translator trainers could achieve higher levels of success in meeting their training objectives

and students could relate more to the course content.

Another very distinctive and useful aspect of TNA is that it is conducted not only when

planning for curriculum development, but ideally is part of an ongoing process throughout the

TT programme. It may be used to inform the selection and placement of students, the design

and development of materials, curriculum design, training methodology and decisions about

training facilities and resources. Accordingly, it may be used in the initial phase of TT

programmes as the basis for course contents and also while training is in progress to ensure the

achievement of student and programmes’ goals as well as enabling important programme

review and change. More importantly it can be carried out at the end of a training programme,

informing plans for future directions and changes of training (Marshall, 2002).

In addition to operational benefits, TNA can also contribute strategically to the overall

evaluation of the programme by measuring its success and progress when incorporated into the

annual review and evaluation procedures of the educational institution. Drawing on the

enormous gains of TNA for TT programmes, it is highly advisable for competitive modern TT

institutions to adopt it as a frequent practice, bearing in mind that it will not be fully effective

if it is not part of a systematic process or cycle that manages the whole TT experience. TNA

is, after all, only one tool for managing the cycle of TT, albeit a vital one. In the context of

corporate and professional training, this cycle has a beginning (the planning phase), a middle

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(the implementation phase) and an end (the evaluation phase), and is referred to by various

names. Because this study seeks to develop a comprehensive, systematic and proactive

approach to addressing strategic and operational problems throughout the TT process, it is

referred to as the Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle (TTCDC) and involves

using TNA as an effective and efficient tool with which to complement its main functions.

The concept of managing the TT cycle has been explored in the relevant TS and TT

literature from various angles, most clearly in Kelly’s Curricular Design Process (2005) and in

Gabr’s Process Control Model in Total Quality Management-Based Approach to TT (2001b,

2003, 2007). The contributions of these two scholars to managing TT curriculum development,

rationale behind its sequential movement, and its theoretical and practical underpinnings are

the focal point of discussion in the remainder of this chapter.

2.3 Initiating TTCDC: Selecting and Forming the TT Development Team

In traditional, unsystematic TT institutions, curricula remain static for many years until they

become obsolete, a process which widens the already enormous gap between the ivory towers

of academia and the real world. In such disconnected conventional environments, it is perhaps

difficult to know if the curriculum will ever be reviewed or renewed. But in TT institutions that

are willing to compete and survive in today’s challenging and demanding global economy, the

adoption of a sequential TTCDC cycle would normally be initiated by the person in charge of

managing the TT institution such as the dean of the relevant college, the head of the Translation

Department or the head of the Academic Quality Department. This is a very important step that

makes use of existing data (gathered from feedback from previous courses and the experiences

of similar institutions) and considers potential challenges such as time, cost, and facilities

(Gabr, 2001b).

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 Once the decision has been taken by the top management to develop the curriculum,

attention should be paid to appointing a capable and professional developer or assembling a

team of developers, depending on the availability of human and financial resources. Sheal

(1989) proposes four basic steps beginning with nominating a team of developers rather than

one developer (Step One). While the job may be done by one highly experienced and

professional developer, appointing a team of developers enables ideas and decisions to be

tested from different points of view, and therefore is more effective and efficient. The team

should be a manageable size and its members should comprise a good range of relevant

expertise, specialist knowledge and skills. The team leader should be well-versed into TT, with

proven instructional design experience, project management skills and effective

communication skills. Step Two involves focused brainstorming sessions for developers,

followed by task assignment as third step. Finally, to ensure completion of the project within a

clear and specific timeline, deadlines for accomplishing tasks must be set and agreed.

In the case of TTCDC, the team leader and members must receive sufficient training in

any perquisite skills and knowledge required for carrying out this type of process. For example,

in addition to the skills and knowledge required of educational curriculum developers, the team

must be well-acquainted with quality assurance standards and their applications in order to

instil them within TTCDC properly and accurately. Understanding the importance of effective

communication and transparency and the role of the team in ensuring the involvement and

loyalty of all major stakeholders in TTCDC is also essential. The message that the TT

department’s curriculum is being reviewed and renewed with systematic and content changes

must be clearly and professionally disseminated to all stakeholders. This is imperative,

especially in relation to all teaching staff and support staff members, who must be actively

engaged in the new programme by providing them with opportunities to offer feedback and

input. They must be made well aware of the changes, and their opinions have to be taken into

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account. It is not reasonable to impose a ready-made curriculum on teaching staff (who may

be full, assistant or associate professors with long teaching experience) and expect that they

will accept it immediately. More often than not, they will abandon it completely and teach what

they believe is right in the manner that suits them. In turn, all efforts, time and resources

invested in TTCDC are wasted.

Members of the management team should be characterised by sound professional

judgment, integrity and reliability, the ability to evaluate and question intelligently, informed

by the evidence, specialist knowledge and past experience, and the ability to perform to a high

standard in a team environment. The development team leader should take responsibility for

ensuring the professional and ethical conduct of his/her team members, especially when

assessing the implementation of TTCDC by internal stakeholders and when conducting quality

assurance reviews. In those educational institutions where the challenging job of curriculum

design has been assigned to an unprofessional team of developers, the failure to implement

newly designed curricula is a consequence of an ineffective communication strategy between

curriculum developers and key internal stakeholders (such as teaching staff or students).

2.4 Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle (TTCDC): A Need-

Based Systematic Approach to Developing and Managing TT Curriculum

As noted in the previous section, TTCDC involves three main phases whose collective purpose

is to ensure that training is handled effectively and efficiently starting with planning, followed

by implementation and ending with evaluation. Many of the models used in professional and

educational settings take a similarly cyclical and sequential approach to managing training.

Figure 2.2 illustrates these three phases clearly:

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 3.Evaluation 1.Planning

2.Implementation

Figure 2.2: Key phases of the Translator Training Curriculum Development Cycle (TTCDC).

2.4.1 The Planning Phase

Figure 2.3: Planning Phase of TTCDC.

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Figure 2.3 shows how the planning phase is linked with other TTCDC phases and the six steps

that are required for its completion. The first step of those six starts with conducting a

situational analysis using data collection tools such as PEST analysis (addressing Political,

Economic, Social and Technological external factors), SWOT analysis (examining Strengths,

Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats internally), SM and TNA. The second step is writing

teaching aims and learning outcomes. The third is identifying available resources and providing

needed ones within budget limitations. The fourth is designing learning and teaching activities.

The fifth step is designing assessment activities and finally step six focuses on designing

assessment tools.

This phase is probably the most important in the entire TTCDC cycle because its

success or failure will automatically impact the phases that follow. Therefore, great care must

be exercised in the preparations for and execution of each step of it. Moreover, it is the most

demanding phase in terms of tasks, preparation, data gathering and designing activities. To lead

to the final set of steps that should be completed in this phase, the rationale of gradually and

sequentially incorporating each step in the TTCDC will be based on evidence from the

literature, specifically from Kelly’s Curricular Design Process (2005) and in Gabr’s Process

Control Model in Total Quality Management-Based Approach to Translator Training (2001b,

2002, 2007). The aim of this phase and other phases of TTCDC is to provide a complete

solution for TT curriculum developers by filling possible gaps that have not been accounted

for in earlier models and by addressing TT curriculum development strategically and

operationally.

It should be noted that there are other references to TNA in TT and TS literature,

including Li (2000a, 2000b, 2002, 2006, 2007), Milton (2001, 2004), Schellekens (2004),

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Kearns (2006), Katan (2009a, 2009b) and OPTIMALE (2012), but Kelly, Gabr and Li are the

most relevant to the main focus of this study. Additionally, Dorothy Kelly, one of the leading

and most influential figures in TT and its curriculum design and development, has offered a

very useful systematic TT curricular design process in her book, A Handbook for Translator

Trainers (2005), which is similar to that of Moustafa Gabr in that both are based on a systematic

process of curriculum development. Kelly’s model stresses the importance of identifying social

and market needs, which she uses to inform the next major step, formulating learning outcomes

that take account of social, professional and disciplinary considerations. Prior to designing the

course content, student needs are to be analysed. It is important to know students' prior

knowledge, their personal characteristics, their preferred learning styles, their expectations and

motivations in order to tailor course content and methodologies to their needs. These needs

inform the following step which is the selection of resources and training of trainers. As a major

group of participants in the learning process (Kelly, 2005), trainers play a crucial role in the

success of TT programmes. Their competences should be analysed and their needs should be

met. This should be followed by the design of teaching and learning activities, course

evaluation and implementation as well as the final stage in this process, programme evaluation

and quality enhancement. Although Kelly’s curricular design process is by far one of the most

practical and comprehensive proposals for designing TT curricula, a few issues remain

unaddressed. It follows a clear systematic approach to TT, which is an advantage, but does not

offer a full recipe. In fact, it provides guidelines on curriculum design and development based

on TNA in any given context. It would be more useful if, in addition to stating that market and

social needs should be identified as a first step, it offered specific mechanisms or tools through

which those needs can be identified and analysed. Moreover, although Kelly’s process stresses

quality assurance (which is vital for TT sustainability and customer satisfaction) in its final

step and links it with most of the major steps in the preparatory stage to implementation, it is

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unclear if this is a continual process designed to maintain high educational quality standards at

every step. Neither does it show if feedback is communicated to the relevant stakeholders to

demonstrate that their opinions are taken into consideration and to update them on the latest

developments at the various stages of TT curricular design. One of the biggest flaws in many

educational institutions is lack of communication amongst its different teams and departments.

Despite investing considerable financial resources and effort developing their programmes,

some TT institutions fail to achieve their targets because their communication strategies are

somewhat ineffective. In educational settings where there are highly qualified intellectuals and

scholars with extensive specialised knowledge and educational experience, the failure to

actively engage them in their institutions’ curriculum development efforts (in which they are a

major player) may lead these scholars to isolate themselves in their university offices and

choose not to support any change in the curricula. Many studies have concluded that it is part

of human nature that people resist change if their opinions are not respected, particularly if this

change is not properly and effectively communicated to them. Akmal and Miller (2003) assert

that ‘the complexity of interwoven factors involved in the change process will vary from

institution to institution, nevertheless, the issues of turf and territoriality, resistance to change,

and the ‘‘disconnect’’ between content and pedagogy departments are probably present across

[..] educational institutions’ (p.419). This is the main reason TTCDC stresses the involvement

of all key stakeholders by including a communications (in the plural as it is used to mean Public

Relations and organisational communications) element and offering them opportunities to

express their opinions on many aspects of the curriculum through TNA.

Accordingly, the current study aims to promote a systematic approach to curricular and

syllabus design, starting with a planning phase (SWOT analysis, PEST analysis, SM and TNA),

proceeding to an implementation phase and concluding with the evaluation of the whole

process. This type of systematic approach to curricular design takes ‘as [its] starting point the

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institutional and social context in which training is to take place, and from there establish[es

its] objectives or intended outcomes with input from the professional sector for which students

are to be trained, from society at large and from academic disciplines involved’ (Kelly, 2005,

p. 2).

Situational (social and contextual) analysis therefore is of paramount significance when

designing suitable TT curricula. Institutional, local and national environments should be taken

into account in situational analysis (and global analysis given today’s virtual workplace

requirements). On this premise, Richards states that:

Situation analysis is an analysis of factors in the context of a planned or present curriculum project
that is made in order to assess their potential impact on the project. These factors may be political,
social, economic, or institutional. Situation analysis complements the information gathered during
needs analysis (Richards, 2001, p. 91).

Drawing on Richards’ factors of situational analysis that support the process of TNA, a possible

practical tool that could enhance TT situational analysis is PEST analysis (Gregory, 2015),

which is used to investigate the Political, Economic, Social and Technological factors affecting

the situation, environment and context of the TT institution and its curricula.

Therefore, the planning phase is executed in a number of steps that ensure all needed data

are gathered and analysed for the next phase. The analysis should focus on both external and

internal environments using situational analysis. Kelly refers to this step as ‘Identifying social

and market needs’ while Gabr states its purpose as to ‘Identify Market Needs’, which is the

first step in his model’s ‘Pre-Development’ phase. Situational analysis in TTCDC detects needs

at the strategic level via PEST analysis and at the operational level using SWOT analysis. This

is followed by SM, a tool used widely in corporate planning and especially in

Communications/Public Relations (Gregory, 2015), in order to identify and prioritise TT

institutions’ most important stakeholders and cater for their needs. The steps in this situational

analysis are laid out in detail in the following sequence:

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1. Situational Analysis

This is the first step of the planning phase. It is conducted to identify social and institutional

context needs as well as market needs. Two tools are used for this purpose:

a. Political, Economic, Social and Technological (PEST) analysis

PEST analysis is used to examine the external environment and its needs, as illustrated in

Table 2.1:

Political Economic

Legislation and regulations Pressing market demands

Local and national politics Translation industry economic trends

International political challenges Support and funding

Change of strategic direction (ministerial, Inflation

provincial, national, continental) Tuition and employment levels

Employment legislation

Emergence of new power blocks

Social Technological

Social trends and expectations Internet-based translation trends

Student/staff /clients’ preferences Rate of advancement in translation technology

Social attitudes and misconceptions Investment in Technology

Table 2.1: PEST analysis (adapted from Gregory, 2015 and Theaker, 2008).

Using PEST analysis helps to identify factors that could influence the planning and designing

of TT programmes. As shown in Table 2.1, PEST’s external factors include political factors

such as translation legislation and the emergence of new powers at the decision-making level;

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economic factors such as support and funding for TT institutions; social factors such as

society’s attitudes to and level of satisfaction with translation activities and business; and

technological factors such as the rate of technological advancement. All of these factors could

impact and inform the planning and designing of TT programmes. After analysing the external

environment, the next step is to look at the environment inside TT institutions, which Gregory

refers to as SWOT (2015) investigating its strengths and areas for development (weaknesses),

opportunities for growth and threats affecting its success.

As part of their effort to analyse economic factors (i.e. to assess market demands as an

external stakeholder), TT programmes could identify the market’s translator recruitment

profiles. In other words, they could pinpoint a number of useful generic and specific skills,

abilities, and competences required by employers through:

- Searching for ads and offers;

- Analysing task outlines;

- Analysing the recruitment criteria defined by future employers (such as public and

private translation agencies and private companies looking for translators online);

- Analysing translators’ working environments;

- Analysing the various types of markets available to translators;

- Communicating with languages and translation services providers and managers;

- Having feedback meetings with internship students and analysing their internship

completion reports to be aware of any challenges they have encountered and how they

dealt with them and to get acquainted with any advances in the market;

- Studying and analysing market trends to predict changes and to take them into account

in the current curriculum (Gouadec, 2007, p.328).

Moreover, one way of analysing the needs of external stakeholders of TT programmes is to

examine the types of job advertisements employers post, whether in print publications or more

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often on their online websites. A very illustrative example of this type of analysis is reported

by Gouadec (2007, p.329), who describes a survey of 120 translation-related jobs

advertisements in different countries and languages. Conducted in 2005, the survey revealed a

list of translation employers’ needs and expectations, including:

1. Language skills. In all the jobs surveyed, employers expected translators to have

perfect knowledge of the relevant languages. Language combinations and

translation directionality were relevant in all cases.

2. Knowledge of specific translation tools.

3. Qualifications (the most obvious being a degree in translation, though the majority

of employers required postgraduate qualifications).

4. Knowledge of quality control procedures.

5. Specific competences, such as technical writing, revision, terminology

management, pre-translation, network management and Web page design.

6. Project management.

7. Ability to handle non-standard translations.

8. Experience in the field of translation.

In this case and as part of the TNA conducted on external stakeholders, a great deal of useful

information has been collected that could contribute to the design of more market-oriented TT

courses and activities. Gouadec (2007, p.330), for example, reached a number of informative

conclusions based on the findings from the 2005 survey referred to above:

- The translation market offers work opportunities for beginning translators provided

they have been trained properly in TT programmes that meet market requirements. TT

programmes could meet market demands by offering their students first-hand

experience of professional practice via extensive real world internships/placements of

four to six months (or more if possible).

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 - Technical skills and competence are highly sought after by the market. Translators are

required to be at least familiar with the latest translation technology, particularly

because previous generations of translators, who are less acquainted with technology,

still predominate in the field. Young graduates are seen as technologically strong and

therefore able to bridge gaps in this regard.

- There are numerous opportunities for translators who have expertise in quality

assurance and project management.

- The market tends to seek translators who are trained in one or several translation-

related, special skills areas such as software, Website and video game localisation,

technical writing, graphic design skills, multilingual content management, terminology,

post-editing and revision (ibid.).

This list is very useful for TT curriculum developers, designers and reviewers as it helps map

out the specific needs of the market. These can then be catered for, either directly, in the courses

offered by TT programmes, or indirectly, through carefully planned and selected

internship/attachment opportunities. On this point, Gouadec (ibid.) notes that by comparing the

findings summarised above with the types of attachments and internships that translation

agencies send to the universities, one can observe a more obvious illustration of the market

needs. Those agencies, to which Gouadec (ibid.) refers in his book, are seeking students who:

- are in the final phase of earning an MA degree in translation, and therefore are

presumably able to translate, possess advanced searching/researching skills, and are

able to proofread, manage terminology, etc.;

- possess advanced knowledge of translation memory management systems and several

automatic systems;

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 - are capable of writing specifications for a project and have experience with the

equipment, software resources, documentation and terminology required in their

specific field;

- are able to customise and optimise their work station;

- have been trained in multimedia translation techniques and localisation;

- are familiar with concepts and measures of quality management and quality control;

- are well-versed in practical project management.

However, caution should be exercised when conducting TNA in this manner because it may be

somewhat misleading. Because the translation market and industry are closely interconnected

with other industries which are very dynamic and are governed by changing trends from time

to time, studying the needs of the market through job profiles and employers’ advertisements

should be done with care and the exercise should be constantly revisited and updated. TT policy

makers, administrators and curriculum developers should also note that universities cannot be

expected to swiftly cater for the constantly changing and narrowly specialised needs of the

market. In fact, the lifespan of any highly specialised demands from the market is relatively

brief, only two to four years on average. Educational institutions tend to plan for longer periods

and therefore cannot respond to the short-term specialised needs of the market. Therefore,

university TT programmes should focus on generic transferable skills that can enable aspiring

translators to manoeuvre in unexpected work environments.

b. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) analysis

SWOT analysis is used to analyse the internal environment and its needs. Gregory explains

that after identifying the broader environmental issues impacting the organization with little

control over it, then it is essential to explore the internal aspects of the organization itself

(2015), which Gregory refers to as SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats)

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analysis. Table 2.2 shows how SWOT analysis may be used in analysing TT internal

environment:

Strengths Weaknesses
Lack of specialists
Many years of experience
Lack of technology
Cutting edge education
Very low linguistic and professional
Willingness to develop
competences amongst students
Awareness of and tendency towards developing
Lack of a systematic approach to TT curriculum
the curriculum
Current economic environment
Availability of some needed resources (labs and
training aids) ‘Old school’ approaches

Opportunities Threats
Enhance TT quality and bridge gap between TT Social and market dissatisfaction
institution and market
Danger of TT curriculum being outdated
Obtain accreditation and increase recognition
The image and reputation of the programme
Increase employability rate of graduates
Loss of student interest in the
Potential to diversify programmes and expand discipline/profession

Table 2.2: SWOT analysis (adapted from Gregory, 2015).

By using SWOT analysis, TT institutions can capitalise on their strengths and focus on

mending the weaknesses or more positively expressed ‘areas for development’. While taking

all threats into account, TT programmes may seize the opportunities as incentives to review

their curriculum and achieve higher levels of quality, customer satisfaction and academic

recognition.

c. Stakeholder Mapping (SM)

SM is used to identify key stakeholders whose level of impact on the TT institution is high. It

aims to deepen understanding the key stakeholders, where they come from, and what they

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expect from the TT institution. Like action research, SM requires a collaborative research effort

followed by debate that draws from different perspectives to agree a list of the major

stakeholders from across the entire stakeholder spectrum. SM helps the TT curriculum

development team to identify relevant groups, organizations and individuals; understand

stakeholder perspectives and interests; map relationships to objectives and other stakeholders;

and finally prioritise stakeholder relevance/impact and identify TT-related issues. Achieving

best quality and results from SM depends on how well it is performed – in other words, on the

involvement of a highly trained, knowledgeable and professional team of developers.

It is interesting to note that ‘a number of empirical studies have used different variables

to analyse issues affecting TT and the satisfaction levels of concerned stakeholders. The results

of these studies could inform new plans for TT curricula design and implementation’

(Altuhaini, 2016, p.733). The various stakeholders that have been mapped and their opinions

of TT curricula in a number of contexts are summarised in Table 2.3:

Study Stakeholders Main findings

Li, 2000 Professionals Least prepared areas: subject-matter knowledge,
interpretation. Challenges at work: right style for
translation, interpreting, time constraints, language
competence.
Li, 2002 Students Need for more practical courses and more language
training in both the foreign language and the mother
tongue.
Li, 2006 Teachers Translation testing should be brought closer to the
professional world.
Li, 2007 Administrators Challenges for new recruits: lack of necessary field
knowledge, insufficient mastery of specialised
terminology, inadequate translation skills, low translation
speed, little professional confidence.
Milton, 2001 Translators, All university translation courses in Brazil originated
students from Letras courses, and few courses have practical
contact with other areas. Employers often completely
ignore degrees in the area when employing translators.
Milton, 2004 Translators Lack of contact with the translation industry and market;
inflexibility of the university system, which makes it
difficult to offer specific modular courses.

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 Schellekens, Translators, No involvement of employers in curriculum planning.
2004 companies, New recruits are too academically or literature oriented
course for business and commercial translation needs.
providers
Katan, Translation Most important university modules are practice,
2009a, professionals, strategies, e-tools, subject knowledge and
2009b teachers, grammar/linguistics. Non-trained translators give more
students importance to theory compared
to university-trained translators
OPTIMALE, Employers The most important competences expected from
2012 translators: assuring quality in text production, identifying
client requirements and experience in professional
translation.

Table 2.3: A summary of empirical studies’ findings

(adapted from Gumus, 2013, cited in Altuhaini, 2016).

Similarly, non-empirical TS scholars investigating the satisfaction of relevant TT stakeholders

focus on market expectations from TT programmes’ graduates, translation/translator

competence, the vocational/academic dichotomy and the debate over whether translators

should be trained or educated. These include Pym (1998, 2003); Kiraly (2014a); Colina (2003);

Wagner (2002); PACTE (2000, 2003, 2005, 2011a, 2011b); Gouadec (2003); Mayoral (2003);

Mossop (2003); Schwartz (2003a, 2003b) and Kearns (2012).

An initial stakeholder map for the current study would include the following groups

shown in Figure 2.4.

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 Current &
future students

Translotr
Other possible
Trainers &
context-based
Translation
stakeholders
scholars
Possible relevant
stakeholders to TT
curriculum
development
Employers,
professional Pprogramme
translators and administrators
translation & coordinators
associations
Course
developers &
instructional
materials
writers

Figure 2.4: Example of SM for developing TT curriculum.

SM could also be used to analyse stakeholders’ level of interest in and their importance to the

TT strategic directions and educational/ training operations as exemplified in Figure 2.5 below:

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 Translation
associations and
bodies

Local translation
Employers (private
or public)/Regional
and international
employers/Local
society

Translator Trainers/
Educators/Admission
staff /Translation
discipline and
profession

TT students

Figure 2.5: Sample of relevance-based SM for developing TT curricula.

The key stakeholders for a particular TT institution are those closest to the smallest circle. The

larger the circles become, the less important the stakeholders become. All have an influence

but to varying degrees. Undertaking such an exercise, it is important to identify and target those

stakeholders who have the greatest impact on the core focus and activities of TT curricula. As

shown in Figure 2.5, the most relevant stakeholders in any sort of TT restructuring and

curricular review usually are internal. Therefore, the highest percentage of the TNA effort

should be directed towards the internal stakeholders. The remaining percentage should be

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focused on understanding how external stakeholders might be affected by (or affect) TTCDC

and any update of the TT curricula.

d. TNA on all relevant stakeholders

Once the internal and external factors impacting TT have been analysed through PEST and

SWOT analyses and stakeholders have been mapped in terms of their impact on and relevance

to TT curricula, TNA should be carried out more effectively and efficiently, eliciting need-

based responses from all mapped major stakeholders. Gabr emphasises that TT curricula design

should be carried out assuming that

a process in the training cycle is usually initiated to meet a customer’s need. This implies that the
customer will have to be involved from the very beginning to eliminate errors in satisfying the
customer’s need because the process will have to be steered by factual data provided by the
customer, not assumptions (Gabr, 2007, p. 73).

TNA does exactly what Gabr proposes here, obtaining customer’s feedback and using it to

satisfy customers (TT students, market, society and other internal and external stakeholders)

by catering to their needs while designing the product, i.e. the TT programme. Conducting

TNA at this point in the Planning Phase is of paramount importance and offers enormous

benefits to the whole cycle in several ways. First of all, it ensures that all relevant stakeholders

(especially internal ones) are actively engaged in the decision-making process of TT

curriculum design, thereby enhancing their sense of belonging and motivating them to apply

the new changes (teaching/learning philosophies, new courses, new technology and training

techniques) in the curricular content, process and delivery. Secondly, it enhances transparency

and effective communication of the new curriculum inside and outside the TT institution.

Third, by winning the loyalty of all key players (including students, trainers and

administrators), TNA enhances quality assurance in the TT programme because any new

quality standards should be applied and respected by a loyal team.

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 Clearly considering students and trainers’ demands in analysing TT programmes’ needs

is key to the success of TTCDC. Much of the literature in TS has addressed the development

of TT curricula and needs analysis, but most of what has been published revolves around

physical elements ‘such as processes, content or activities, and ignores the human factor’

(Kelly, 2008, p. 99). The ‘human factor’ includes a number of target member groups involved

in the TT experience, the most important being the trainees and the trainers, as Kelly explains:

There are two sets of participants in the teaching and learning process, both of whom are essential
for its success: students or trainees, and teachers or trainers. Other than to bemoan their supposed
deficiencies, or to design elaborate entrance filters, little has been said about students. But even less
has been said about trainers (ibid., p. 99).

The profiles of trainees and trainers need to be fully analysed and an agreed set of competences

for both groups should be finalised based on the TNA and certainly prior to any TT effort.

Trainers / Teachers can use needs analysis as effective tool to gain useful information

about students’ profiles and to help them decide the type and level of teaching/training

materials. The type of data that can be made available through TNA within institutions

includes:

- Statistical data on where students completed their secondary education;

- Statistical data on the origin of students;

- Statistical data on grades earned previously by the class group or individual students;

- Feedback from other teachers who have worked with the group;

- Standards for secondary education outcomes;

- Learning outcomes from previous classes/courses/ modules completed by the group

(Kelly, 2005, p.52).

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Although this list is useful, it may not offer sufficient information about the students’ profiles,

background knowledge, their expectations from specific TT courses or modules, their

motivations for enrolling in the programme (or in a specific course/module) or their specific

needs (ibid.). This weakness can be mitigated by TT departments and teachers using various

needs analysis instruments. They could carry out the TNA using conventional paper or

electronic forms prior to starting the course or usually on the first day of class. The instruments

take different shapes such as:

- Short Q&A tests;

- Translation exercises;

- Questionnaires (of different length and complexity depending on the specific context);

- Short essays on motivation and expectations;

- Class debates on expectations;

- Buzz group discussions. Involving brief debates on an issue amongst two or three

students who subsequently report back to the whole class group or plenary, buzz group

discussion is very useful in the early stages of a class for small specific tasks such as aspects

of text analysis, identification of problems, identification of possible sources for solutions and

comment on proposed solutions (ibid., p.53).

2. Set SMART objectives

SMART objectives are Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Resourced, and Time-bound

(Gregory, 2015). The main focus of SMART objectives should be on teaching aims and

learning outcomes. By using feedback from TNA, PEST and SWOT analyses, key areas for

development can be identified and used as a basis for these objective.

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 In his Process Control Model, Gabr (2001b, 2002, 2007) places this step in the Pre-

Development phase and refers to it as ‘Defining Instructional Objectives’ which follows the

identification of market and student needs. Thus, those identified market and student needs

‘have to be translated into specific instructional objectives’ (Gabr, 2001b, p. 9). In order to

efficiently write customised teaching/learning objectives, the objectives of adult students and

the learning principles that apply to them must be borne in mind. Sainz (1994a) summarises

these principles as:

a. Adults learn best when they are engaged in developing learning objectives for

themselves that are in line with their existing and ideal self-concept.

b. Adult learners respond to all experience as they see it, not as the teacher presents it.

c. Adult learners tend to be more concerned about their own development in the direction

of their own ideal self-concept than ‘whether they are meeting the standards and

objectives set for them by others’ (ibid., p. 135).

d. ‘Adults do not learn when over-simulated or when experiencing extreme stress or

anxiety’ (ibid.).

e. ‘Those adults who can process information through multiple channels and have learnt

“how to learn” are the most productive learners’ (ibid.).

Reviewing these principles underscores the importance of analysing the needs of university

students, engaging those students in the TNA-process and taking those needs into account when

writing the teaching aims and learning outcomes. In order for translator trainers and TT

administrators to be able to achieve those teaching aims and for students to achieve those

learning outcomes, these aims and outcomes must be based on principles of training/teaching

translation theory and practice that have been jointly agreed by trainers and all faculty

members. Most importantly, this includes adopting an eclectic and hybrid approach to TT that

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offers students a wide range of translation theories and approaches to choose from while

allowing them an open space in which to be creative, reflective and critical thinkers.

Furthermore, the agreed principles should promote modern socioconstructivist and

collaborative TT practices and should consider the needs of society, the profession and the

discipline. In this way, those objectives can be defined very clearly and accurately. Moreover,

this clarity and accuracy could be achieved by making those aims and objectives specific,

measurable, achievable, resourced and time-bound (SMART).

Given that vague instructional objectives and aims result in chaos and failure to meet

targets, using SMART criteria should help TT curriculum designers to avoid any confusion in

the implementation phase. Undoubtedly, ‘course objectives that lack the performance

conditions and criteria are often ambiguous and result in frustration and conflict between those

who interpret the objectives differently’ (Harris and DeSimone, 1994, p. 127). Kelly

emphasises that:

Competence-based curricular design takes into account not only purely disciplinary considerations,
but also general social context and needs. That is, the future graduate in translation is not only a
translator, but also a graduate (i.e., shares a level of competence with graduates in other fields), and
a critical citizen. For simplicity’s sake, here the term specific competences will be used for
competences belonging to the discipline itself (translator competence), and generic competences to
those characteristic of all graduates at a particular level, respectively (Kelly 2010, p. 89).

Accordingly, those involved in writing teaching aims and learning outcomes should aim to

make them SMART, basing them on adult learning principles while balancing TT/TS

considerations and general social and market needs. More importantly, those aims and

objectives should promote and lend themselves to current TT changes in teaching and learning

paradigms, which are shifting from a traditional teacher-centred philosophy to a more inductive

learner-centred one, where the focus is directed to what is learnt more than what is taught.

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 In addition, when writing objectives, curriculum developers must consider input from

TT literature on what should be taught in TT. Many in-depth debates by TT specialists over

the years have revealed that whatever their background, their training should aim to help

prepare translators to:

1. Master their working languages perfectly, meaning that they are able to understand the

slightest detail and subtle shade of meaning of the material for translation and be able

to write clearly and fluently in the target language or languages;

2. Be perfectly familiar with every kind of documentation, information retrieval and data

research technique;

3. Be familiar with terminology and phraseology mining and management;

4. Have at least a layman’s knowledge of a wide range of subjects in the fields of science,

technology, economics, etc.;

5. Master all the translation localisation (and revision) techniques, methods, and

procedures;

6. Be totally proficient in the use of the most widely used equipment and software they

are likely to come across in their professional environments;

7. Be familiar with best professional practice and professional ethics;

8. Have some knowledge of commercial and financial management;

9. Have some experience of project management; and

10. Be able to communicate and interact efficiently and amiably with a variety of people

(Gouadec, 2007, pp. 329-335).

Although this list seems to reflect the general needs of translation students, contextual and

situational considerations must be made.

Again, TT programmes should not aim to meet a limited and narrow target market.

Indeed, Gouadec (2007, p. 332) stresses that ‘the aim is not, of course, to train students for a

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narrowly defined market, but quite to the contrary, to empower them to apply for a wide range

of positions in the translation industry or, alternatively, to open up their market potential as

freelancers’. Then a proposed list of subject fields with targeted outcomes can be identified for

TT programmes to draw on, including:

- one or more source languages/cultures (enabling students to understand and analyse

materials in the slightest detail, regardless of the language, the code or the medium);

- one or more target languages/cultures (facilitating perfect mastery of expression and

writing; this includes proofreading skills);

- translation and transfer skills, in addition to intercultural management (facilitating

deliverable quality translations of relevant types of materials and enhancing good

abilities for stylistic fluency and writing efficiency in the target language);

- general-purpose technical knowledge (facilitating a foundation of technical knowledge

applicable across the board);

- specific technical fields which are considered relevant (building specific knowledge as

a basis for translation and technical writing);

- information mining, retrieval and management (enhancing students’ ability to locate

relevant resources and obtain any required information using necessary means in

different media and platforms);

- interview and negotiation techniques (enhancing students’ ability to spot relevant

information and communicate effectively with various types of business partners,

colleagues, team members, information providers, etc.);

- IT as a subject (building mastery of formats, languages, platforms, knowledge of

software development, etc.);

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 - IT as a set of useful tools (building mastery of all relevant available recent translation

technology and translators’ work stations, and enhancing the ability to analyse and

appraise any software package and to train colleagues and others in the use of IT tools);

- IT as applied to translation and translation project management (enhancing the ability

to select the appropriate IT for any work task or develop or customise it and

subsequently to implement and use it);

- Terminology and terminography;

- Phraseology and phraseography;

- Proof-reading and revision;

- Commercial management (managing client portfolios);

- Commercial and financial management;

- Project planning and management (ibid., pp. 332-333).

Because this list of proposed subject fields is based on a thorough TNA, it can easily be used

as the basis for course components and therefore can contribute to bridging the gap between

the needs of the students, the market and the society at large. Accordingly, course components

that are based on this list might include source language(s); target language(s); specific

domains or subject areas; comprehension and analysis of materials to be translated (per type,

and individually); information mining, retrieval, and management; writing/development skills;

terminology for translation/ translators; phraseology for translation/ translators; IT Skills;

translation skills 1(general translation); translation skills 2 (specialised translation); specific

domains (legal, financial, technical, with subdivisions); multimedia, software/Web site/video

game localisation; proof-reading and revision; project management and quality management

(planning, financial management and resource management). Each course component requires

careful consideration from three different angles: (1) skills, competences and techniques; (2)

instruments and tools; and (3) best practice and ethics (behaviours and attitudes) (ibid. p.335).

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 In so doing and by including all these elements, TT departments can develop a

comprehensive structure ‘around the backbone of translation seen as the core of a service

provision task with any number of operations and activities organised along a critical path, with

clearly identified pre-requisites and follow-ups’ (ibid., p. 335).

3. Resources

In this step the curriculum development team identifies available resources and makes a plan

to obtain any that are lacking (including trainers, specialised/professional expertise, facilities

and other TNA-informed resources). Both the necessary physical and human resources must

be identified and acquired within any budgetary or other constraints on the TT institution. In

other words, in order to implement newly designed TT curricula, the institution needs to

acquire any lacking ‘material and technical resources on the one hand and teaching and support

staff on the other’ (Kelly, 2010, p. 91). Physical resources include the physical environment,

traditional classroom resources, information and communication technologies, mobility

programmes and work placements. In regards to teaching staff, new translator trainers profile

frameworks and models should be used instead of traditional methods that have only widened

the gap between TT and the market. Thus analysis, evaluation and selection of teaching staff

should be based on a number of criteria including prior knowledge and experience, teaching

styles, expectations and motivation, the need for coordination and team work (ibid.).

Moreover, the TNA conducted on translator trainers (one of the most important

resources of any TT programme) may reveal a number of competences that are lacking in

current staff members/trainers. In addition to having a relevant degree in TS with an advanced

level of knowledge in translation theories, translator trainers are expected be have some

professional translation experience, knowledge about translation services provision, advanced

linguistic competence as well as intercultural, thematic, information mining and technological

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competences. There are existing translator trainer competence models and frameworks which

could serve as a benchmark for their evaluation and for academic/professional development

purposes. For example, the European Master’s in Translation (EMT) has developed a list of

competences that translator trainers should acquire during their training and professional

career. If the EMT trainers’ competences are deemed suitable to the specific contextual needs

of a certain TT programme, then they could be used as a benchmark against which trainers’

selection and promotion can be based. It can also be used as a criterion for designing Train the

Trainer workshops and development courses that could be offered to ensure resources meet the

analysed needs and desired standards. Figure 2.6 summarises EMT’s translator trainer’s

competences:

Instructional
competence

Field Organisational
competence competence

Assessment Interpersonal
competence competence

Figure 2.6: EMT Competences of Translator teachers/ trainers (adapted from EMT, 2013).

According to the EMT team, these competences are not ordered in terms of importance.

Instead, they offer a general reference framework for TT institutions and translator trainers

involved in teaching EMT. However, as the EMT team makes clear,

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 training courses for teachers/trainers vary depending on the needs and profiles of

particular target groups, for example: language teachers, professional translators,

Translation Studies academics, full-time university lecturers, or subject-field experts

(lawyers, engineers, etc.). This means that careful attention must be paid to institutional

and local contexts (EMT, 2013, p. 1).

Even though EMT translator trainer competences framework is based on a unified master’s

degree in translation and designed specifically for European contexts, it may be customised to

the needs of other TT settings in which the specific needs and profiles of trainers working

within that specific institutional and local context should be accounted for. If used properly and

based on frequent TNA, such frameworks can be very useful in qualifying highly specialised

translator trainers in TT programmes, which is itself a contributing factor to the success of

these programmes.

4. Designing teaching and learning activities

These activities should be informed by the set of agreed principles that have been discussed in

Step Two of this phase as part of the process of writing SMART teaching aims and learning

outcomes. Here, too, teaching and learning activities should be underpinned by the same agreed

principles and guided by an eclectic and hybrid approach to TT that offers students a wide

range of translation theories and approaches. TT activities (in or out of class) should facilitate

a learning environment that invites creative, reflective and critical thinking. These activities

should promote modern socioconstructivist and collaborative TT practices and should be

closely linked to the discipline, the profession and the wider society. Kelly (2010) states that

‘designers consider types of teaching and learning activity (large groups, small groups: who

does what? how? when? where? why?). In particular, they reflect on team and group work, in-

class and out-of-class activities, support and mentoring’ (ibid., p. 92).

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 The design of teaching and learning activities should adopt modern TT delivery

methodologies which are shifting towards more inductive, learner-centred approaches. For

example, at the initial levels of TT in undergraduate (or even postgraduate) programmes,

teaching/learning activities would be effective by adopting task-based activities (Hurtado

Albir, 1999; González Davies, 2004) where detailed authentic basic and professional

translation tasks support new trainees in engaging actively with their peers and trainers in

learning activities. Later, in advanced stages of TT, more complex, project-based and real-life

simulation approaches (Kiraly, 2014a, 2015, 2016; Gouadec, 2007) should complement the

task-based approach used earlier by confirming a reflective, critical, collaborative and

inductive learning methodology. One of the agreed principles underpinning teaching and

learning activities is integrating professional translation practices in TT. If, for example, TT

programmes aim for their graduates to enter the workplace confidently equipped with the

requisite translation, business and project management skills, then class activities should not

only offer them theory but must also help ‘them to learn how to organise themselves and adapt

themselves to the situations that they will encounter in the professional world’ (Way, 2008, p.

134). According to Calvo (1977), TT students must:

- be acquainted with professional business practices and effective work strategies;

- be trained on ways of implementing those practices and using those strategies;

- be aware of the common professional process and ways of developing them, which in

turn could enhance their confidence in themselves and readiness for the real world.

Moreover, TT programmes should help their students ‘increase their strategic competence and

aid them to spot deficiencies in any one competence at any one time in their life-long learning

process’ (Way, 2008, p. 134). In sum, effective teaching and learning activities achieve better

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results if they are workplace-oriented and aligned with the overall intended learning outcomes

of a TT programme.

5. Designing assessment activities

A wealth of TS and TT literature has investigated the issue of assessment and several

approaches have been proposed for conducting it and designing its measures and activities

(Kussmaul, 1995; Nord, 1997; González Davies, 2004; Malmkjaer, 2004; Tennant, 2005). Just

as there is no universally accepted definition of translation theory, TS scholars perceive

translation assessment in various ways. This disagreement is apparent in the tension between

theory and practice, academic and professional approaches, and the scarcity of research-based,

valid and reliable assessment instruments (Kiraly, 1995, 2014a, 2015; Chesterman and Wagner,

2002; Angelelli and Jacobson, 2009). Given the wide disagreement on the concept of and

criteria for translation assessment amongst the specialists, it would be difficult to have a

common assessment measure. How, then, could TT programmes base their selection of

assessment instruments? One could question ‘the validity of all assessment instruments that do

not set out their assumptions or theoretical underpinnings clearly’ (Marais, 2013, p. 24). Hence,

assessment instruments that have clear assumptions or a clear theoretical basis ‘are more valid

because they, at least, inform translators of the grounds on which they will be assessed’ (ibid.).

Of the various competence-based approaches available, perhaps the most foundational

underpinning principle for assessing learning progress and processes is to ensure alignment of

assessment with the intended learning outcomes, which is ignored by traditional transmissionist

theories and approaches to teaching (Biggs, 2003). This should be taken into account at

different points in the TTCDC by linking suggested in-class and out-of-class activities with the

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SMART objectives, and specifically the writing of the desired learning outcomes. Reflecting

on this step and echoing Biggs ‘words, Kelly (2010) asserts that:

assessment is almost always understood as the end of the entire teaching and learning process. […]
Assessment is complex, and requires a wealth of approaches and instruments, well beyond the
traditional examination in which students translate a text and the translation is evaluated. Many
institutions are now moving on to a portfolio approach to summative assessment, in line with current
practice in language teaching and learning. (p. 92)

It is fortunate that many TT institutions are currently moving towards the use of ongoing

formative assessment to improve learning in addition to summative assessment as a final

measure to gauge the quality of students’ work. An effective formative assessment method is

evaluating a student’s professional portfolio rather than correcting dry, limited and unauthentic

translation texts. Traditional methods of assessing translation students are based on the belief

that students are mainly expected to learn the ability to translate and other competences are

within the focus of TT. This approach is no longer valid in light of the sophisticated

requirements of today’s translation workplace, which include other knowledge, skills and

attitudes proposed by various translator competences models such as that of PACTE (2000,

2003, 2005, 2011a, 2011b).

6. Designing programme evaluation tools

One of the most important factors that contributes to efficiency and accuracy when measuring

the success of educational programmes is having proper and appropriate evaluation tools,

together with a professional evaluation team that utilises those tools appropriately for the

development of the target programme or institution. A commonly used tool in evaluating

educational programmes is the end-of-course student feedback questionnaire. Other tools may

include feedback sessions in the form of focused workshops or interactive meetings with

translator trainers to obtain feedback on specific modules/courses they have taught or on the

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overall TT programme, its students, components and resources. Kelly emphasises that the

student questionnaire tool is ‘possibly the most reliable way of knowing student opinion, as

others (debates, interviews and so on) may be very useful, but uncomfortable for those

involved’ (2005, p. 146).

Nevertheless, it is imperative that these questionnaires are checked for validity and

reliability. This means that the questions must be carefully written to elicit the type of feedback

that this tool purports to obtain. Questions should also be easily understood by respondents;

questionnaires have reasonable length and should be conducted after course results are

announced in order to avoid the influence of any negative pressure, for example, to please the

teacher (ibid.). A comment section should be provided to allow respondents to give open

feedback which reveals vital data on deficiencies in the TT programme. Other recommended

evaluation tools include self-assessment, trainee portfolios, translator trainer portfolios and

peer-assessment, in which trainers attend each other’s training sessions/classes, make

observations and offer feedback (ibid.).

In certain contexts, where educational regulators or academic assessment and

accreditation commissions are well-developed, TT institutions could benefit from the quality-

based evaluation tools and standards those commissions recommend (and sometimes impose).

These standards and tools are usually the product of intensive research and thorough

preparation and their effectiveness and efficiency are measured by highly specialised and

professional educational experts. Such commissions necessarily include systematic and well-

developed reporting mechanisms using professionally prepared academic templates that cover

each step in the training/educational cycle. Those tools examine many aspects of TT

programmes such as the institution’s mission and objectives, governance and administration,

management of Quality Assurance and Improvement, learning and teaching, student

administration and support services, learning resources, facilities and equipment, financial

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planning and management, faculty and staff employment processes and research and

institutional relationships with the society. Other academic criteria may include the

compatibility of training/teaching modules (lectures, lab sessions, discussion groups) with the

specialization, the publication record of the full-time faculty staff delivering those classes, the

percentage of professors participating in developing/implementing the curriculum, possession

of a TNA system and database, and the facilities used for educational training purposes such

as access to reading and research material as well as the availability of international cooperation

and mobility programmes.

In order to ensure that this phase is completed properly and according to institutional

and national educational quality assurance criteria, the team of developers must review each

step upon completion as planned and apply those standards fully. Before progressing to the

next phase of implementation, all concerned stakeholders must be fully-informed about what

has been achieved, why the evaluation has been carried out in this manner and what the next

steps are. This process is an essential part of an effective communications and transparency

strategy that ensures all relevant stakeholders are kept abreast of the gradual progression of

TTCDC.

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2.4.2 The Implementation Phase

Figure 2.7: The Implementation Phase of TTCDC.

Figure 2.7 displays the implementation phase and the steps required to complete it. The figure

also shows that prior to implementing the planned curriculum, quality assurance (QA)

measures on all the planning steps will have been carried out. The development team should

keep all relevant stakeholders up to date with the progress of the process, using effective

communications channels.

As previously noted, successful execution of this phase depends heavily on how

closely-monitored and well-prepared the steps of the planning phase are. Having made the QA

checks, and assuming that all steps of the planning phase meet the expected QA standards, a

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number of steps are recommended to ensure effective implementation of the TT curriculum.

These include:

- Close monitoring of the implementation of the course/programme as outlined in each

step of the planning phase;

- Ensuring compliance with a set of agreed principles, such as the adoption of an eclectic

approach to TT, while offering students a range of translation theories and approaches

to choose from as they see fit, asking only that they justify their choices;

- Offering students an open space for reflective, critical and inductive learning. Thus, TT

activities enhance students’ autonomy by following a progressive sequence from less

complex task-based activities to more advanced real-life and project-based activities

(Kelly, 2005);

- Ensuring modern practices of TT;

- Balancing theory and practice (ibid.);

- Using academically sound criteria for text selection, such as linguistic interest (linked

to contrastive objectives); extra-linguistic interest (linked to complementary cognitive

objectives, tools and thematic fields); text typological interest (where objectives are

based on text typology); and interest based on how one views the mechanisms of the

translation process, which is linked to methodological objectives at initial stages of TT

(Hurtado Albir, 1995, p. 60).

- Ongoing QA checking and improving quality where necessary.

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2.4.3 The Evaluation Phase

Figure 2.8: The Evaluation Phase of TTCDC.

Figure 2.8 displays the concluding phase of TTCDC, during which a great deal of feedback

and assessment data are collected to enhance the success of TT curriculum development,

review and renewal efforts. In this phase, quality checks are made to ensure that all aspects of

the curricular design and syllabi have been executed in accordance with the planning and

implementation phases. For this phase to be successfully completed, it is imperative that all

relevant stakeholders are involved, including students, trainers (teaching staff), administrative

and support staff, translation employers and authorities, professional translators and translation

scholars. The quality assurance checks may include assessment of whether the following has

been achieved:

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 - A mix of assessment methods and tools has been used to evaluate students’ learning

and trainers’ performance;

- TNA-based feedback has been considered in the content and delivery of TT;

- SMART objectives have been met;

- Future plans for changes and new directions have been drawn up based on stakeholders’

feedback. This has been done by locating areas for development in students’ KSA,

trainers’ performance and TT in general based on all gathered feedback and making

appropriate plans to address any gaps or deficiencies.

In meeting quality standards, evaluation and assessment should cover several groups of

participants who are key to TTCDC in the TT institution including students, trainers,

administrative staff and other support staff. However, the most important groups whose

assessments are of direct primary relevance to achieving and maintaining high standards of

excellence are students and trainers. Therefore, in the discussion that follows, the emphasis

will mostly be on those two groups.

In this evaluation phase, a number of assessment functions will be identified in relation

to the learning and teaching processes involved in TT. This is followed by an explanation of

the process through which the overall programme is evaluated, which concludes the TTCDC.

Assessment of teaching and learning takes many forms to serve various functions. For example,

one of the most traditional and widely used techniques is summative assessment (Kelly, 2005,

p.130), which measures the level of success or proficiency achieved at the end of

teaching/training by benchmarking against some standard, but there is also a formative form of

assessment (feedback on both trainers and students is gathered to guide improvements in the

ongoing training and learning efforts). These are low stakes assessments for students and

instructors. Whatever its form, assessment is not an add-on to teaching and learning. Rather, it

should be viewed as an integral element of the educational process as emphasised by TTCDC.

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Black and Wiliam (1998a) postulate that formative assessment can cause improvement in

student learning, though they point out that such practice was not common in teaching (Black

and Wiliam,1998b), yet this does not seem to be apply to the situation nowadays. Since their

claim, many modern institutions (including those offering TT) have been adopting a more

formative approach to assess teaching staff.

The main function of summative assessment is to offer a summary judgment of the

learning achieved after a certain period of time. It aims to provide information to external

audiences for certification and accountability purposes. Further, it is used as a tool to improve

learning and teaching (Wood and Schmidt, 2002). Formative assessment, by contrast, collects

and uses information about students’ skills, knowledge and performance to fill gaps between

students’ existing KSA and the desired KSA using effective training of translators. In turn,

formative assessment may be used to improve teachers and students for specific evaluation

purposes or aggregate assessment functions (Shavelson, 2003). Recent innovations in student-

centred forms of learning and assessments include peer-assessment, self-assessment, use of

rubrics and learning portfolios that can be used either independently or together for more

comprehensive and aggregate assessment purposes and improving students’ performance.

While both forms have obvious benefits for TT, there are some problems associated

with assessment that may prove problematic for trainers. Evaluating student translations and

detecting translation errors constitute one such controversial issue. To begin with, it is difficult

to define what a good translation is and what a translation error is (Kelly, 2005, p.131). Until

now there has been no agreement amongst TS scholars on these basic concepts despite their

obvious importance for the accuracy of student performance assessment, an area that Hatim

and Mason (1997, p. 197) describe as ‘under-researched and under-discussed’. At any rate, it

would be useful for translator trainers to be well-acquainted with all commonly used criteria

for good translation, translation error correction and many assessment-related issues and to be

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aware of how those issues impact the assessment of their teaching practice and their decisions

when assessing student’s learning.

A common method of TT assessment is a written translation examination paper which

students complete using a dictionary (or not) within a given period of time, in designated

examination room or in a conventional classroom (Kelly, 2005). Assessment of that paper

typically involves ‘counting up the errors, often subtracting points for each of them from a

notional “perfect” version worth 10/10, 20/20, 100% depending on the national tradition of

marking scales’ (ibid., p. 132). A number of problems arise from this type of examination,

including their disconnection from professional translation situations, their attempt to measure

product- and process-based translator competences, unclear text selection criteria, lack of

trusting examinees, their inability to measure non-error-based aspects of student performance,

the falsity of their basic assumptions regarding students’ abilities, uninformed grading criteria

and their non-contextualised nature. These traditional examinations tend to be unaligned with

teaching aims or learning outcomes (ibid.).

As part of the overall evaluation of TTCDC, all steps in the planning and

implementation phases are carefully assessed. Primarily, however, this evaluation aims to

measure the success of the teaching and learning process and in turn to provide useful feedback

to trainers/teachers and programme administrators. More and more educational institutions are

using quality assurance to help them evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of their

programmes and to maintain their sustainability. But individual teachers ‘may implement their

own formative assessment techniques in order to have feedback from students and colleagues

from which to learn and introduce improvements’ (ibid., p. 146). This can be accomplished

using end-of-course feedback forms and questionnaires. While these may be either paper or

electronic, conducting them electronically allows trainers to use assessment software

programmes for data storage and analysis purposes. As indicated in the assessment activities

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design Step 5 of the planning phase, other assessment instruments may include self-assessment

(where teachers use a diary to record their positive and negative teaching experiences in their

course), trainer portfolio (used for training/teaching staff selection and promotion) and peer

assessment (ibid.).

Quality Assurance in TTCDC

For educational and training programmes to be sustainable and of high quality, they must be

evaluated regularly. In our case, thus, evaluation should be utilised as a means to ensuring

quality in TT. In other words, frequent evaluation of TT programmes is necessary to ensure

their quality. A number of questions could be raised on the notion of evaluation in order to

clarify what exactly it means in this context. These questions include how evaluation should

be conducted for best effect, what and who should be evaluated, what the different functions

and methods of evaluation are and how it is carried out.

To begin answering the questions raised above, it is necessary to define quality

assurance, to which evaluation leads. Quality assurance (QA) has been defined in many ways

by management scholars but primarily it ‘is the activity of providing evidence needed to

establish confidence among all concerned, that procedures are being or have been performed

effectively and that the desired levels of quality have been achieved’ (Kasandrinou, 2010, p.

194). Management and training management experts emphasise that QA encompasses all

phases of the training cycle starting with planning through to curriculum development/design

and ending in the final step of examination and assessment. The aim of using QA is to ‘provide

all parties interested assurance that the quality requirements are met as well as confidence in

the process and the final product’ (ibid.). This is precisely the main function of TTCDC. The

use of QA in this study is derived from Total Quality Management (TQM), a philosophy

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originating from pure management and Human Resources Management concepts. TQM is ‘a

customer-focused, quality-centred, fact-based, team-driven, senior management-led process to

achieve an organization’s strategic imperative through continuous process improvement’

(Beich, 1994, pp. 1-2). TTCDC has adopted this definition of TQM because it is fully customer-

oriented in terms of its students, the market and all major stakeholders in TTCDC, who are

themselves valuable customers with opinions and needs that must be catered for. TTCDC is

management-led and initiated at the top level of the organisation. It places quality at the heart

of its three main phases, which are all team-driven. Thus, TTCDC embraces TQM as ‘a way

of thinking, not a system, that encompasses the inherent elements of product/service (training)

quality, process (program development and implementation) control, quality assurance

(commitment to customer’s needs), and continuous (program quality) improvement through

timely intervention’ (Gabr, 2002, p. 1).

A complete representation of all the cyclical and sequential phases of TTCDC is given

in Figure 2.9:

Figure 2.9: The complete TTCDC.

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The use of a need-based systematic model such as the TTCDC is supported by TT literature

and is clearly necessary for the success of today’s TT programmes to cater for current and

future social, professional and disciplinary demands. It also helps to future proof TT curricular

content and delivery as it links TT institutions with the real-world and enhances the application

of latest quality assurance measures. The components and ideas presented in the TTCDC are

not totally innovative. They have been previously proposed in other educational contexts and

disciplines, but the use and applicability of those ideas are relatively new to TT and TS and

that is where this study makes a contribution. Having illustrated the planning and the cycle of

a systematic need-based approach to TT curriculum development, the next chapter offers a

thorough investigation of TT curricular modern trends, its components and a recommendation

of successful approaches highlighted in TT literature.

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Chapter Three: Curriculum Development in Translator Training

Once the planning phase of TTCDC is conducted, the next step will be to base curriculum

development on the training needs that have been identified, analysed and assessed through

that process.

Research over the last ten years has produced rigorous work on TT curriculum

development. Much of this research has focused on how TC should be acquired by students,

how training/teaching materials can be included in TT syllabi, effective ways of training

students and evaluating the output of TT programmes, how to balance theory and practice in

TT and how TT programmes can cater for the needs of the market and of society at large.

Before investigating these curriculum-related issues, however, it is important to establish a

clear understanding of what is meant by “curriculum” in this context. Towards this end, this

chapter begins by exploring the concept and components of curriculum. It will also examine

how curriculum is developed, how different approaches to TT address curriculum development

and ways of linking the curriculum to the needs of the relevant stakeholders.

3.1 Prescriptive and Descriptive Views of Curriculum

Curriculum has been defined both prescriptively and descriptively by education scholars. As

this is not the main focus of this chapter, a brief list of definitions arising from both these

approaches should suffice to illustrate the stages in the development of the concept.

Prescriptive views of curriculum tend to reflect what should be done or happen. They

are usually presented as plans informed by the opinions of curriculum experts on what types of

educational activities and materials must be incorporated in programmes of study (Ellis, 2004).

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Some of the most influential early prescriptive definitions of curriculum are summarised in

Table 3.1

Year Scholar Definition

1918 Franklin Bobbitt Curriculum is the entire
range of experiences, both
directed and undirected,
concerned in unfolding the
abilities of the individual
(p. 43).
1927 Harold O. Rug [Curriculum is] a
succession of experiences
and enterprises having a
maximum lifelikeness for
the learner [. . .] giving the
learner that development
most helpful in meeting
and controlling life
situations (p. 8).
1935 Hollis Caswell (in Caswell The curriculum is
and Campbell) composed of all the
experiences learners have
under the guidance of
teachers [. . .]. Thus,
curriculum considered as a
field of study represents
no strictly limited body of
content, but rather a
process or procedure (pp.
66, 70).
1957 Ralph Tyler [Curriculum is] all the
learning experiences
planned and directed by
the school to attain its
educational goals (p. 79).

Table 3.1: Prescriptive definitions of curriculum (adapted from Glatthorn et al., 2015).

By contrast, descriptive definitions and models describe the process of developing the

curriculum. Moving beyond prescriptive definitions, they are concerned not only with how

things should happen but also with how things are in real-life educational settings (Ellis, 2004).

Some of the most widely used descriptive definitions are summarised in Table 3.2:

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 Year Scholar Definition
1960 W. B. Ragan All experiences of the
student for which the
school accepts
responsibility.
1987 Glen Hass The set of actual
experiences and
perceptions that each
individual learner has of his
or her programme of
education.
1995 Daniel Tanner and Laurel The reconstruction of
Tanner knowledge and experience
that enables the learner to
grow in exercising
intelligent control of
subsequent knowledge and
experience.
2006 D. F. Brown All student school
experiences relating to the
improvement of skills and
strategies in thinking
critically and creatively,
solving problems, working
collaboratively with others,
communicating well,
writing more effectively,
reading more analytically
and conducting research to
solve problems.
2009 E. Silva An emphasis on what
students can do with
knowledge, rather than
what units of knowledge
they have.

Table 3.2: Descriptive definitions of curriculum (adapted from Glatthorn et al., 2015).

As Tables 3.1 and 3.2 indicate, over the last few decades, educational scholars have generally

moved from a prescriptive to a descriptive conception of curriculum. This is perhaps an

indication that the latter is more suitable to the needs of our developing globalised markets and

societies, which require effective, able and problem-solving individuals who can construct

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(individually and collaboratively) and develop sophisticated knowledge and skills fit for the

advanced real world.

In the context of the current study, the issue is not merely which definition is best or

whether to adopt a prescriptive or descriptive conception of curriculum, although the

descriptive approach does seem more in keeping with the direction and understanding of

curriculum in this study. Rather, the argument here is that curriculum should be made

customisable, dynamic and congruent with the needs of the local society in which the

educational institution is based and with the demands of the globalised world. Because of

global industrial advancement, changes in environmental factors and fierce competition in

today’s markets, universities need to develop strategies that are innovative and customer-

oriented. Hence, universities that aspire to achieve excellence should be reviewing, renewing

and modifying their curricula regularly (in five-year cycles as a minimum); only in this way

can they meet the needs of their students and society, fit into a highly and rapidly globalised

environment and surpass their competitors.

At some Arab educational institutions, curricula have been static and unchanged for

years. More problematic is the fact that calls for curriculum review and renewal with the aim

of responding to today’s market developments are not always welcomed by bureaucratic Arab

education ministries, which are in some cases led by old-school thinking that is unable to cope

with and therefore fears change. However, the picture is not entirely bleak as there are new,

young, professional minds within ministries of education and higher education institutions who

are exerting huge efforts to develop curricula in their universities. Also in some Arab countries,

there is a discernible lack of institutional work and therefore leaders and subordinates in

educational organisations are not held accountable by a system that prioritises public interest

and students' interests. As a result, decisions are taken by one person or a small group of people

in the top ranks of the organisation in a manner that does not guarantee transparency, corporate

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governance, professionalism, public interest, students’ interests, protection of public funds and

most importantly the development of education quality. Successful projects and ideas

implemented by one particular head of an educational organisation can often be discontinued

and forgotten when a new head is appointed due to the absence of an effective, professional

institutional structure. In turn, this results in huge losses in terms of wasted efforts, time and

financial resources.

3.2 Defining Curriculum: A Journey of Planned and Unplanned Activities

The primary aim of this chapter is to investigate the concept of curriculum in the context of TT

and the processes and guiding principles that shape the development, implementation and

evaluation of TT programmes. In this context, TT encompasses any organised formal

translation teaching, training, instruction or education at the university level, whether

undergraduate or postgraduate. As noted in Chapter One, TT programmes have been increasing

exponentially worldwide, and thousands of students are enrolling in them, devoting an

enormous amount of time and effort to gaining knowledge about translation and mastering

translator/translation skills and competences. At the same time, translator trainers and their

institutions are investing their time, resources and expertise in the design, delivery and

evaluation of TT programmes and their curricula. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate the

types of existing TT curricula and their components as well as recent proposals to develop

them.

In general usage of the term, “curriculum”, whose original Latin meaning is running

course (Webster, 2015), is perceived as the written curriculum – i.e. a curriculum manual with

goals and objectives, or the textbooks to be read for a course. This is a very narrow view of

curriculum and omits several key elements. Therefore, education scholars have expanded that

definition further. Some have viewed it as an ongoing social process comprised of the

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interactions of students, teachers, knowledge and milieu (Cornbleth, 1990); while this is true

to a certain extent, that applicability of this definition will vary depending on the context in

which the curriculum is implemented and on the situational needs of the institution for which

it is developed. For many educational specialists, curriculum has traditionally been referred to

as ‘a set of courses’ (Henson, 2001, p. 8), a description that captures only its most basic

meaning; such a definition is limited in scope and does not account for other significant factors

such as unplanned activities and influences. A subsequent, more comprehensive attempt to

define curriculum depicts it as an educational plan that spells out which goals and objectives

should be achieved, which topics should be covered and which methods are to be used for

learning, teaching and evaluation (Wojtczak, 2002); therefore, to successfully implement that

plan, curriculum should be regarded as a point of departure rather than a destination (Chambers,

2003). It is useful to think of curriculum as offering the basis students need to excel in their

learning journeys and facilitating an evolving process of gaining knowledge, skills and

attitudes.

Reviewing the different stages of historic development of the notion of curriculum, one

can discern a gradual change in and expansion of the definition. It is certainly important to

view it as a plan with achievable goals, objectives, specific topics and learning, teaching and

evaluation methods. However, these definitions ignore important elements such as the hidden

or tacit curriculum, or what is sometimes called the null curriculum, referring to unwritten,

unofficial and usually unintended knowledge, skills, attitudes and experiences which students

acquire during their academic years.

Accordingly, the definitions that are more relevant to the current study are those that

view the curriculum broadly and attempt to account for planned and unplanned activities taking

place both inside and outside the academic institution. Such definitions lend themselves to this

study’s approach to the interdisciplinary field of TT as requiring a curriculum that encourages

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collaborative, holistic, theory-informed and market-based training encompassing the

experience of every learner in its entirety. Kelly (2009), for example, views curriculum as the

totality of student experiences that occur as part of the educational process. Bolotin (2010)

offers an even more relevant and comprehensive view of curriculum as a form of culture, a

revealing system of implicit and explicit beliefs, values, behaviours and customs in classrooms

and schools which are deliberated within communities and other public spheres. Indeed, the

notion of curriculum has been defined so variously that it is difficult to find a single, unifying

definition which draws together all these strands. However, Bolotin’s conception of the term

encourages a broad understanding of curriculum that encompasses many of the elements

suggested by recent TT curriculum research and practice.

Moreover, drawing on Kearns’ definition of curriculum and for the purpose of the

current discussion, this definition of curriculum can be used broadly to create a culture and a

system capable of encompassing all the learning/training experiences and opportunities that

learners/trainees go through both within the confines of the educational institution and in the

world outside that institution, locally, regionally and internationally. This is particularly true

of TT, given the global nature of the translation industry. Ideally, curricula (and all the people

who are in charge of designing and managing them) should serve as a bridge between these

two worlds, i.e. the institution and society.

In terms of the current study, the most relevant definition of curriculum is provided by

Kearns (2012), who describes it as ‘the totality (planned or unplanned) of ideas and activities

in an educational programme and their transmission to meet learning needs and achieve desired

aims within a specified educational system’ (p. 13). However, this definition should be

distinguished from:

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  a programme that indicates ‘the set of learning experiences provided in the curriculum

of an institution and which is usually manifest in a configuration of courses leading to

a qualification’;

 a course which is part of a programme referring to a series of lectures, seminars or

classes guided by a predefined topic and usually evaluated by written essays and various

types of examination of student-produced work;

 and a syllabus indicating a written plan or outline covering the area (or areas) in a given

course over a specific period of time (ibid.).

This definition also seems congruent with the direction and purpose of the current study as it

is designed to facilitate discussion in light of the ‘relative youth of the area of investigation and

of the disagreement which would seem to prevail among pedagogues in the field over even

apparently basic translation training issues’ (ibid.).

Accordingly, this is the definition that shall be used in this study, bearing in mind that

the current consensus tends to be towards the view that curriculum consists of planned and

unplanned ideas and activities; in other words, not all that is written in our educational plans,

outlines and syllabi is in fact implemented in our classrooms or even outside the educational

institution. There is much that takes place both inside and outside the educational institution

(both positive and negative) that is not part of the formal curriculum. Such unplanned activities

can be the most rewarding and the most memorable that learners experience during their

education journey.

Thus, in TT the concept of curriculum can be defined as a journey during which a

culture of TS/TT theoretical concepts, translation competences and corporate practices is

gradually instilled and incubates a system of beliefs, professional behaviours and customs

disseminated through planned and unplanned activities. Given the nature of the translator’s

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work, it is useful to view curriculum metaphorically as a journey on which all travellers pass

through stages of development to reach a final destination. At some point thereafter, they start

another journey along a different route, with different perspectives and different goals informed

by the lessons they have learned from their previous journey or journeys. During the training

and teaching journey, new worlds and new adventures unfold gradually and new experiences

await students guided by teachers and trainers who have gone through similar journeys

themselves. That said, some training and education critics prefer the factory metaphor,

complaining that educational institutions make wrong decisions about what to teach, and force

creative students, each with unique qualities and aptitudes, through one-size-fits-all

programmes. Consequently, these critics argue, students leave their academic programmes less

imaginative and with limited experience; hence the need for review and renewal of curriculum.

The aesthetic and transformational nature of metaphors, which are often used to explain

concepts in the arts and the humanities, can also provide insight into other disciplines.

Curriculum should be thought of not simply as something to be implemented, but rather a text

to be translated or a script to be interpreted as well as a relationship to be established, sustained,

expanded and developed in collaboration with learners, who will reap the benefits if curriculum

is conceived this way. Such a relationship serves the interests of all stakeholders, both within

and outside the educational institution.

Some metaphorical conceptions of curriculum define its most important feature as its

ability to take learners somewhere. While it is certainly important for teachers/trainers and

educators to focus on outcomes, evaluation, teaching strategies, teaching materials and

teaching methodology, it is even more important that they think about the aesthetic qualities of

curriculum and how it could be uplifting, exciting, enjoyable and memorable. Furthermore,

they should be thinking about how the real needs of the students, the trainers, the institution at

large and the wider society can be addressed through a durable and sustainable profession-

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linked curriculum. Although challenging, when all stakeholders are involved (to varying

degrees and in different capacities, depending on their relevance) in planning for, designing,

reviewing and evaluating the curriculum, over time this vision can be achieved to a very high

degree.

Arguably one of the most expressive and relevant metaphors comes from Overly and

Spalding (1993, p. 148), who stated that ‘Good novels, if we are ready for them, transform us.

Good curricula should have the same effect’. Furthermore, if a curriculum does not achieve the

expected level of improvement in our students, then it has failed and must be reviewed,

evaluated and redesigned, as Schubert (1991, p. 284) explains: ‘Curriculum [. . .] is a design of

events that brings about conversion. Curriculum [. . .] is not worth the journey if it does not

convert those who participate in it into something better’.

3.3 Components of and Influences on the Curriculum

Having established the significance of TNA in the preceding chapter, there are several issues

that need to be taken into account in the planning stage leading to the design and development

of the curriculum and its components. These include:

1. What students are expected to learn from this course (or module or programme).

2. Whether a TNA has been conducted on:

a. existing students, to determine their satisfaction levels and get their feedback on

what has been working well for them and what has not;

b. new students, to assess their needs and expectations;

c. translator trainers, to get their feedback on the current curriculum, facilities and

available support and how these can be improved;

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 d. administrators, coordinators, curriculum designers and developers, instructional

material designers and quality control staff, to get their views on areas for

development in the existing curricula, to ensure their involvement and to facilitate

proper implementation of new curricula;

e. relevant stakeholders such as employers, concerned translation associations and

social agencies, to understand what they expect from translators.

3. What future graduates are expected to know, acquire and be able to do.

4. How these goals can be achieved.

Over the last few decades, many scholars have proposed various ways to explain the

components of curriculum. The majority of these proposals involve five main components

consisting of (1) a rationale for the curriculum; (2) the aims, objectives and content through

which to achieve those aims and objectives; (3) teaching methods; (4) learning materials and

resources; and (5) evaluation and assessment methods. But a more recent and useful proposal

is that of Anderson and Rogan (2011), whose flowchart of the curriculum development process,

shown in Figure 3.1 below, depicts a number of interrelated components and influences. The

interaction between these elements can be used as a diagnostic tool to reveal the reality of

curricula in academic institutions. This analysis is of paramount significance to curriculum

design and should be considered by decision makers, i.e. by programme administrators and

curriculum developers and designers (ibid.):

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 Figure 3.1: A flow diagram showing the dynamic and cyclical relationship between key
components (C 1-4) of curriculum and related influencing factors (I 1-5)
(Anderson and Rogan, 2011).

As Figure 3.1 makes clear, curriculum development is cyclical, dynamic, interactive and open-

ended (Anderson and Rogan, 2011). This dynamism and interactivity are explained by the bi-

directional relationship between the four identified components of curriculum design and the

five influencing factors. Because each has a strong effect on the others, these components and

factors cannot be considered in isolation but rather must be taken into account collectively

during curriculum design (ibid.).

For example, [. . .] the nature of the course objectives (embodied in Vision, Component 1, C1), will
determine the composition and structure of the curriculum (Component 2, C2), which will, in turn,
determine what and how instructors teach and assess students and how students learn (Component
3, C3). Similarly, there is a strong relationship between the five influencing factors, all of which can
influence any number of curriculum components. For example, research into inquiry-based learning
(Influence 4, I4) has been enhanced by the availability of powerful e-learning facilities (Influence 5,
I5) but has necessitated improvements in the capacity of staff and students (Influence 2, I2) to work
with specific computer platforms such as Blackboard or Moodle (I5) (Anderson and Rogan, 2011,
p. 69).

Although the authors’ discussion is geared towards teaching medical doctors rather than

training translators, it can be applied to curriculum development and design in translation

education and TT. The interactive and dynamic nature of curriculum development shown above

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prevents a curriculum from remaining unchanged for many years. An ongoing, open-ended and

flexible process of curriculum development embracing innovative amendments to materials,

structures, practices, behaviours, skills, beliefs, understanding, rationales or philosophies

should be standard practice in TT programmes (Fullan and Hargreaves, 1992). Such a process

of innovative change should be implemented at four-to-five-year intervals throughout the life

of the programme (Dawley and Havelka, 2004). As a result of the open-ended and cyclical

nature of the curriculum development process, indicated in Figure 3.1 by the arrows that create

the loop back from evaluation (C4) to delivery (C3), operationalization (C2) and vision (C1),

programme administrators and trainers can use information gained from course evaluation to

improve components of the curriculum.

Working from the assumption that a TT curriculum exists and requires review and

development, the following questions must be taken into account as part of a curriculum

development process based on the curriculum components and influences outlined below.

3.3.1 Curriculum Components

One of the first steps towards planning and designing a cohesive and effective curriculum is

for educational institutions to be clear about how their strategy relates to their vision. Defined

simply, an institute’s vision is the image of the future it hopes to create. However, in this

context, the term also encompasses the institute’s specific role, how it contributes to the

profession and society, its goals, objectives and expected learning outcomes. It may seem

illogical for one to start with the desired outcomes first – ‘to start at the end, so to speak, but

[…] it is essential in designing any training process to establish first and foremost what we

intend to achieve’ (Kelly, 2005, p. 20). This is consistent with the approach followed by

training experts in the corporate world, who emphasise beginning with 'the End in Mind'

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(Covey, 2015), indicating that each task or project should start with a clear vision of one’s

desired direction and destination (ibid.).

3.3.1.1 Vision

The following questions shall assist curriculum developers and policy makers to formulate a

realistic achievable vision for their target stakeholders:

 What type of graduate would you like to produce? In other words, what are the goals

and purposes of the programme or constituent course?

 Will such a programme or course satisfy the expectations of key stakeholders (e.g.

students, trainers, society at large, employers, accreditation and funding bodies, TT

institution’s competitiveness)?

 What are the specific objectives or learning outcomes of the programme or course in

terms of graduate attributes, including knowledge, skills, attitudes and values, and will

they be compatible with the overarching goals and purposes of the programme?

 Is there a strong focus on core knowledge, critical concepts and relevance (to students)

of content rather than information overload? (adapted from Andersen and Rogan,

2011).

3.3.1.2 Operationalization of the Vision

Once these questions from the above section have been answered satisfactorily, leading to a

clear vision for curriculum developers and decision makers, the information gleaned from them

needs to be put in action and operationalised. The following questions, adapted from Anderson

and Rogan (2011), should assist curriculum developers at this stage by focusing their attention

on a number of key factors:

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 Does the design and content of the curriculum specifically address all the course

objectives and learning outcomes?

 Is the standard of the course appropriate for the educational level of the students? In

other words, do they have sufficient prior knowledge? How can gaps in knowledge or

skills be accounted for and filled?

 Which other courses would be appropriate pre- and co-requisites for developing the

required prior knowledge?

 Is the material around which the course is structured presented in a logical sequence to

facilitate the development of sound conceptual knowledge and skill competence?

 Does the structure of the curriculum promote progression and vertical translation

between courses at different educational levels?

 Is there good cohesion and horizontal translation between this course and others within

the programme at each educational level?

 Is there excessive duplication of material between related courses, necessitating

rationalization of some of them?

 Is the nature, number, duration and time-tabling of the teaching and learning activities

both appropriate and well-coordinated?

 Does the course have the correct credit (or notional hours) rating, and how does it

compare to that of other courses within the programme? Are the students coping with

the programme?

 Will the necessary human resources and facilities be available to implement the

curriculum?

 Are appropriate curriculum materials (e.g. notes, activity booklets, textbooks, visual

aids, websites and e-resources) available to students?

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3.3.1.3 Delivery

Although often unstated when defining the term, there is an implicit relationship between

curriculum and delivery. When we say that the curriculum consists of planned and unplanned

ideas and activities in an educational programme and their transmission to meet learning needs,

it is clear that teaching is an aspect of that exercise, albeit a relatively minor one, whose role,

significance and influence vary depending on the types of curricula in use. Although arguably

less important than vision and operationalisation (the aims, objectives and content in the initial

stages of development), when the curriculum is implemented and delivered, the delivery

component becomes more important. For this reason, those in charge of administering the

curriculum should give ample attention to delivery, i.e. to how teachers and trainers teach and

train. Some of the most important aspects to be addressed in this regard are:

 What modes of teaching/training and learning (e.g. lectures, seminars, assignments, in

class or e-training, group work, real world authentic projects and readings) are used in

the course?

 Does the teaching/training approach include some of the latest innovations such as

collaborative, project-based, task-based, problem-solving and practice-based teaching?

 Have the teaching/training and learning activities been specifically selected or designed

to address each course objective?

 Does the mode of delivery promote active learning and metacognition through a

student-centred rather than teacher-centred approach?

 What types of assessment are used in the course?

 Is formative assessment used during the course to help students gauge their own

learning, understanding and skill competence and to help faculty monitor student

progress?

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  Will the summative assessment specifically measure the achievement of all the course

objectives? (adapted from Andersen and Rogan, 2011)

Observation of current translation classes in many Arab universities reveals several issues with

the way the subject is currently taught. These issues include the random selection of translation

texts as opposed to the application of clear selection criteria to guide the type of texts selected,

their level of difficulty and their suitability for each level of students. A lack of harmony and

coordination between levels causes confusion amongst learners and hinders their academic and

professional progression. Whether TT is a fully-fledged programme, as in King Saudi

University, or a component of a languages and translation programme, as is the case in most

other Saudi universities, another hurdle that TT faces in many Arab countries (and elsewhere

in the world) is the wide methodological gap between the highly specialised, professional

translator trainers and the old-fashioned, traditional professors. Those in the first, much

smaller, group employ contemporary, interactive, student-centred approaches using project-

based activities and technology-linked content that enhances students’ readiness for the real

world. By contrast, the second group still follows outdated, heavily teacher-centred, spoon-

feeding methods that are ineffective and disconnected from the professional practices of the

translation market. Because of the shortage of professional translator trainers, there are

unfortunately more of the second group delivering translation classes at Arab universities.

Recent studies indicate that very few of those who teach translation at Saudi universities have

a degree in translation. In a study by Al-Jarf (2008), for example, nearly all the non-specialists

followed a teacher-centred approach and were not aware of the latest methods of training

translators.

The fact is that the way translation is taught in many Saudi educational institutions is

in need of review. Any professor with a degree in English language, applied linguistics or

another ‘relevant’ field is assigned to teach translation classes. In this sense, translation is

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treated virtually like any other non-major course, i.e. as an elective, which any faculty member

can teach. How translation classes are taught and whether they achieve their aims does not

seem to be a priority for those in charge of administering the course schedule. The lack of

specialists in TT may be a contributing factor in this, together with the dominance of other

subjects such as linguistics and literature in English language studies departments and colleges.

Consequently, the knowledge and skills of those who graduate from these programmes are

likely to be well below the expectations of employers. This is a serious issue as it shows the

relative failure of university programmes to cater for the needs of the market or to contribute

to increasing employability in the national economy.

A recent study by Mahmoud (2013) aimed to help Saudi students deal systematically

and effectively with culture-specific items by designing and applying a specific course based

on sixteen strategies adopted by Newmark in a Saudi college of languages and translation. Its

findings revealed that

the majority of students regard translation as a minor subject compared with poetry, the novel, or
drama. Since the class does not have textbooks, or even handouts, they assume that there is nothing
to study, and all they have to do is to learn vocabulary by heart and just attend and write down
whatever translations the lecturer may dictate (Mahmoud, 2013, p. 1307).

These findings and the data obtained for the current study suggest that translation curriculum

and its teaching/training methodology at many colleges throughout the Arab world need review

and renewal in terms of their validity, suitability and their relevance to the needs of the market

and society.

Another concern raised by Mahmoud’s study that demands immediate attention by

Saudi languages and translation colleges is the fact that students do not have high

expectations from translation classes:

It seems that many undergraduate students come to university with the aim of gaining a qualification
because that is the best way to get a prominent job. The actual usefulness or relevance of what is

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 learnt to future employment is not a question that is often asked. Thus it seems that what is learnt in
the classroom is not expected to be relevant to real-life work. The method of teaching is often very
teacher-centered, and students expect to take notes which they then learn in order to reproduce in
the exam. There is no real engagement of the critical faculties of the brain. Hence, professors and
lecturers are authority figures whose word is law and who must not be embarrassed by questions
(ibid., p. 1300).

While university administrators and policy makers should hope that the students who enrol in

their academic programmes are eager to gain the knowledge needed to become experts in fields

that are beneficial to society and the economy, pursuing a qualification that will lead to

employment is also a legitimate aim. Even more concerning is Mahmoud’s observation that

translator trainers (lecturers and professors) are seen as scary ‘authority figures whose word is

law’ and that students are not given complete freedom to ask challenging questions. It may be

that these professors are opinionated and do not allow for an open, reflective learning

environment; it is also possible that they lack sufficient knowledge in the subject. In today’s

universities more than ever before there is a pressing need for TT classes to be facilitated by

trainers who are specialists in the field and who employ effective, modern, student-centred,

collaborative and interactive training/teaching methods and practices.

3.3.1.4 Evaluation

Many TT curriculum administrators and decision makers are disillusioned by the fact that their

curricula can remain unchanged for many years without review or evaluation. Such stagnancy

is indicative of institutions that are not certain where they are heading or why they are heading

in a certain strategic direction, thus making it very difficult for them to determine how best to

achieve their educational goals. When an institution embarks on designing a curriculum

(whether at the level of a course, a module or an entire programme), and having defined and

operationalised its vision with effective delivery, it must then find answers to several questions,

including:

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  What quality indicators/evaluation methods are used for evaluating courses and

instructors' teaching competence? Are they effective?

 What level of quality evaluation is used and what results are obtained? I.e. does the

evaluation involve: student questionnaires about teaching and course quality (Level 1);

assessment of student performance in terms of pass rates (Level 2); assessment of

learning gains and improved conceptual understanding and skill competence via pre-

and post-testing (Level 3); evidence of rigorous publishable research (Level 4).

 Does the quality of the assessment instruments meet the criteria set by international best

practice in TT assessment and evaluation?

 Do the evaluation methods used give an acceptable measure of student achievement of

the course objectives and outcomes, bearing in mind that the use of multiple methods

will give a better indication of course quality?

 Is there evidence that the students are using the prescribed resources and that they are

effective in promoting learning and understanding? (adapted from Andersen and

Rogan, 2011)

3.3.2 Influences on the Curriculum

Curriculum development is influenced to varying degrees (depending on the context and

educational system) by a number of factors which must be borne in mind by curriculum

developers and decision makers. These include policy, local context, societal context, research

trends and technology (Anderson and Rogan, 2011). Points that must be considered for each

influence are provided here as questions for clarity and applicability purposes.

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3.3.2.1 Policy

 Do we need to consider the influence of any international (e.g. professional societies),

national (e.g. government, accreditation bodies) or local (institutional) quality

assurance?

 Will government funding depend on evidence of equal access to the

programme/courses?

 Is there a university quality assurance framework with which the curriculum would

need to comply?

 Is there a university performance management system that will influence how the

course is designed and taught?

3.3.2.2 Local context

 Will the student context influence the curriculum design? For example, do the following

student characteristics need to be considered:

- Cultural and language diversity and language proficiency problems;

- First language and second (or third) language proficiency and competence levels;

- Marginal educational backgrounds and preparedness without necessary prior

knowledge and experience;

- Expectation of flexible learning facilities, particularly amongst working students;

- Areas of interest and motivations;

- Expectation or preference for globally recognised qualifications, particularly

amongst international students;

- Expectation of a high-quality education that guarantees employment.

 Will the staff context influence the curriculum design? For example, do the following

staff characteristics need to be considered:

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 - Academic and technical capacity to develop, teach/train and run the course;

- Extent of resistance to innovation;

- Incentives and rewards;

- Extent of active support for innovation and change.

 Will there be a need to develop staff capacity to be innovative, thereby empowering

them to take charge of their own curriculum development process, through academic

and professional development activities?

 Will the institution be able to supply all the necessary human, financial and material

resources (e.g. funding, facilities, equipment, administrative and technical support,

Internet and e-learning platforms)?

3.3.2.3 Societal context

 Are there any expectations from employers in terms of graduate attributes (knowledge,

skills and attitudes)?

 Is there a need to consider any funder expectations and accountability requirements?

 Is there a need to internationalise the curriculum to attract international students?

 Is there a need to be recognised globally?

 Will the curriculum be influenced by any outreach or public understanding programme?

 Are there any professional, societal and ethical norms to consider?

3.3.2.4 Research trends

 Is the curriculum up to date with the latest TS knowledge from the most recent

textbooks and/or research literature?

 Is the curriculum informed by rigorously conducted educational research?

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  What innovations should we consider implementing in the curriculum?

 What ideas from the educational research literature about teaching effectiveness (e.g.

student-centred, project-based, task-based teaching) might improve the quality of

delivery?

 What learning theories, tools and activities from the research literature (e.g. problem-

based learning, process-based, project-based, task-based, competence-based TT) might

improve the quality of delivery?

3.3.2.5 Technology

 Where feasible and relevant, does the curriculum make use of the latest technology (e.g.

CAT tools, translation memories, machine translation)?

 Does the curriculum make use of the latest e-Learning approaches and devices (e.g.

mobile internet and smart devices, virtual realities, cloud-based applications etc.)?

 Does the curriculum use any e-Learning software and resources, e.g. for inquiry

learning or accessing literature?

 Is an Internet management system (e.g. Moodle or Blackboard) used to manage the

course, communicate with students, make learning available to students and to assess

them?

3.3.3 Action Plan and Feedback

Once a thorough TNA has been carried out by studying and selecting the components and

influencers of the TT curriculum, the team of curriculum developers and policy makers in TT

institutions must pull together all the necessary information on which they base their action

plan. This includes a number of decisions that need to be made on the plan’s priorities, time

frame, team members’ responsibilities, feedback on successful aspects and areas for

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development after the execution of the plan and other important issues outlined in the following

list of questions:

 Have the items to be addressed been prioritised?

 Has a timeline for acting on them been agreed?

 Who will implement and evaluate the changes and give feedback to the group?

 How will the changes be evaluated?

 Was the innovation successful? What modifications did the results of the evaluation

process suggest, if any? What were the major gains from the process in terms of the

professional development of participants?

 How could the process be improved? (adapted from Anderson and Rogan, 2011)

By systematically answering all these questions and preparing appropriate curriculum

components and influences, academic institutions should be well placed to develop successful

TT programmes that respond to the needs of their students, the market and society. They will

be able to realise what training/educational grounds and principles their activities are based on,

what values are reflected by these principles, whose interests they serve and whether it is

possible to improve their programmes and curricula.

3.4 The Need for Curriculum Assessment, Evaluation and Review

As the foregoing discussion demonstrates, university programmes cannot remain static and

unchanged for many years. We live in a fast-paced globalised world with a highly sophisticated

labour market that puts pressure on educational institutions to keep up to date with its demands.

Therefore, there is a pressing need for universities to assess, evaluate and review their curricula

as often as possible to stay competitive.

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 The need to examine a curriculum can arise for various reasons. In many cases, a new

programme is needed to cater for the new demands of students, society and the market.

Changing priorities within the university, college and/or department or the arrival of a new

administration can also create a need to review. Alternatively, the original focus of a

programme may become lost, leading to long-term, unmonitored growth that must be

rationalised. In cases involving a national agency for academic accreditation, the curriculum

may need to be reviewed to ensure compliance with newly introduced criteria and standards.

Most importantly, relevant stakeholders may be dissatisfied with the output of current outdated

curricula, or teaching staff may be unhappy with the current programme and believe that it

should be reviewed and redesigned. Whatever the trigger for the process, curriculum

assessment, evaluation and review can help to highlight the strengths of a programme; identify

aspects that require reconsideration or change; establish the grounds for renewing or changing

certain aspects or components; assess the impact of these changes; nurture and enhance

development, learning, engagement and satisfaction amongst students/trainees; and ensure

professional accreditation standards are implemented and satisfactorily met.

In many TT programmes around the world, including those in the Middle East, students

are faced with the hard reality that the curriculum through which they mistakenly thought they

would qualify as top-notch, professional translators has not, in fact, equipped them with the

necessary knowledge, skills and attitude that the real world requires. When they discover how

much they lack in terms of competences and knowledge, students feel as if they have been

taught little of value or use. In order for educational institutions to serve their students and

societies better, they need to seriously consider curriculum review and renewal using TNA and

the latest trends in curriculum development as discussed in this chapter. This process should

include both the formal curriculum and the hidden one, which is the focus of the next section.

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3.5 The Hidden Curriculum
[Curriculum is] a tangible entity, or at least a concrete concept: the product of a sustained process
of deliberation on how a particular educational scheme may best be organized. However,
considerable effort in curriculum studies has been expended on a dimension of curriculum which
does not fit this prototype, but is relevant nevertheless: the ‘hidden’ dimension (Kearns, 2012, p.
13).

When education experts speak of the hidden curriculum, they point to the unwritten, unofficial

and usually unintended lessons, experiences, perspectives and values which learners acquire

during their academic years inside or even outside their educational institutions. Technically,

the “formal” curriculum consists of the planned learning activities learners participate in and

the skills and knowledge educators provide to their students, whereas the “hidden” (sometimes

called “tacit”) curriculum encompasses the unwritten, unspoken or implicit social, cultural and

academic (or even vocational/professional) messages which are cascaded, disseminated and

communicated to students during their university years.

Conceptually, the hidden curriculum is linked to the understanding that learners go

through experiences and gain knowledge and skills in an educational institution which may or

may not be included in their formal course of study. The term also refers to how a learner

should interact with peers, teachers and other members of the educational institution; how they

should perceive various concepts such as cultural, racial and social diversity; or whether certain

academic or professional and personal practices, attitudes, ideas and behaviours are acceptable.

These aspects of curriculum are categorised as “hidden” because they are not investigated by

learners, educators or society at large. While the hidden curriculum can be advantageous if it

supports and reinforces the content of courses in the formal curriculum, it can also create

inconsistencies if not contradictions between an institution’s written mission, values and

convictions and what learners or students actually study and experience during their university

years.

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 For example, a TT department may claim in its mission statement that it strives to

graduate professional translators who are successful academically and are equipped with the

skills needed for entry to the translation market. However, when this department’s student

performance data and employability rates are reviewed, significant discrepancies and low rates

are revealed. Indeed, studies by Al-Jarf (2008) and Fatani (2009) that focused on various

aspects of TT and the translation industry in Saudi Arabia suggested that TT in Saudi academic

institutions is detached from the real world and has not been catering to the needs of the Saudi

translation market. Factors contributing to this disconnection include little practice of

translation skills, little or no training in translation technology, lack of specialised translation

trainers, insufficient emphasis on translation competences and the use of outdated curricula.

One of the main issues that institutions need to be aware of is how the hidden curriculum

can negatively affect trainers' choices in terms of curricular topics or the subjects outlined in a

given translation course or translation-related course or even a general elective. Trainers and

teachers are expected to teach according to a syllabus of a given course. In many cases they are

free to choose topics for their classes. These may vary in level and content and may convey

different ideological, cultural and ethical content and messages. For example, an introduction

to translation and its history could be presented in various ways using different methods and

providing different historical examples, themes and perspectives. One trainer might present it

from an exclusively North American, European or Middle Eastern perspective, thereby running

the risk of ignoring the wealth of information and insight from other traditions of translation in

other parts of the world. Alternatively, the trainer could present it using an eclectic method

through which he or she provides glimpses of various traditions. Even when such subjective

choices are allegedly based on theoretical grounds, they are likely to intersect with or be

influenced by political, ideological and moral positions which could be contentious in many

societies.

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 Methodologically, how TT institutions/departments choose to train students may

communicate both intended and unintended messages. If trainees receive good marks or are

awarded extra credit for submitting their assignments punctually, being attentive and

participating actively in class and generally meeting the requirements of the class, then these

trainees are likely to learn that compliance is of high importance and that certain

practices/behaviours will automatically be awarded. In turn, this may compensate for some

deficiencies in competences or learning. On the other hand, some training strategies (for

example, project-based translation or group-based learning) may communicate to trainees that

certain skills are important to acquire such as critical thinking and problem solving. The same

applies to personal and professional attributes such as persistence, resourcefulness,

collaboration and self-motivation.

By definition, the hidden curriculum is opaque and unacknowledged. Its influence and

messages are not always easy to measure or control, or even perceive at times. Public

universities, for example, often have longstanding but now outdated rules and regulations

which are so deeply rooted in the culture of the institution that faculty members are afraid to

challenge them. That faculty members may take those longstanding rules and regulations for

granted and therefore not think to question them is even more problematic.

The hidden curriculum will always be present in some shape or form. In relation to its

significance for TT, Kearns notes that

in the absence of a translator training curriculum informed by established knowledge from

Translation Studies, curriculum studies, teaching methodology, applied linguistics etc., the resultant
curriculum is prone to being the direct product of such factors as what the institution and its
stakeholders feel intuitively should be taught and in what way (Kearns, 2012, p. 14).

The hidden curriculum comprises the entirety of educational experiences that happen when

there is no planned curriculum (Kearns, 2012). While this definition may still seem broad,

particularly in comparison to those offered by educational scholars such as Wojtczak and

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Chambers, it does capture ‘(a) the general (and necessary) fluidity with which notions of

curriculum are inevitably prone to being defined, and (b) the case of translator training [… in

many countries], frequently lacking elements (such as textbooks, predefined syllabi, etc.)

which can serve to organize the educational experience in the absence of curriculum guidelines’

(ibid., pp. 84-85). In other words, this clear lack of organisation may lead to a multitude of

questionable practices and wrong-headed decision-making by non-specialists when syllabi

(and in certain cases even curricula) are designed by trainers who have little or no TT

experience. On the evidence of the data obtained from interviewing programme coordinators

and graduates for this study, this is the case in several TT programmes in Saudi Arabia. The

data reveals that many trainers (with very little experience or interest in TT) approach their

translation classes as mere language classes, adopting a traditional method of correcting

grammatical and punctuation mistakes. Given the scarcity of qualified and professional

translator trainers in most Saudi colleges of languages and translation (and elsewhere around

the world), this situation is hardly surprising.

3.6 Curricular Content

One of the most useful proposals for TT curricular content has been offered by Dorothy Kelly

(2005), whose systematic framework addresses theoretical and pragmatic aspects of training

translators in response to varying needs and situations. Her step-by-step curricular design

process consists of (1) identifying social needs, (2) formulating outcomes, (3) identifying

student profiles and needs, (4) designing course content, (5) identifying and acquiring resources

(including trainer training), (6) designing training and learning activities, (7) designing

assessment activities, (8) designing course evaluation tools, (9) implementing and evaluating

the designed course and (10) quality enhancement.

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 The first three of these have been discussed and investigated thoroughly in the

preceding chapter, therefore the main emphasis in this section will be on the remaining steps

involved in curricular content design and development. One of the main considerations that has

a direct effect on curricula content is context. There is no doubt that contextual needs and

limitations influence the planning of TT curricula, their contents and their overall goals and

outcomes. As noted in Chapter 3, it would be useful to carry out a full TNA for each specific

context to ensure that the situational needs of the market and the wider society are fulfilled as

well as those of the institution.

TT course content design should address a number of important issues, including

academic or vocational contexts, undergraduate or postgraduate models, degree of

specialisation, and core content (ibid). All of these issues have been touched upon earlier in

previous chapters but they are highlighted here for their significance as elements to be taken

into consideration in a curricular content.

3.6.1 Academic or Vocational

In academic translation programmes, where the teaching/learning goals and intended outcomes

are usually not as specific as those of vocational TT settings, the emphasis tends to be on

generic transferrable skills (Tennent, 2004; Kearns, 2006, 2008, 2012). That such programmes

should move in this direction is appropriate, because in academic contexts, objectives are more

generic, targeting less specific competences. The situation is and should be different in

vocational settings, where TT curricula normally aim to train translators in specific professional

competences. Curriculum designers should bear this issue in mind when making decisions

about the curricular content of TT programmes, for example whether the programme should

be more theory-based or practice-based or a balanced combination of the two.

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 The contentious issue of whether TT should have an academic or a vocational focus has

fuelled much debate among scholars. The profession and the societies in general seem to put

pressure on educators to shoulder their responsibility of equipping students with the skills

potential employers expect from them. But the feedback from the real world reveals that TT

graduates have been assessed by their employers as too academic or literature-oriented for

professional, business and commercial translation demands (Schellekens, 2004).

3.6.2 A Comparison of TT at the Undergraduate and Postgraduate Levels

The requirements of undergraduate TT programmes are different from those at the postgraduate

level. A number of conclusions have been suggested in previous chapters as to what TT

curricular content should be prioritised at the undergraduate level, where many scholars (and

existing programmes) feel the focus should be on translation competence (as opposed to

translator competence). Thus the content of undergraduate programmes should ensure that

students are taught the basic knowledge, skills and attitudes required to simply translate (i.e.

translation process, concepts, strategies, decision making etc.) as well as transferable skills (i.e.

research skills, oral and written communication skills, effective personal and business skills

such as team work, working under pressure, meeting deadlines, being dynamic and flexible,

etc.) which will enable them to become multi-talented and to handle a wide range of tasks,

genres of translation and text types. At the postgraduate level, by contrast, most scholars argue

that students have accumulated sufficient linguistic and translation competence to enable them

to train in a more focused area of TS and therefore should begin to specialise.

Regarding the difference between the two levels, Kelly (2005) points out a number of

factors that should be borne in mind at the undergraduate level, including the relative youth of

the students, their limited experience with and linguistic knowledge of their working languages

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and the need to develop their generic competences and certain targeted professional

competences. In addition, external factors such as national regulations and policies can impose

certain content in undergraduate programmes. However, at the postgraduate level, course

developers are usually given much more flexibility to structure and design their courses. In

general, it is the depth and level of specialisation that informs and controls both the content and

the delivery of TT programmes. This is the focus of discussion in the next section.

3.6.3 Level of Specialisation

A major deciding factor in designing TT curricula is the degree of specialisation which

translation students are expected to achieve by a specific programme of study. On this point

Kelly (2005, p. 62) argues that:

If we are planning to train highly specialised translators in one field (say, technical translation),
content will clearly be determined by this option: there may be modules on types of technical text,
technology in modern society, on technical terminology and its formation, with little or no attention
being paid to issues such as the cultural and ideological implications of translation, which would,
however, be fore-fronted on courses specialising in translation of literature or in media.

Clearly, focusing content on a specific area inevitably will reduce the breadth of a programme

overall (ibid.). Most TT postgraduate programmes take this path, as specialisation lends itself

to their highly advanced and specialised nature. But TS scholars disagree on the concept of

“specialised translation” and what exactly constitutes a special language (Scarpa, 2010, cited

in Fiola, 2013). Some scholars understand specialisation to refer to the translation process and

link it to professional translation (Fiola, 2013). Others believe that any translation texts (or

extracts of text) which contain information on a specialised area or subject should be

automatically categorised as specialised translation (ibid.). There are also others who ‘feel that

only the translation of texts aimed at specialists should be considered specialized, opposing the

translation of texts by and for specialists to texts by specialists for non-specialists’ (ibid., p.

59). Despite this disagreement, it is important for translator trainers to be aware of this issue

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and select materials for specialised translation that serve the broad purposes of their

programmes and students. That said, it is useful to view a translation text as specialised when

its content and layout exhibit ‘the characteristics that can be attributed to an area of specialised

knowledge’ (ibid, p. 60). In so doing, students will be equipped with the knowledge and a

mechanism through which they can tackle future translation tasks of specialised genres.

3.7 Approaches to Curriculum Design in Translator Training

Today TT faces a number of challenges pertaining to pedagogical practice and curriculum

design. Clearly, having a solid understanding of the processes involved in curriculum design

and development and the methods through which trainers can facilitate development of the

competences, skills, knowledge and attitudes expected of professional translators is likely to

produce effective and successful training programmes, provided they are customised to meet

the needs of the specific context in which they are delivered.

As much as translation as an activity should be fit for purpose, the development of its

training ought to serve societal and institutional purposes and needs, too. It is also important

that those involved in the design and selection of materials are well-versed in TS and the

education and training of translators. They should make every possible effort to make the

materials lend themselves to modern training/teaching practices and to ensure that those

materials are underpinned by theoretical principles, and provide guidance that encourages

modern, creative ways of training/teaching translation. In ‘Mapping the Geographies of

Translation’, David Johnston warns that:

in many of our universities we continue to dwell behind the frontiers drawn up by nineteenth-century
philology, so that translation is still abused in many of our language classes in the search for
linguistic equivalence, while literature remains so often the domain of the new critic of literary
historiographer. This post-Richards degradation of translation into an act of interlingual

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 photocopying, in which the sole issue at stake is that of fidelity, has led to translation being seen as
a mechanical rather than creative activity (2007, p. 259).

Before investigating specific TT curriculum development models in detail, it is important to

briefly identify the major approaches proposed by various scholars. Historically, early

translator trainers expected students or apprentices to learn the skill of translation simply by

translating. With limited time to organise and reflect upon the process of teaching and learning,

those trainers, who were professional translators, ‘limited class activity to asking for on-sight

(oral) translation of journalistic and literary texts, with little or no prior preparation on the part

of the students, and to offering their own “correct” version as a model after public confirmation

that the students’ versions lacked professional quality’ (Kelly, 2005, p. 11). Luckily, TT has

evolved past that stage, as is evident in the many approaches that appeared over the last three

decades. Perhaps the first scholar to apply clear learning and teaching objectives to TT was the

Canadian scholar Jean Delisle (1980, cited in Kelly, 2005) in his publication L’analyse du

discours comme method de traduction. Proposing a systematic approach to a practical

introductory course in English-French translation, he suggested twenty-three teaching

objectives. In his second major contribution, La traduction raisonne’e (1993, cited in Kelly,

2005), Delisle drew a distinction between general and specific objectives. General objectives

include meta-language of translation for beginners, basic documentary research skills for the

translator, a method for translation work, the cognitive process of translation, writing

conventions, lexical difficulties and drafting difficulties.

In his view, defining the objectives and planning the training course facilitate

communication between teachers and learners and the effective use of teaching tools. They also

suggest different learning activities and form a basis on which assessment of learning can be

made (Kelly, 2005).

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 Another approach to TT curriculum development is profession-based and student-

centred (Nord, 1991). This approach is based on the conviction that TT should mirror

professional practice, meaning that translation should be meaningful, realistic and purposeful.

It revolves around a translation-oriented and functionalist model for analysing texts in which

students are asked to respond to a set of questions taken from New Rhetorics (adding logic and

eliminating ambiguities) to enable them to develop their competences by translating realistic

texts. Those questions are:

Who
Is to transmit
To whom
What for
By what medium
Where
When
Why
A text
With what function
On what subject matter
Is he to say
What
(what not)
In which order
Using which non-verbal elements
In which words
In what kind of sentences
In which tone
To what effect?
(Nord, 1991, p. 144)

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Nord has contributed a great deal of useful advice on TT curriculum design, development,

content selection, progress, classroom exercises, leaner motivation and evaluation. Like

Delisle, Nord emphasises the significance of the process of training rather than the product, i.e.

students’ translations, as is traditional. In process-centred approaches to TT curriculum, the

focus of training is on how to translate rather than the written product. Gile also stresses that

TT curriculum should ‘focus in the classroom not on results, that is, not on the end product of

the Translation process, but on the process itself’ (1995, p. 10).

There are many advantages to such an approach. Faster progress is achieved with the

process-oriented approach than with a product-based one which adopts a trial and error method;

attention is aimed on one aspect of the process at one time and gradually moving from easy

tasks to more advanced ones, avoiding dispersion, while product-based practices require all

types of problems to be addressed simultaneously; and much more emphasis is put on

translation strategies enabling students to assimilate how to work instead of being narrowly

focused on whether their attempts have been perfected or not.

Undoubtedly, successful curriculum design is a major contributor to a sustainable

educational system. There is a discernible growing interest in the area of Translation and

Interpreting training and education curriculum (Kiraly, 2014a; Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005;

Kearns, 2006, 2012; Calvo, 2009; Pym, 2009, 2011). A number of theorists have focused on

the notion of scaffolding training plans and theories or approaches pertaining to the application

of a well-planned curriculum design and development (Sawyer, 2004; Kelly, 2005; Kearns,

2006, 2012). As for TT curriculum in the Middle East, some Arab scholars have focused on

the product-oriented approach, the development of training techniques, the design of

curriculum and courses and the evaluation of examinations. For example, Aly (1986) analysed

the types of errors made in written translation by teachers of English. In another study, Aly

(1990) designed a translation course for students of English at faculties of education in Egypt.

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A communicative approach to teaching translation was proposed by El-Sheikh (1987), who

suggested that it might help students to develop their skills systematically. Subsequently,

Kamel (1990) developed a technique to train students in effective problem solving. Having

investigated the testing of translation at faculties of education, Aly (1995) proposed a list of

criteria to evaluate translation examinations. In a similar approach to the current study, Al-

Maghraby (1995) suggested guidelines for developing a translation course based on university

students' needs. More recently, Gabr (2002, 2007), whose work is most relevant to the current

study, surveyed the attitudes of undergraduate students towards translation programmes. He

criticised the practice of teaching translation in the faculties of arts and education in Egyptian

national universities on the grounds that it was detached from the market and not based on

TNA. Meanwhile Solhy (2002) evaluated the current state of teaching translation in Arab

universities and suggested a comprehensive systematic translation course design. More recent

research proposals on TT curriculum development emphasise the importance of analysing the

needs of students and situational/ contextual demands of TT institutions. This only supports

the current study’s validity in following a TNA-based approach to TT curriculum design.

Many university-level TT programmes are designed to be rational, theory-based

curricula that include practical knowledge elements. However, it is unclear how these

programmes cater for different contexts or for the needs of relevant stakeholders (Calvo, 2009).

In many languages and translation colleges in Saudi Arabia (and possibly elsewhere in the

world), there does not seem to be a clear procedure for designing TT curricula. Decisions in

relation to the choice and planning of TT curricula have been guided by the desire to copy or

assimilate existing programmes in other institutions that decision makers consider to be

benchmarks of success. Moreover, curriculum design decisions reflect the personal vision of

developers about how translation should be taught. In certain cases, curricula were based on

familiar pedagogical trends that emphasised form and theory and contained no practical

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element. Academics such as Fatani (2009) have voiced concerns that current curricula on offer

in Saudi universities are generally unsuitable and are failing to meet the needs of aspiring

translators and the translation market.

Calvo (2009) has argued that rational, theory-based curriculum planning should include

practical knowledge content in the form of skills, competences or task performance outcomes.

However, the mechanism through which a given training programme is designed and

developed and the way it meets the social and situational needs of different stakeholders are

detrimental to deciding whether that programme ought to be theory-based or practice-based.

For a teaching/training programme to succeed in meeting its aims, it must take account of both

the needs of its students and the demands of its social context, including all relevant

stakeholders and local and international markets. A major weakness of the rational curriculum

is that

training programmes tend not to be very flexible over time and, therefore, have a limited capacity to
adapt to possible changes in the training context. Theory-based curricula are often focused on
attaining durability, homogeneity and standardisation (i.e., the same programme is applied in
different settings including different groups of students, different schools or even different
countries), measurability (for formal quality and efficiency assessment purposes) and manageability
(for organisational and financial purposes) (Skyba, 2014, p. 14).

Rational, theory-based curriculum developers seem to focus much of their attention on the

wording of the curriculum as well as its formalities in order to perfect the quality of the end

design. Unfortunately, this often comes at the expense of the practical application and

execution of the curriculum, which, despite their greater importance, tend to be given less

attention and at times are even ignored (Calvo, 2009).

In the context of TT programmes, curricula that are theory-based offer a map for

teaching and learning in the form of a body of academic offerings, subject matters and learning

modules. This body of subjects and modules is later divided and organised as a set of

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hierarchical aims and objectives that are placed in a successive order from small, specified aims

and objectives to bigger, terminal ones (Jonnaert et al., 2006).

This approach has some shortcomings, as Skyba (2014, p. 14) explains:

Given that the curriculum appears in the form of a list of subjects and modules to be learnt, links
between the different curricular elements are usually not particularly well defined (lack of
integration), leading one to easily [lose sight of] the overall picture of the course. Indeed, knowledge
fragmentation and dissociation is common, leaving little room for real interdisciplinary, integrated,
comprehensive curriculum approaches.

A number of other approaches to curriculum design in TT institutions can be identified. Before

investigating these, however, it should be noted that changes in or development of curriculum

must be fuelled by a willingness within the educational institution to advance, and by a

conviction that curriculum should be as dynamic and fluid as the highly globalised and

technologically advanced world we and our students live in. Depending on their flexibility,

clarity of vision and mission and their willingness to keep up with the pace of change in the

wider world, it is easier to make curriculum changes and implement renewal in some

institutions than in others. On this point, Kelly has observed that ‘universities in systems with

strongly academic traditions will not formulate their overall aims in the same way as those with

a more vocational tradition. One might indeed question whether the former would actually be

interested in translator training programmes at all!’ (Kelly, 2005, p. 23).

3.7.1 The Social Constructivist Approach to Translator Education

According to Kiraly (2014a), the social constructivist approach takes its name from a plethora

of approaches to epistemology. It is not one particular approach but it does derive from

philosophy. In general, constructivist philosophy is based on the premise that the human mind

does not mirror the world as it is. Instead, individuals construct, in some form or another and

in some way or another, their own understandings of the world. In the educational domain, this

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is an alternative epistemology, because in most countries around the world, the standard

epistemology from primary education through university is one of reflection. The individual

mind is supposed to reflect reality, the implication being that a professor has over time acquired

knowledge which reflects truth, and this knowledge can in some way be transferred to the

student, who eventually becomes a master in turn. This process has been described as a conduit

approach to knowledge transfer by its critics, who dismiss the notion that knowledge passes

from one mind to another through a type of tube.

From a social constructivist perspective, individuals construct their understanding of

the world through different types of social interaction. This implies that the individual working

alone will never become a socialised person, will never acquire knowledge and will never

“know” in the same way as those with shared experiences. In terms of its relevance to teaching

translation, Kiraly (2014a) explains how the social constructivist approach has informed his

approach to translator training. He began to teach translators 15 years ago in Germersheim,

Germany, having learned how to teach from his predecessors who themselves learned how to

teach from their predecessors. As there was no formal trainer/teacher training at that time, all

adopted the conduit approach: Students listened for hours while teachers lectured them about

translation, and were given no opportunity to practice translation. Kiraly rejected this method

as ineffective, and instead based his approach on his own experience as a translator. Having

learned translation by doing translation, making numerous mistakes and learning from those

mistakes, Kiraly, who had never attended a single class on translation prior to becoming a

translator, was convinced that this approach was effective. Social constructivism provided the

theoretical justification for implementing this approach in the translation classroom.

In the social constructivist approach, the teacher engages students in the selection of

the translation texts. With the help of the teacher, students are encouraged to find real jobs in

the real world. This engagement, however, is not always an ideal teaching technique and when

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it is done, it should be carefully implemented simply because students may lack the capacity

to gauge text difficulty. Or they may choose texts that do not highlight the necessary translation

problems. These texts can either be one for which students have been commissioned by an

external client or one that has been offered to the trainers themselves, who share it with their

students. The only requirement is that students work in groups to translate a real-world,

authentic text (or texts). Each member of the group translates a different part of the text and

handles a specific task, such as terminology management, background research, revising,

editing and post-editing. In this way, the projects are completed by small groups of students

who share their ideas on the translation as it emerges. Students also may work on part of the

commissioned translation at home, where they must follow the same procedures of work they

use in a traditional class. However, instead of bringing their draft translation to class and having

the teacher/trainer critically evaluate it, students share their work with other members of their

group. This method leads to the development of mutual construction processes as students

reflect upon and critique the work of their peers and learn from each other. The teacher/trainer

moves from group to group, providing support and contributing his or her own expertise when

needed or requested by the students. Once the project is complete, it is sent to the external

client. In addition, feedback from their peers, students may also receive professional feedback

on their translation from the client who agreed to be part of the process.

This practical approach to TT not only provides financial rewards for both students and

trainers (in Kiraly’s case, the money he earns through this work goes to charity) but also gives

students the opportunity to gain professional experience, understand what happens in the

translation market and build confidence in their abilities as they see their work published. The

downsides of this approach, however, are that commissioned work may not always be

available, or the types of projects available may be beyond the students’ level or may not be

germane to their major or specialisation. Nevertheless, real-world translation projects should

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be used in the classroom whenever possible, so that students have ample opportunities to

practice professional translation and thus prepare for entry into a highly sophisticated and

demanding market.

In addition to commissioned projects, classroom training will include traditional

exercises chosen by the trainer and students together. To maximise the benefits of the model,

the teacher must ensure that these exercises and the professional translation jobs on which

students work complement and support each other in terms of the skills and competences they

focus on. These types of professional translation jobs and exercises can be introduced from the

early stages in the programme provided the trainer has devised a system through which students

begin by mastering basic tasks and gradually move on to more challenging work as they

progress from one level to the next. For example, trainers could begin to raise students’

consciousness in an “Introduction to Translation” class by including preparatory activities to

carry out professional translation work at a later stage in their training programme. These

activities could be in the form of a translation project that each group of students manages

within a specific time frame and based on a professionally written translation brief. Each group

should have a project manager, a translator, a reviser, a translator and a post editor. The trainer

serves as a facilitator only and ensures that members of each group are clear on their roles and

are well trained on the prerequisite skills (such as translation strategies, searching skills, using

trusted websites for mining information etc.) to complete their tasks prior to starting the project.

3.7.2 Competence Frameworks and Workplace-oriented Translator Training/Education

Over the last decade several competence-based models and learning frameworks have been

proposed by various scholars and research groups, as previously noted. All have been based on

the concept of translator competence or translation competence, which are divided into various

groups and subgroups of competences and sub-competences. Despite the fact that all these

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models have been proposed following longitudinal empirical (or sometimes non-empirical)

studies and rigorous scholarly investigations, questions remain regarding how the various sub-

competences relate to each other and how they can be applied and implemented in real-life TT

situations. On this point, Kiraly and Piotrowska (2014a), who propose a post-positivist

evolutionary model of TT curriculum, offer valuable insights:

Each of the models referred to above specifies a different set of sub-competences. In each case, these
are depicted in a schematic two-dimensional illustration that we believe belies the complexity of
'competence' and, lacking the dimension of time, that reveals nothing at all about how a translator's
expertise and professional skills can be developed through instruction and [ /] or experience. The
two-dimensional models each include a set of boxes, some of which are contiguous and some of
which are linked by arrows. The static boxes in the models, labelled with hypothesized sub-
competences, can be seen as suggesting a container-like metaphor where knowledge and skills are
seen as discrete products or contents that can be pre-determined, dissected for instructional
transmission and covered systematically in focused subject-matter courses (Kiraly and Piotrowska,
2014a, p. 369).

Kiraly and Piotrowska’s critique, expressed in an article entitled ‘Towards an Emergent

Curriculum Development Model for the European Graduate Placement Scheme’, provides a

full description of the intellectual and academic rationale behind the European Graduate

Placement Scheme (EGPS), introduced in 2012. Kiraly and Piotrowska became involved in

EGPS through their universities: Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, where

Kiraly is a faculty member, and Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland, where Piotrowska

is a faculty member, are partners in the project. The other partners are Skills CFA (the UK

standard-setting body for languages, translation, interpreting and intercultural skills), the

University of Salford, UK, and the Universidad Autonòma de Barcelona, Spain.

EGPS, which is supported financially by the Erasmus strand of the EC’s Lifelong

Learning Programme, ran from 1 October 2012 through March 2015. Being so recent it has a

high degree of relevance to the current research study as it emphasises the importance of linking

Translator Education (and Training) programmes with employers, with the aim of increasing

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the professionalism and employability of its graduates. In analysing the project, Kiraly and

Piotrowska offer useful new insights into how translation education should be developed and

delivered. EGPS’s overall goals were to establish a European framework for work placements

for postgraduate students in translation companies; facilitate educational synergies between

universities and companies in a number of European member states; and develop a curriculum

model for the incorporation of work placements into TS degree programmes.

The specific aims of the project were to enhance European cooperation between

enterprises and higher education institutions (HEIs); stimulate and facilitate the international

mobility of students of translation at the university level; increase the employability of

translation students following completion of their degrees; build on existing collaborative

ventures between employers, HEIs and related translator education projects; and contribute to

curriculum development that incorporates workplace experience within programmes of study.

EGPS is expected to facilitate stronger links and more partnerships between HEIs and

employers (i.e. the market) by offering Master’s degree students experience in commercial

translation environments as well as real-world professional opportunities in other EU member

countries, thereby enhancing their prospects for mobility when they enter the market. The

project requires partners to share best practice with the goal of establishing a model for

European work placements in the domain of translation (Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014a).

In the context of this study, the most relevant components of EGPS are its aim of

establishing a curriculum development model and the plan to incorporate work placements into

TS curriculum. According to the authors,

a novel curriculum model is being created and tested [. . .] as an evolutionary step beyond the still
prevalent reductionist view of curriculum design towards an emergentist vision that is in tune with
state-of-the-art thinking on the nature of learning in our post modern era. The essence of the
proposed innovation might be seen as an evolutionary transition from a fractured competence

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 perspective to a fractal ([. . .] self-generating and emergent) one (Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014b, p.
1).

Before explaining this transition, Kiraly and Piotrowska observe that the reductionist ideology

that informs competence-based approaches to curriculum development and instructional design

was labelled by current prominent scholars in educational philosophy

as a remnant of the modernist turn in education that has been traced back to the industrial efficiency
methods initiated by Frederick Taylor at the beginning of the 20th century. Supported by the
prominent behaviourist thinking of the day, the efficiency movement had an enormous impact on
education throughout the 20th century. As William Doll explains, the roots of Taylorism can be
traced back at least to Petrus Ramus, the French humanist and educational reformer who originated
the concept of ‘method’ and applied it to curriculum design in the 16th century (ibid., p. 3).

Viewed not as a collection of discernible products (i.e. fragmented skills and knowledge) but

rather as an underlying principle, competence provides a foundation for learning that is holistic

and autopoietic (meaning dynamic, unpredictable, self-generating and self-maintaining) (ibid.).

EGPS member institutions agreed to participate in the project in the conviction that it would

facilitate the application and testing of the emerging post-modernist pedagogical epistemology

in Translator Education, ‘an educational domain which, while perhaps not normally considered

within the realm of vocational education per se, is clearly professional in nature, that is, it is

designed to prepare students to function competently if not expertly in the post-industrial

economy’ (ibid., p. 3). This post-industrial workspace is known less than others by the type of

repetitive manual tasks that require ‘teamwork in ever-changing constellations, perpetual

problem solving’ (ibid.) and the use of constantly advancing computer tools as a result of time

constraints and the pressure of deadlines.

There have been two stages in the development of a post-positivist model of translator

competence. The initial model of emergent translator competence developed by Kiraly and his

team is illustrated in Figure 3.2.

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 Figure 3.2: A model of emergent translator competence (Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014b).

Partially informed by Stuart and Dreyfus’ perspective of competence acquisition (n.g. cited in

Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014b), the model was inspired by complexity theory, which informs

and supports a post-modern understanding of learning primarily as autopoietic. Understood in

this way, learning is a self-initiating, self-sustaining and perpetually dynamic evolutionary

process of developing (or becoming) ‘rather than a static set of facts and piecemeal skills’

(ibid., p. 4). As shown in Figure 3.2, the model describes a group or set of sub-competences

rooted in learning and experience which merge gradually over time into a single super-

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competence. To avoid ‘throwing the baby out with the bathwater’ (ibid.), Kiraly’s model is

both evolutionary and mindful of existing institutional curriculum structures. As such, it

reflects the view that learning and gaining knowledge, skills and professional attitudes are

holistic, emergent, self-perpetuating and ongoing processes involving individuals and

communities of work and practice at various levels (ibid.).

This is certainly a valuable contribution as it encourages a more learner-centred, self-

generating and practice-based type of learning. To clarify the model further, Kiraly and

Piotrowska stipulate that

Rather than cause-and-effect educational inputs and outputs, our model depicts the affordances that
set the stage of emergent learning to take place organically. And while institutionalized teaching and
learning may well be seen as sub-divisions of a super-competence (even though this has been done
here less out of conviction than expediency, as mentioned above), the translator’s super-competence
would be expected to emerge eventually as a unified capacity or capability for professional, expert
and flexible workplace performance as the learner progresses beyond Dreyfus & Dreyfus’ lower
stages of competence-development (novice and competent) towards their more advanced levels of
proficiency, expertise and mastery (ibid., p. 4).

Whether the aim of learning is to develop an evolving ‘super-competence’ as in this model or

categories of competencies as in previous models, questions remain about whether stakeholders

will be willing to adopt or adapt such models, and if so, how to implement them in different

contexts.

Originally inspired by Kiraly’s social constructivist approach to Translator Education,

which itself was influenced by complexity thinking implemented in didactic progression,

Kirlay’s evolutionary model of a TS curriculum is depicted in Figure 3.3:

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 Figure 3.3: An evolutionary model of a Translation Studies curriculum
(Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014b).

In this model, learners progress gradually from less to more advanced and complex levels of

study, rather than learning in a reductionist, developing-block manner. Instruction is teacher-

based and is focused in the early stages of Translator Education programmes on facilitating

students’ acquisition of basic skills. As they progress beyond simple skills and knowledge to

higher levels, students are engaged in scaffolded problem-solving activities that provide them

with opportunities to practice and apply the skills they have acquired in real-life settings. In the

final stage of this model-based curriculum, students are engaged in real world authentic

projects. ‘Course design moves from more to less contrived; learning proceeds from more

conscious to more intuitive; activities proceed from the less contextualized to more

contextualised; and the didactic style proceeds from more instructive to more constructive’

(ibid., p. 5).

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 EGPS also moved steps beyond the educational classroom by incorporating the

practical element of work placement into the vortex (process) of learning and developing

competence, which in this model is expected to emerge gradually over time. The project

partners (i.e. educational institutions) were in agreement that work placements for translation

students would be most valuable and effective at the MA level, when it is assumed that students

have formulated a basic understanding of the norms, applications, practices and tools

commonly used in professional translation. This was depicted in Figure 3.3 as advancing from

teacher-centred instruction to independent, student-centred, autonomous real-life project work

(ibid.). Figure 3.4 illustrates Kiraly and Piotrowska’s conception of the role of work placements

in developing translators’ workplace competence.

Figure 3.4: The emergence of phronetic workplace competence through authentic work projects
(Kiraly and Piotrowska, 2014b).

As Figure 3.4 indicates, the aspects of phronetic workplace competence include (1) teamwork,

covering ethical action, responsibility and empathy; (2) working praxis, covering routinisation

and heuristic capability; (3) quality control, covering capability for self-assessment; and (4)

readiness for perpetual learning, covering authentic emergent project.

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 Figure 3.4 shows how workplace competence is developed by ‘providing unique

affordances of a professional working environment to facilitate the emerging of the

institutionally expedient sub competences’ (ibid.). The view of project administrators is that

undertaking real-life work in the workplace enhances students’ ability to advance far beyond

the fragmented sub-competences stipulated by the modernist curriculum towards a single,

unified translator competence. In contrast to offering classes that focus on sub-sets of subjects

or discrete skills that have been engraved in the curriculum for generations, ‘the extra-

curricular work done in the workplace can be seen to be comprised of fractal (that is, self-

similar) multi-dimensional authentic projects, through which knowledge and skills can emerge

and evolve as the placement student progresses from one to the next’ (ibid.).

While the project and the proposed models seem valuable, only the experience of

applying those models in a number of contexts and situations can prove their validity and

usability. The project organisers comment that their work on an effective work placement-

based TS curriculum will be complete after obtaining feedback from EGPS partner institutions

and from students returning from their EGPS placements. It is nevertheless clear that this type

of practical curriculum is much needed in the Arab world, and specifically in Saudi Arabia.

Despite recent attempts by some Arab universities to introduce change, their TT programmes

remain heavily dominated by conventional, reductionist, teacher-centred approaches and

perceptions.

As a stepping stone to adopting more evolutionary, student-centred, market-oriented

approaches to TT and education generally in Saudi Arabia, projects similar to EGPS should be

initiated and shared by Saudi and international educational institutions and funded by the Saudi

government and the private sector. Given that the Saudi translation (and non- translation)

market is in dire need of language professionals, it should take the lead in funding such projects.

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3.7.3 Task-based and Competence-based TT Curricula

Despite the different approaches scholars have adopted to the inclusion and analysis of

competence in TT, there seems to be consensus that training should be based on competence

or should at least aim to promote its development (Hurtado Albir, 2007). In fact, many TT

programmes are geared towards the development of translator competence, which is generally

considered a macro-competence comprising various elements, including skills, abilities,

knowledge, aptitudes and attitudes. Translators should attain competence in all these areas to

enable them to carry out a translation task to a professional standard.

The translation industry has been described as an ecosystem (Shreve, 2000, cited in

Koby and Baer, 2003) in which advancement and change in one area automatically has an

impact on other areas. This phenomenon is easily discernible in the current evolution of the

high-tech language industry. Consequently, TT faces several challenges in regard to both

content (what should be trained) and methods (how to train). The range of required skills,

technological innovations and types of translation demanded, as well as the sophistication and

number of tools available to help translators and the modern ways of managing translation

projects are all serious challenges that need to be taken into account when designing or

developing TT curricula. Today’s translators enter a work environment that is much more

sophisticated than it was in the past, in which they are expected to be able to function as

localisers, project managers and terminologists, among other roles. The translator is no longer

solitary; he or she is expected to have effective communication and interpersonal skills, to be

dynamic and flexible and to possess the business qualities required by today’s professional

translation companies and agencies.

With these demands in mind, Koby and Baer (2003) posit that task-based TT is

an effective method of addressing student needs to acquire the skills and information necessary to
be a competent translator in today’s increasingly technologized language industry. While instructors
may be tempted simply to provide students with the declarative knowledge necessary to operate a

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 given software application, tasks [. . .] may help them to create more learner-centered classrooms,
conducive to the acquisition of the cognitive and theoretical background necessary to be more
effective, thoughtful translators who understand the conceptual foundations of their craft (2003, p.
226).

Competence-based TT curriculum development is inspired by the task-based approach situated

‘within a dual theoretical framework: a discipline-based framework (translation studies) and a

pedagogical framework’ (Hurtado Albir, 2007, p. 173). The TS framework adopts an integrated

conception of translation (the communicative practice trainers aim to facilitate) that is regarded

as a textual, communicative and cognitive activity. In short, the TS framework combines

textual, communicative-socio-cultural and cognitive approaches.

Moreover, TC (i.e. the knowledge and skills required to apply this practice) and the

acquisition thereof are conceived as holistic and dynamic in the PACTE models. The

pedagogical framework to which Hurtado refers departs from cognitive-constructivist learning

and embraces a type of curriculum design that is open and integrated. The main aim here is for

teachers and students to work together when taking decisions and to take into account the

‘different axes of the educational process and to plan objectives and contents so that they are

coherent with the decisions taken concerning methodology and assessment’ (Hurtado Albir,

2007, p. 174).

However, there are some drawbacks to task-based TT despite its drive towards

independent and student-centred learning. Although some scholars approve of task-based

training and the development of learner independence, they still view training issues through a

critical perspective (Klapper, 2001, cited in Mitchell-Schuitevoerder, 2014). Clearly

independent learning has numerous benefits, but it involves more than individual students

working on their own. It involves self-study, learning without the control of the teacher, and

students taking responsibility for their own learning. Trainers need to ensure that their

students/trainees have been trained to assume such responsibility and are able to work

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independently. This may be done easily in cultures where students are taught from early stages

how to work independently and take responsibility for their own learning. However, in other

cultures where education is still traditional and students are spoon-fed from early stages,

university trainers/teachers need to take time to change the paradigm and train students in how

to be independent learners before immersing them in challenging task-based activities. Such

skills should enhance learners’ ability to make informed choices about what they learn and how

to learn it, enabling them to take charge of the learning process itself (Davies et al., 2001, cited

in Mitchell-Schuitevoerder, 2014). To achieve this, however, students must be psychologically

ready to learn independently, i.e. ‘to reflect on objectives, to define content, to select

appropriate strategies, to monitor and evaluate one’s progress’ (Mitchell-Schuitevoerder, 2014,

p. 69).

For these reasons, such an approach would be suitable for translators. Translator

trainees/students could arrive at solutions to problems without relying on the teacher. Learning

independently enhances critical thinking and is a main objective in TT. Hence, task-based

training facilitates scaffolding to project-based training and competence-based training. That

said, Mitchell-Schuitevoerder notes that Klapper

takes issue with the ‘task’ as structure. His concern relates to the potential neglect of the cognitive
processes that would support the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Although the PB [project-
based] syllabus in this study applies the task structure and takes its learner-centred approach, the
syllabus nonetheless expects strong guidance from the teacher. Furthermore, Klapper [. . .] stresses
that there is a tendency, particularly in CLT [communicative language teaching], to critique the
traditional teacher-centred Presentation-Practice-Performance [. . .] approach. Indeed, a lack of
consideration for students whose learning styles were formed in strong teacher-centred educational
backgrounds would not benefit the PB teaching methodology with its learner-centred approach
(Mitchell-Schuitevoerder, 2014, p. 70).

Inspired by Zanón’s (1990) enumeration of the characteristics of the task, Hurtado’s translation

task is defined as a unit of work in the training room or classroom; this unit represents

translation practice, ‘formally directed towards learning how to translate and designed with a

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specific objective, structure and sequence’ (Hurtado Albir, 1999a, cited in Hurtado Albir, 2007,

p. 175). Consequently, the translation task forms the basis for constructing teaching units and

curriculum design (Hurtado Albir, 2007).

The biggest advantages of the translation task-based approach include the following:

a. It provides stimulating opportunities for students to experience the profession and to

perform authentic tasks.

b. It provides an active methodology and bridges the gap between content and

methodology found in other theories by setting in motion a continuous chain of

activities through which students learn by doing.

c. It facilitates a teaching approach which focuses on the processes involved in translation

by introducing learning tasks that enable students to grasp the processes that they must

activate in order to solve the final task (for example, the translation of a last will and

testament).

d. Because the learning tasks lead to the acquisition of translation strategies and learning

strategies, the task-based approach allows students to grasp principles and also to learn

to solve problems and acquire strategies for doing so.

e. It puts the focus on the student who is constantly performing tasks in order to learn by

doing, while the teacher becomes merely a guide.

f. It enables a supple curriculum design, open to changes and student participation.

Formative assessment tasks can be incorporated which allow students to learn to assess

themselves and gauge their own possibilities (thus becoming responsible for their own

learning and therefore more autonomous). It also empowers teachers to assess their own

teaching and, consequently, make relevant changes (Hurtado Albir, 2007, pp. 176-177).

This approach would be optimal for today’s TT in many parts of the world, including Saudi

Arabia, as it encourages the teacher/trainer to function as a guide and a facilitator of learning.

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It also places students in situations and scaffolded learning activities through which they learn,

either independently as individuals or in groups, to solve translation problems and build their

own translation strategies.

3.7.4 The TNA-Based Approach to TT Curriculum

As argued in Chapter Two, TNA should be the basis on which TT departments plan and execute

their programmes’ curriculum development. In principle, any training that does not begin with

TNA is likely to fail to achieve its aims. TNA-based training tends to be the practice in

international corporate professional development programmes and increasingly in institutions

of higher education in developed countries. This leads to the question of who is involved in

this assessment and analysis. According to the customer-driven Total Quality Management

(TQM) approach advocated by Gabr (2001b, 2007), students and employers are customers

whose needs should be catered for and assessment should involve relevant stakeholders such

as students, professional translators and employers.

The outcome of the TNA would serve as the basis of curriculum design. The findings

of the TNA are useless if they are not carefully handled and utilised. Such findings enable

course developers to ‘provide, as suppliers, to teachers, as customers, tailor-made training

materials’ (Gabr, 2007, p. 70). The TNA-based approach to TT has been advocated by many

recent scholars, the most prominent of whom are Defeng Li, Moustafa Gabr and Dorothy Kelly.

Li (2000a, 2000b, 2002) emphasised implementing a TNA-based TT curriculum development

approach by highlighting the important role of needs assessment. According to Li (2000a,

2000b), TNA can contribute significantly to filling gaps between academics in TT programmes

and the real professional world. In one study, Li (2000a) conducted a needs analysis in Hong

Kong among professional translators. By asking professionals about the training they had

received, the challenges they had faced at work, and what they thought about the suitability of

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the training to real professional needs, he proposed a more effective way of tailoring TT

programmes to the professional needs. Subsequently (2000b), he discussed the issue of needs

assessment in detail and argued for its vital role in TT, stipulating that ‘when curriculum

content, materials, and teaching approaches match social needs, student motivation and success

are enhanced’ (2000b, p. 297).

Li’s (2002) needs analysis conducted of 70 translation students in Hong Kong

underscored the importance of TNA-based TT. Using surveys, focus groups and interviews, he

uncovered very telling findings in relation to the students' needs and perceptions of the course

they were studying.

Thus TNA and TQM, both of which are used to control quality in the corporate world

and increasingly in education, should prove useful in curriculum development and programme

evaluation. The first to apply theories of human resource development (HRD) and TQM to TT,

Gabr (2001a) stressed the importance of programme evaluation in TT, opposing the idea that

such evaluation is unnecessary since training is a good thing in itself (2001a, p. 1). This

evaluation, Gabr added, should take into consideration feedback from students and instructors

as well as from independent evaluators. Gabr proposed the Comprehensive Quality Control

Model to ensure ‘accuracy in designing and implementing each step in the training effort and,

eventually, a quality product’ (2001a, p. 5). A full systematic model for curriculum

development followed (Gabr, 2001b). In this model, market and student needs are identified in

the predevelopment stage. This is followed by the development stage, in which objectives are

defined, materials are prepared, teaching methods and trainers are selected and lesson plans are

developed. It is in this stage that student and course evaluation instruments should be selected

and designed. In 2002 Gabr proposed TQM for TT curriculum development. Explaining the

logic behind its use in TT, he described TQM as customer-focused, quality-centred, fact-based,

team-driven, management-led and process oriented. This approach

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 leads to the conclusion that it is imperative for translator training programs to be developed in
accordance with proper assessment of three inextricably linked needs: the needs of the market, the
needs of translation departments and -- equally important -- the needs of students (Gabr, 2007, p.
66).

Gabr’s Process Control Model (see Figure 0.1) illustrates the point fully and served as the basis

of his TNA-based HRD informed approach to TT curriculum design and development:

3.7.5 Market-based TT Curriculum

Given the pressures of today’s market, change seems inevitable in educational curricula.

Curriculum developers and designers should be aware of changes taking place in the translation

market. Curriculum development must become dynamic and systematic to cope with updates

and changes in its social and market contexts. Those who are in charge of TT curriculum

development or design should be flexible enough to effect the changes required by their

particular circumstances and specific market demands. In some cases, an initial review of the

curriculum based on a situational analysis and training needs analysis may indicate that renewal

is required. In other cases, the curriculum may need to be reduced, enlarged, preserved intact

or completely changed depending on the outcome of the review (Gabr, 2001, 2007).

The disconnection between the market and curricula is by no means a feature unique to

TS degrees and TT programmes at the university level. It is in fact a common phenomenon that

is evident in other disciplines. The need to connect educational curricula with social and market

needs arises from the fact that we live in a dynamic and economically oriented globalised

“village”. The curricula that universities provide therefore must be based on the needs of

students, the market and the wider society.

Driven by a market-based approach, a number of TT curriculum models based on TNA

and TQM have been proposed by TT scholars (Gabr, 2001, 2007; Kelly, 2005). Kelly’s

systematic process of curriculum development has the merit of being comparatively easy to

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implement. It is a valuable contribution to TT curriculum development, especially in regards

to trainers’ profiles and training requirements. Informed by social and market needs in

formulating learning outcomes, it also takes into account disciplinary considerations. This is

followed by the selection of resources and training of trainers who then design teaching and

learning activities. Then the course is evaluated and implemented and finally programme

evaluation and quality enhancement

A contentious issue that has been widely debated in the field of TT Curriculum Design

is whether translators should be trained or educated. A glance at the existing range of TT

programmes and situations around the world reveals that there are various competing

approaches to what and how content should be taught in translation classrooms and courses.

Kelly (2000) made an important and useful distinction between ‘translation competence’ and

‘translator competence’. This was further expanded by Bernardini (2004), who drew a

distinction between translator education and TT. On this issue, Pym associates training with

the mostly linguistic skills required to produce an acceptable translation (i.e. translation

competence). To acquire this competence, students will always need instruction and practice

(Pym, 2009). This type of training is what professional translators ask for. The focus is different

for translator education, which caters for students’ need to learn and acquire the knowledge,

skills and attitudes necessary for success in their field. These three components form what is

sometimes referred to as the KSA Matrix, illustrated in Figure 3.5:

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 Figure 3.5: The KSA matrix.

Thus, translation education offers students opportunities to acquire knowledge-based, critical

thinking and decision-making skills; attitude-enhancing interpersonal skills and emotional

intelligence skills; and specialised technical psychomotor skills. The KSA matrix has been

interpreted in various ways by TS scholars as a representation of translator competence.

Students are expected to learn ‘how to work interactively not just with other translators,

but with terminologists, project managers and end-clients. They do not simply absorb linguistic

information; they have to be taught how to locate and evaluate information for themselves’

(Pym, 2009, p. 7). They not only learn professional practices from the feedback they receive

on their translations, but they also acquaint themselves with the norms and ethics of their field

by working on real world and authentic professional assignments and tasks.

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 The distinction between TT and translator education is also evident in the teacher-

centred vs. learner-centred debate. According to Kiraly, translation training should be guided

by the social constructivist principle that learners/students/trainees construct knowledge

collaboratively. This view is clearly at odds with transmissionism, which is teacher-centred

and positions the learner as a passive receiver of knowledge transmitted from the only authority

in class, i.e. the teacher or trainer. In a social constructivist classroom, by contrast, the

teacher/trainer is merely a facilitator, enabling leaners to discover knowledge in an open space

through shared learning experiences and processes, making decisions about their training in

terms of the aims and objectives of their learning, the type of translation texts to work on and

the evaluation methods to apply to their final products. Transmissionists, on the other hand,

give the teacher sole authority to make decisions about learning content, translation texts

selection, the type of activities that take place in and outside of class and what assessment

measures will be used. Learners are only passive recipients who are herded from one stage to

the next. This is the clear difference between modern, inspiring, learner-focused teaching and

outdated, teacher-centred, constraining teaching.

In a more recent and perhaps more important contribution to TT curriculum

development and delivery, Kiraly (2014b) proposes establishing an epistemology towards

principled educational praxis in translator education. He claims that

an emergentist view not only allows but requires teachers to climb down from their pedestals of
authority, and it implies an obligatory change in their roles from distillers and transmitters of
knowledge to guides and companions on the students’ road to experience. Syllabus design is no
longer a task to be accomplished by a teacher alone prior to the start of a course; it becomes a
tentative plan that emerges with new challenges and unexpected turns, and one leading to
unpredictable goals as a course progresses. Learning objectives become far more difficult to specify
because they will differ from student to student and will, in the best of cases, evolve in a unique
manner for each student throughout each course and throughout the entire programme of studies. So
a change in our underlying pedagogical epistemology, in our basic understanding of what it means
to learn how to function as a language mediation professional, will bring with it a plethora of new
challenges for teachers, learners and our educational institutions themselves. This, however, would

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 be a small price to pay for a pedagogy that is far better suited than chalk-and-talk to the still-
emerging postmodern Zeitgeist (Kiraly, 2014b, p. 8).

3.7.6 Ethics in Translator Training

More than ever before, today’s professional translators are expected to be familiar with the

ethical standards of their profession, to develop the relevant ethical knowledge and strategies

required and to be aware of useful conceptual tools when adhering to codes of conduct

practiced in their professional environment. They need to think about their impact on and

relationship with the texts they translate, their clients, their colleagues (or team members) and

most importantly their audience (or the public who read, listen to and watch their translated

material). The issue of accountability is becoming more and more important in today’s highly

complex translation world as the position of translators (and interpreters) gains more

importance in global political, economic and social spheres (Baker and Maier, 2011). Yet, the

issue of translators’ ethical practice and how to incorporate it into TT has been somewhat

neglected by scholars of pedagogy research. In the early stages of TT and TS, scholars directed

their attention to ethical issues relating to translation content such as equivalence, loyalty to

the audience, fidelity, representation and faithfulness to the text and trustworthiness (Drugan

and Megone, 2011). Later, the focus turned to the intervention of the translator in changing the

original text in order to improve or correct it (Chesterman, 2009), the collusion of translators

with oppressors (Ali, 2005) and other issues that have expanded the boundaries of the area of

ethics. Reporting the findings from their survey on the status of ethics in TT, Drugan and

Megone observed that

perhaps mirroring the erratic nature of scholars’ focus on ethics, our survey of the programme
content of UK translation degrees found that few institutions mention ethics as part of students’ core
training. Instead, for the handful of programmes where ethics is mentioned at all, it is typically
addressed as a small part of an optional module on broader themes such as cross-cultural
communication (2011, p. 184).

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This survey, conducted in 2008 and updated in 2010 with similar results, covered online

catalogues and module outlines of all UK MA-level programmes in translation as well as

leading undergraduate programmes.

One can observe similar conditions in Arab universities, including those in Saudi

Arabia where little or no attention is paid to ethics in TT. Drawing on observations from past

experiences working with Saudi and Arab translators in various local, regional and

international contexts, the researcher identified several instances when translators were not sure

how to address an ethical aspect of their translation work. On other occasions, they behaved in

certain ways and made certain decisions when translating (or interpreting) certain concepts or

messages that provoked controversy in their societies. While it is unlikely that incorporating

ethics training elements in TT programmes would prevent all inappropriate or unethical

behaviour by translators, it would certainly reduce the number of mistakes being committed

and would give translators more confidence in their ability to handle situations when ethical

problems arise. Translators who are well aware of theoretical and practical ethical knowledge

and proper practices are more likely to carry out their work professionally and make better

decisions when faced with ethically challenging situations. Baker and Maier stress that

One major development in the professional world at large that must be taken on board in designing
translator and interpreter training syllabuses is the increased emphasis on ‘accountability’, now a
key word in all professions. Increased accountability has led to increased visibility, and hence greater
pressure on the profession as a whole to demonstrate that it is cognizant of its impact on society
(2011, p. 3).

Translators’ behaviours and decisions are increasingly being dissected by the public, media

agencies and social media, especially in conflict and trouble zones around the world. This is

evidenced in countries such as Syria, Yemen and Afghanistan. Baker and Maier (2011) stress

that translators’ accountability puts them under pressure to shoulder the responsibility for their

rendering of certain messages or for other actions and behaviours that may have an impact

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(positive or negative, intended or unintended) on people’s lives. While undoubtedly important

in advanced countries, there is an even more pressing need to equip translators with the

necessary theoretical and practical knowledge of ethics in immature, developing societies and

intolerant cultures that are still in the grip of political conflicts, ideological or social ills and

controlling traditions.

Recently there has been a move away from a prescriptive approach to ethics in TT to a

more descriptive one. This approach provides options for translators to select from and roles to

take with certain responsibilities to be shouldered depending on the ethical consequences and

implications of the decisions they make. Thus translation students are given the opportunity to

think for themselves about the numerous options available to them for dealing with particular

situations that have different ethical implications and call for different types of decisions. In

most relevant literature (e.g. Arrojo, 2005, 2012; Gouadec, 2007; Washbourne, 2013; Baker

and Maier, 2011) translators are reminded of their active and significant role in ethically

challenging situations. They cannot assume that they can depend solely on the codes of ethics

and practice that are provided by the various translation associations or their employers. Rather,

they need to be trained to think critically and decide for themselves, informed by a broader

awareness of the entire TS discipline and translation profession. Translators need to be able to

weigh the options in any ethically challenging situation they may face. In doing so they become

more visible and more responsible for their decisions, as Arrojo explains:

If any use of language implies the performing of actions, translating cannot be, by any means, an
innocent activity, merely at the service of a client or of the languages and cultures involved. As
students of translation begin to recognise the power relations involved in their future profession,
they also begin to realise how influential and complex it is. Thus, as they begin to conceive of a
different version for the translator’s usually marginal and inadequate professional profile, they are
preparing to face the challenges involved in accepting their ‘visibility’ and in taking responsibility
for the work they do (2005, p. 243).

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Every situation where a translator encounters ethical issues is unique, as is each client.

Therefore, it is difficult to prescribe ready-made solutions or prescribe certain behaviours for

ethical issues and situations. For this reason, the training/teaching of ethics in our classrooms

should not involve rigid rules or instructions that may prove useless in future professional

situations. That said, it is still possible to draw up general guidelines for what should and should

not be done.

As previously stated, there has been a discernible negligence of the area of

incorporating ethics into TT in TS pedagogy studies. Even TT programmes that have

emphasised ethics in their curricula tend to be prescriptive in the way they offer it to their

students. Recent developments in the discipline of TS and the profession of translation call for

a more descriptive critical and analytical approach to ethics training in translation teaching

classes. TT should aim to offer students effective tools that can enable them to reflect on

various behavioural areas and ethical situations. Recent literature (Baker, 2008; Baker and

Maier, 2011; Dugan and Megone, 2011; Tipton, 2011) tends to emphasise the use of authentic

examples and case studies to allow students to reflect upon real-world ethical situations and

think through the argument for or against a certain position. Even if students feel comfortable

with one position, they must understand the opposing viewpoint. These concepts and critical

thinking skills should be embedded in ethics training exercises. These exercises should offer

controversial authentic situations that offer students opportunities to practice and rehearse the

ethical (in addition to textual) arguments for and against certain decisions. This practice is, in

turn, reflected and evidenced in textual behaviour. More importantly, it is vital for aspiring

translators to realise that the decisions they make in a text are fundamentally ethical decisions.

In addition to micro-level textual decisions and their implications for others, there are decisions

that must be made at the macro level when translators choose to accept or reject a translation

job or commission in the first place based on ethical considerations. Drugan and Megone

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(2011), for example, use real-life case studies to address a number of important ethical

questions, such as how much a translator should charge for translation, who owns a translation,

when and on what basis a translator should refuse work and the level/boundaries of

confidentiality a translator should respect. University translation students must be aware of the

crucial ethical issues these questions raise, as well as when and how to respond to them. To

ensure that students are not given prescriptive instruction, Baker and Maier (2011, p. 4) stress

that

Training in this area must therefore remain reflective; it cannot be based on an authoritarian list of
dos and don’ts, since following any such list or the educator’s preferences blindly undermines the
principle of accountability. Building ethics into the curriculum means opening up a space for critical
reflection, training students to think through the consequences of their behaviour, rather than telling
them what is right or wrong per se.

There are challenges to this openness, however, that educators may have to address. Allowing

students an open space to reflect on ethical areas and avoiding a prescriptive approach could

make it difficult for trainers/educators to assess students’ work. What criteria could trainers use

to evaluate students’ decisions and decision making? Baker and Maier suggest that in this case

trainers could focus on ‘the quality of reasoning and reflection, rather than the final decision

reached’ (ibid., p. 7). At a more basic level, there are challenges to the introduction of ethics in

TT curricula in the first place. Dugan and Megone (2011) warn that, firstly, most TT curricula

have such full and intensive programmes that there is not enough space to add ethics. Secondly,

drawing on similar experiences in other disciplines, they note that students could resist the

addition of ethics to their curricula if they view it as unimportant or ‘a luxury’ (ibid., p. 189).

To overcome such challenges, a number of approaches and activities could be considered,

including:

Inter-disciplinarity: An ethicist and a TS scholar collaborate to develop and deliver ethics

training materials.

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Integration: Rather than make ethics a separate module that is burden on an already full

programme, ‘integration involves adding an additional perspective to activities that are already

being undertaken. This also means that the study of ethics can feature regularly (though not

necessarily frequently) within the curriculum, which has the intellectual benefit that students

come to see that this is a general part of good professional judgement, one that needs to be

deployed in a varied range of circumstances’ (Dugan and Megone, 2011, p. 191).

Case studies (ibid., p. 193): As an established training tool in many disciplines, the use of case

studies to teach/train ethics in TT classes could have many benefits. They offer real-world

dilemmas for students to react to, analyse and reflect on. Authentic cases enable students to

experience real ethical situations and trainers could encourage them to form their own

judgements about what is right and what is wrong.

Debates in the classroom: Focusing on problematic ethical areas and controversial topics

(Baker and Maier, 2011), these could prove very useful in eliciting different responses and

offering students opportunities to reflect and make judgements on vital ethical aspects of their

future professional work as translators.

Reflective essays: Debates could be followed by reflective essays through which students

express their views, reflect, analyse, criticise and make educated decisions and judgments about

ethically problematic issues.

Student diaries: Using diaries could offer a relaxed space and open opportunities for students

to critically and individually reflect on ethically uncomfortable events (Abdallah, 2011).

Inviting professional translators to TT classes as speakers: Other pedagogical tools that could

be used in teaching ethics in TT programmes include inviting experienced professional

translators into TT classrooms as speakers to reflect upon their experiences and highlight the

ethical situations they have encountered in their careers and how they addressed them.

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Coaching: During their internships, translation students could work with experienced

professional translators who could coach them in recent professional translation practices,

including the ethical aspects of the job.

Furthermore, Baker and Maier (2011) highlight three important issues with which

classroom activities should engage. The first issue relates to the conceptual tools with which

students must be equipped in order to ‘reason critically about the implications of any decision’

(ibid., p. 4). This entails engagement with the theoretical literature that can offer the needed

terminology and provide guidance on the pros and cons of various methods for justifying

behaviour or metalanguage. Secondly, ethics in TT ought to enable students to identify a

number of strategies for use in ethically challenging situations. Thirdly, translator trainers and

educators should ‘develop a set of pedagogical tools that can be used to create an environment

in which students can make situated ethical decisions, rehearse the implications of such

decisions, and learn from this experience’ (ibid., p. 5). As is clear from the discussion so far,

the inclusion and embedding of ethics in TT using the methods and tools recommended in this

section is a major contributing factor to the success of TT curriculum design and development.

3.7.7 Incorporating Innovation and E-Learning in Translator Training

To cope with today’s societal and market challenges, TT programmes should be innovative in

terms of the types of courses and activities they offer to today’s aspiring translators. E-learning

is undoubtedly an essential component of programmes for full- and part-time translation degree

students as well as those professionals who wish to cherry-pick relevant and useful courses as

part of their ongoing professional development. These courses could be offered via various

teaching media and technology tools, including MOOCS.

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 To explore issues revolving around E-learning in TT, the Intercultural Studies Group

(ISG) at Rovira i Virgili University in Tarragona, Spain, organised an online symposium in

2000 titled Innovation and E-Learning in Translator Training. Although aimed primarily at

practising translator-trainers, the symposium welcomed the involvement of linguists,

educationalists, translators, interpreters and students. As part of the first session, which focused

on innovation in translator and interpreter training, translator-training experts and professionals

from different schools of thought and backgrounds were invited to share their views. The

symposium aimed to establish a degree of consensus on the main issues of relevance to TT on

the premise that ‘changing labour markets mean that it is no longer sufficient to maintain

traditional standards. The focus was thus on the search for innovation rather than the

preservation of established orthodoxy’ (Pym et al., 2003, p. 130). To elicit responses from the

participants, conference organisers provided the following list of stimuli:

1. Who should be trained?

2. What markets should we be training for?

3. Who should be teaching?

4. How should teachers be trained?

5. Should we train specialised translators and interpreters, or specialists in general

cross-cultural communication?

6. What kinds of translation should be taught in modern-language programmes?

7. How should translators be qualified?

8. Are the older TT institutions the best ones?

9. Do we need supra-national organizations?

10. How many students should be in a translation/interpreting class?

11. What do you actually do in class?

12. What ideas can you suggest for in-class activities?

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 13. Should we separate theory and practice classes?

14. Should interpreting be taught before or after translation classes?

15. Should textbooks be used in class?

16. Should specialised vocabularies and area knowledge be taught in translation

programmes?

17. Can distance learning techniques be used in TT?

18. Are students being taught to work with the available electronic tools?

19. Do high attrition rates matter? Where do drop-outs go?

20. Do teachers talk to each other about what they do in the translation class?

21. Do different theories of translation determine the way translation is taught?

22. Should we be producing technicians or humanists?

23. What are the major success areas in current TT?

24. What are the major shortcomings in current TT?

25. What innovations should be expected? (Pym et al., 2003)

Reflecting on the mix of questions in this list, Kearns (2006) expressed concern:

That questions such as “Who should be trained?”, “Who should be teaching?”, “What do you
actually do in class?” etc. may legitimately be posed in such a forum of translator training
professionals possibly reflects the youth of the discipline of translator training (and it should be
emphasised here that the aim of these stimuli questions is highly legitimate and well-conceived –
there is no criticism intended of them in this respect in what follows). Yet, at another level, the
questions are often so basic as to almost give the impression that the research which has been done
in this area so far has really produced no tangible results on which the community of translator
training scholars can draw as starting points. Still more intriguing is the fact that there is not even
basic agreement among the respondents about these primary issues (Kearns, 2006, p. 79).

While Kearns may be right about the state of the discipline, it may not be that the research done

in this area has provided no discernible or realistic results. Rather, it may be that the way these

results have been presented to decision makers in TT institutions is not entirely convincing.

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Research-based training and curricula models and frameworks may offer excellent solutions to

outdated, traditional, ineffective educational systems, but all stakeholders (especially students,

trainers, curriculum developers and designers and representative of the translation market etc.)

must be consulted about their expectations of those solutions so that they can be persuaded of

their value and implement them with conviction.

There was considerable variation in the views of participants in the online symposium

on some issues, while on others the views expressed tended to support or complement each

other. For example, while Robert Mayoral of the University of Granada stressed the importance

of market expectations, Daniel Gouadec of the University of Rennes pointed to the wide variety

of today’s markets relative to those of twenty years ago. One of the most relevant questions for

the current study is ‘How should a programme be structured?’ Responses varied. Gouadec

(2003) argued that the structure and extent of the programme are dependent on its target market

and enrolees. University TT programmes should begin introducing professional aspects of

translation in Year 1, gradually progressing to the second, third and fourth years, enabling

institutions to become dedicated translation schools or colleges in the second cycle. In terms

of how translation should be taught in modern-language schools, Gouadec did not provide

much input as he considers this a low priority, but for him, a good TT institution is one that

offers ‘technology (students’ workbenches by the hundreds, software packages of all kinds,

specialist teachers, maintenance crews, etc.) since students’ future employment (in service,

firms or organizations) and indeed survival (as freelancers) is closely linked to technology’

(2003, p. 15). Mayoral (2003) added that the professional world demands that translators have

at the minimum a basic level of localization skills, the ability to adapt to the conditions of tele

translation, flexibility about working into the foreign language, field specialization and the

capability to work as a member of a team with translators and other colleagues in the

profession.

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 As noted in Section 3.6.2, there are clearly two distinct levels of training or teaching in

relation to translation education at both the undergraduate and postgraduate levels, each of

which has different needs and requirements. As research and experience have indicated, it is

difficult for students to begin TT from the outset of their undergraduate programmes because

of the volume of foundational prerequisite knowledge, skills and attitudes that they should

attain prior to specialisation. Responding to the question of what should be taught in translation

schools, Brian Mossop (2003) of the Translation Bureau in Canada stated that translation

schools, professional organisations of translators and employers of translators need to aim for

a multi-step preparation process. He identified three types of undergraduate TT institutions:

formal learning, practicums and professional development workshops. He made clear that

university translator education ‘must resist the insistent demands of industry of graduates ready

to produce top-notch translation in this or that specialized field at high speed using the latest

computer tools’ (ibid., p. 20). In other words, universities should not succumb to the pressures

of the market. Rather, they should focus on educating translators, while training should be done

during practicum and professional development workshops. In an ideal programme, students

should be offered three practicums in a 3- or 4-year, full-time degree programme: one in a

government or corporate translation department, another working with a freelancer and the

third working for a professional translation agency. Students also should attend workshops that

are offered to practicing translators by professional associations (for example) in order to

familiarise themselves with the latest translation software programmes and to engage in

discussion fora about the status of the industry, current market issues, marketing problems etc.

(ibid.). Mossop added, however, that this will not be achievable if translator education

schools/colleges stoop to the pressures of the industry and become training centres. The

primary focus in universities should be on educating translators and they should urge the

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industry to accept its social and professional responsibility towards aspiring translators by

supporting, offering and sponsoring such practicums and workshops.

This approach is especially sound for translation students in the Middle East, because

at the undergraduate level, their linguistic, cultural and professional competences are still very

basic. Accordingly, the first two years could be used to equip students with the prerequisite

linguistic competence, knowledge, transferable skills and attitudes. Students are not able to

specialise yet and they are not able to handle advanced translation tasks. Basic knowledge,

skills (and abilities) and attitudes must be taught and established prior to specialisation. On this

premise, Mossop stresses that the focus should be on those abilities that take a long time to

acquire, including text interpretation, composition of a coherent, readable and audience-

tailored draft translation, research and checking/correcting. In his view, it is nonsensical to train

translation students on document management, software localisation, desktop publishing and

similar market-based skills and competences. Instead, we should focus solely on training

students to be able to translate: ‘if you can’t translate with pencil and paper, then you can’t

translate with the latest information technology’ (ibid., pp. 20-21).

There is certainly some truth in Mossop’s statement. It is surely a basic goal of

TT/education programmes to train their students in the process of translation and its basic

strategies and foundations, but there are many more (KSA-based) competences that the

students and the market expect of future translators. Three or four years in college are long

enough to balance Mossop’s view with those of Mayoral, Gouadec and others. If curriculum

review, renewal and development take all relevant stakeholders into account and are led by

designers and developers who specialise in TT, it should be possible to strike a reasonable

balance in our undergraduate degree programmes between general abilities and market-based

abilities to produce professional and employable translators. Clearly this is not an easy task,

but translation colleges (or modern language schools) need to engage in proper planning,

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conduct training needs analysis with all relevant stakeholders, carry out situational analysis and

employ the right expertise to design and develop a curriculum that balances theory and practice

and facilitates a gradual accumulation of and progression from Mossop’s general abilities (and

Kearns’ transferable skills) to advanced, market-oriented, professional and technical training.

Over the last two decades there have been encouraging developments in the way TT is

designed, offered and made accessible to all types of target learners, including aspiring

translators, practicing translators, highly professional translators and those who have interests

in the discipline or the profession. In addition to the conventional in-class TT offered at

educational and professional/vocational institutions, there are numerous degree and non-degree

TT certificates and courses offered online, through distance learning and blended learning

(online and conventional). As indicated earlier in Chapter Two (p. 68), Massive Open Online

Courses (MOOCS), free university-level courses offered for the public, are new innovative

ways of equipping translators with specialist knowledge. In the UK, for example, universities

that offer MOOCs include Queen’s University of Belfast, University of Birmingham,

University of Bristol, Cardiff University, University of Edinburgh, King’s College London and

many more.

3.7.8 Provision of Further Training and Professional Development for Translators

In addition to the types of training programmes mentioned earlier, today’s translators are

fortunate to be offered a wide range of options for their continuous professional development.

Practicing translators (working as freelancers or in-house) should be provided with training

solutions that fit their specific business and professional needs. These solutions should be

closely linked to the trainees’ key performance indicators and should aim to cover the specific

professional areas for development. Therefore, they should be customised and tailored to

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develop certain advanced skills, abilities and tools and to update and develop competences,

thereby catering for their specific needs. These solutions should be offered by the numerous

short-term training and development programmes available online through webinars and other

forms of training delivery. Such courses could contribute to bridging the gap between academic

institutions and the needs of the market. In other words, once a translation student has graduated

and has assumed various jobs and roles in the business world, he/she will be in need of further

support, training or development to fill a specific knowledge gap, master a certain skill or

develop their expertise in a certain area of translation or a related field. Such advanced and

specialised translation short-term courses and development programmes are already made

available by professional translation associations in many countries around the world,

including the Institute of Translators and Interpreters (ITI) in the UK and by the American

Translators Association in the US.

It would be optimal to have these courses designed and developed collaboratively by

universities, professional associations and translation companies and agencies to guarantee

high quality and a reasonable balance between theory and practice. These courses could be

offered in many forms, such as blended learning (conventional and online), webinars, online

courses or MOOCs, among others.

3.8 Conclusion
The discussion so far has shown that there is a pressing need for TT curriculum review and

renewal in order to better meet the new demands of our students, and the dynamic nature of

our market and society. This pressing need is not only symptomatic of the Arab world but of

many other countries around the globe. In order to enable our students to go through their

curricular journey with reasonable success, we must carefully consider the components and

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influencers of the curriculum and the interactive relationship between the two. One way of

ensuring that curriculum design is carried out properly is to implement the TTCDC proposed

in Chapter Two, which is designed to assist TT departments in addressing their needs and the

needs of all relevant stakeholders through a systematic approach to TT and a well-planned,

thought-out action plan which includes opportunities to gather feedback for continuous

improvement. More importantly, it is imperative that newly designed TT curricula are not

based on weak or ambiguous foundations that may lead to conflicts in the design, delivery or

assessment of TT courses. Thus, in order to mitigate fragmentation and misunderstanding

amongst teaching staff and learning support staff in the TT programme, it is necessary that

TTCDC instils a set of agreed principles, on the basis of which all staff design their course

content, teaching/leaning activities and formative/summative assessments. These principles

should promote eclecticism in teaching/training methods, course content, and course and

student assessment. Robust research in TT/TS should be the basis for this eclectic approach

informed by multi-componential translator/translation competence models (Kelly, 2005;

PACTE, 2011) and translator trainer competence models (for example, EMT, 2013), hence

promoting measureable sets of interdisciplinary market oriented knowledge, skills and

attitudes. Skill sets should cover linguistic, cultural, technological and professional aspects that

ultimately meet market demands (Pym, 2003). The second principle is adopting an inductive

task-based learning approach in the early stages of TT; for example, this could be the first two

years in a four-year undergraduate TT programme. As students advance in their learning, a

more collaborative, professional, project-based approach to learning is optimal for facilitating

their entry into the real world after graduation. The third principle is to offer students a wide

range of translation theoretical positions, allowing them open space for critical reflection. By

attempting to take certain positions in market-oriented practical exercises, students could

decide for themselves the translation theories and approaches that they believe best suit the

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texts and the context, provided they are able to justify their choices academically and

professionally. The fourth principle is balancing translation theory and practice, where the

emphasis of the course content and teaching is on integrating academic research skills

development and professional translation applications. Finally, the fifth principle is that it

should be understood that when TTCDC mentions market-oriented TT at the undergraduate

level, it refers to the transferable skills that equip students with market entry level requirements.

A comprehensive list of those skills on which translation education programmes at the tertiary

level should be focusing is provided in Table 3.3.

Major areas of translator competence Generic competences

Communicative and textual (in at least
two languages and cultures)
Cultural and/or intercultural
Subject area or thematic
Professional and/or instrumental
Attitudinal and/or psychophysiological
Interpersonal or social
(González and Wagenaar, 2002)
Oral and written communication in the
native language
Knowledge of a second language
Capacity for analysis and synthesis
Appreciation of diversity and
multiculturality
Ability to work in an international context
Understanding of cultures and customs of
other countries
Basic general knowledge
Grounding in basic knowledge of the
profession
Elementary computing skills
Information management skills
Ethical commitment
Research skills
Concern for quality
Capacity to learn
Capacity to adapt to new situations
Capacity for generating new ideas
(creativity)
Leadership
Ability to work autonomously
Initiative and entrepreneurial spirit
Will to succeed
Teamwork
Interpersonal skills
Ability to work in an interdisciplinary
team
Ability to communicate with experts in
other fields

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 Appreciation of diversity and
multiculturality
Ability to work in an international context
Ethical commitment
Strategic or organizational Capacity for organization and planning
Problem solving
Decision making
Critical and self-critical abilities
Capacity for applying knowledge in
practice
Project design and management
Concern for quality

Table 3.3: Transferable generic skills and translator competences based on Kelly’s translation
competence model (2005) and the Tuning project’s model of generic competences (2003)
(cited in Pevarati, 2015).

Another crucial contributor to the success of curriculum development and design emphasised

in this chapter is the hidden curriculum. TT departments or institutions must ensure that their

curriculum designers are fully aware of the hidden curriculum and its key role in the learning

process. In practice, this should be reflected in how activities are designed and how learning

outcomes are written. All of this will be informed by the strategic direction of the specific

educational institute and its situational and contextual needs, which in turn will embrace a

current approach to TT, whether social constructivist, task-based, market-based or an eclectic

approach drawing from a variety of relevant methods for TT curriculum design. Taking all of

these elements into account, TT institutions can address the pressing demand for curriculum

review and renewal in a gradual, remedial process.

First, however, curriculum designers and administrators must focus their energies on

changing the paradigm of how students perceive the learning of translation by engaging

students and teachers in orientation sessions. In other words, some work must be done to raise

awareness amongst students of the importance of translation, both as a field of study and as a

profession. That step should be followed by an induction and orientation programme focused

on modern and effective ways of offering TT to teachers and trainers. More importantly, it

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would be very helpful for TT programme developers to envisage curriculum both as a culture

that balances theory and practice and as a revealing system of TS and TT beliefs, professional

values and acceptable behaviours and customs in TT classrooms and institutions. This culture

and system gradually will provide a basis for the development and nurturing of the various

components of translation/translator competence.

The next step will be to conduct a rigorous and thorough review of existing curricula

and their delivery methods in order to pinpoint areas for development. Then, successful

examples and best practice of TT internationally should be thoroughly studied and carefully

customised to meet and serve specific target contexts. Finally, careful review of existing

curricula and training needs analysis (TNA) should be carried out with students and all relevant

stakeholders. A new curriculum can be planned and designed based on the outcome of this

review, the TNA and the situational analysis of the specific programme.

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 Chapter Four: Developing TT Programmes in Saudi Arabia

4.1 Situational Analysis of TT in Saudi Arabia using TTCDC: Study

Findings and Discussion

4.1.1 Research Methodology

This study takes an interpretive approach in which interviews, focus groups and questionnaires

have been the primary methods of collecting data. With minor variations to highlight the

specific interests of each, the same points were addressed to all participant groups. This study

used mixed methods and adopted a sequential exploratory research design that began with

qualitative methods followed by quantitative methods when necessary.

From June 2014 access to data was gained through a number of Saudi TT institutions

through correspondence by the Saudi Cultural Bureau in the UK with one major Saudi

institution that offered TT in its BA, MA and PhD programmes. Thanks to this exchange, the

researcher was able to visit their facilities and conduct interviews with administrators and

translator trainers there, and to organise focus groups with their students. Other Saudi

institutions were contacted by email or through translator trainers employed there to request

permission to conduct questionnaires with their BA and MA students. In regards to market

stakeholders, access was gained through direct contact with professional translators and

translation agencies via email and telephone correspondence prior to conducting face-to-face

interviews.

Research began with a thorough review of the current literature in TT presented in the

preceding chapters. This review highlighted the growth of TT worldwide, best practice of TT

in the UK and Spain, relevant need-based work and modern approaches to TT curriculum

design and development. A TNA-based data collection process was then conducted involving

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one-to-one interviews, focus groups and the distribution of questionnaires. Data collected from

translation market professionals (translators and agencies) and academic stakeholders

(students, administrators and trainers) were analysed using NVivo, a computer-assisted

qualitative data analysis software package and Survey Monkey (for quantitative data). NVivo

was used for the following reasons. First, it helped manage the huge amount of data collected

for this study. Second, it was useful in storing, coding and sorting data, and expedited

identification of valuable information collected from a wide and diverse range of sources.

Third, NVivo helped the researcher to organise, analyse and retrieve data and gain insights

from the semi-structured interviews by using tree maps of main topics and most recurrent

themes in interviews, its multiple useful features in coding data, and generating comprehensive

reports on micro and macro themes highlighted by each group of participants. In summary,

using this software made data analysis less time consuming, data management less challenging

and the volume of data much easier to navigate. Most importantly, the software provides search

tools that help the researcher interrogate his data at a certain level, thus contributing to the

rigour of the analysis process through validating (or invalidating) some of the researcher’s own

perceptions and interpretations of the data.

Thematic analysis was used to identify patterns, themes and ideas which recurred, with

variations, within and between the sets of materials studied. The process was carried out in

steps, though the movement from one step to the next was often gradual, as the identification

and consolidation of themes tended to evolve organically as one read and recognised ‘echoes’

of one text in another. By the end of Step One, all materials had been read and keywords had

been drawn from each dataset. Step Two, which took place concurrently, involved organising

those keywords into groups or under headings, depending on the nature of data. Through this

process, themes were specified and named so as to provide a basis for analysis and discussion

of the findings. The focus of Step Three was on identifying the relationship between the

241
members of each group, or the elements in each list – in other words, deciding which themes

and sub-themes are most relevant to the primary research question. During Step Four, the

researcher determined the order in which to present these themes. In so doing, the argument

began to emerge about the significance/implications of these patterns for the research

questions.

4.1.2 Context for the Study

The data was collected in Saudi Arabia, where TT programmes are expanding and in need of

review and renewal. Saudi Arabia is developing at an overwhelming pace while undergoing

rapid change and expansion socially, educationally and economically, particularly in relation

to attracting Foreign Direct Investment. As shown by its membership in the G20, Saudi Arabia

has one of the biggest and strongest economies in the world and plays a key role in business,

economics and politics both regionally and internationally. Consequently, a large number of

foreign companies have decided to do business in Saudi Arabia, investing heavily in new

development projects in the transport, education, training, tourism, health and energy sectors,

among many others (Altuhaini, 2016).

Evidence of this expansion can be discerned in the education sector, which aims to

serve the demands of both the public and private sectors and the needs of a young and rapidly

growing population. In the last decade alone, the number of third-level education institutions

rose from seven to over sixty government and private universities and colleges, of which more

than thirty offer translation degrees. Table 4.1 provides an overview of some of the best known

Saudi institutions and centres offering TT programmes:6

6
In Table 4.1, Dip stands for diploma; HD refers to high diploma.

242
 University College Est. Location Dept. Degrees Awarded

& code Dip BA HD MA PhD

Umm Al-Qura Soc. Science 1983 Mecca Eng. Lang. ✓ ✓

University UQU (Integrated TT)

Al-Imam Languages and 2001 Riyadh Eng. Lang. and Lit. ✓ ✓ ✓

Muhammad Translation IMISIU (Integrated TT) TT TT

Ibn Saud

Islamic

University

King Saud Languages and 1994 Riyadh European ✓ ✓ ✓

University Translation KSU Languages (Full- TT TT TT

fledged TT)

King Arts and 1969 Jeddah European Lang. – ✓ ✓ ✓

Abdulaziz Humanities KAU English (Integrated

University TT)

Princess Noura Languages and 1970 Riyadh English Language ✓

Bint Translation PNU and Translation

Abdulrahman (Integrated TT)

University for

Women

Saudi Science and 2011 Online / Languages and ✓

Electronic Theoretical SEU Based in Translation TT

University Studies Riyadh

Private

Universities

243
Effat Humanities 1999 Jeddah Eng. Language and ✓ ✓

University Ef.U Translation TT

(Integrated TT)

Rawafid Non- academic 2005 Riyadh Short TT diplomas ✓

Corporate RCT TT
Training

Table 4.1: Examples of Saudi Institutions offering integrated or full-fledged TT

Although Table 4.1 shows only a selection of institutions offering integrated or full-fledge TT,

other universities have similar integrated programmes at the BA level and specialised TT MA

programmes. Very few Saudi universities offer a PhD in translation. Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn

Saudi Islamic University (IMISIU) is a good example of an integrated TT programme at the

BA level, with specialised TT offered at the MA and PhD levels. At the time of this study

(2013-2016), King Saud University was the only institution to offer dedicated TT BA degrees

in more than 14 language combinations in addition to an MA in translation.7

Assuming that TT programmes and their curricula in Saudi universities were

implemented in response to market needs and changes, there is a pressing need to evaluate

these programmes in terms of their suitability for today’s new demands, i.e. their validity,

efficiency, effectiveness and ability to cater for the needs of the market and students. Because

the current study aims to explore issues of quality management, it examines training of

7
In all Saudi universities, the first year is a foundation year in which no translation classes are offered. Generally,
male and female students begin translation classes in the first semester of the second year. IMISIU students take
6 translation courses in total in addition to general English skills, Arabic and English linguistics, American and
British Literature, Islamic studies and teaching methodology. The IMISIU English and Translation BA
programme is eight semesters long, which can be preceded by an intensive course of English for those students
who score between 40% and 80% on the in-house placement test. The KSU English Language and Translation
programme is 10 semesters long for those who pass the placement test. KSU students take 31 general and
specialised translation and interpretation courses in addition to general English skills, Arabic and English
linguistics and Islamic studies. Respondents to the questionnaires used in this study included students from both
universities and others.

244
translators from the perspective of quality assurance, in which translation students and target

market are treated as customers whose demands should be catered for and met systematically.

While this approach to evaluation in educational contexts has been used extensively in other

disciplines, its application to and use in TT are relatively recent.

4.1.3 Procedures and Design

Originating with a general sense of problematic areas in Translator Training, a branch of

Applied TS, the study began with an investigation of different research paradigms which

indicated that the interpretivist/constructivist paradigm was best suited to the current study.

Through analysis of the responses received from study participants, a large number of macro

and micro themes were gradually constructed.

In view of the interpretive, evaluative nature of the study, the data collected would be

primarily qualitative in order to reveal the impressions and perceptions of participants in

relation to the following topics:

1) The current situation in relation to translator trainers and TT curricula and methods

in Saudi Arabia;

2) The training needs of translation students at Saudi universities;

3) International best TT models and practice and

4) Potential models for TT in the Saudi context.

These topics, which reflect the aims of the study, link directly with the macro themes that

emerged from the collected data and therefore were used as filters when selecting codes,

categories and themes as illustrated in Figure 4.1:

245
 •Perceptions of the •Current challenges/
sector (strengths/ threats
weaknesses) •Potential solutions
•Personal motivation/ •Obstacles to
Interest in the implementation
profession

Aim 1. Exlore the Aim 2. Identify

situation of Saudi training needs of
translator trainers, Saudi university
TT curricula and translation students
methods (BA, MA and PhD)

Aim 4. Propose an
optimal approach to Aim 3. Assess the
TT and make potential of
recommendations international model
for the Saudi of best practice in
context. TT for use in the
• Recommendations
Saudi context.
•An optimal approach to •Opportunities
TT •Areas for improvement

Figure 4.1: Initial coding filters linked to study aims

A SWOT analysis was used to pinpoint the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats

associated with each TT programme included in the study. In addition, quantitative data was

collected using open-ended questionnaires completed by students at the BA, MA and PhD

levels.

Because this is a mixed-method, predominantly qualitative study, semi-structured

interviews and focus groups were chosen as the chief methods of data collection. SM,

conducted in the planning phase before carrying out the TNA (as recommended in the TTCDC

model proposed in Chapter Three), identified two main categories of stakeholders: academic

stakeholders (including TT students, translator trainers and TT programmes administrators)

and market stakeholders (including professional translators and translation agencies).

246
 In regards to the students, initially the intention was to conduct focus groups with BA,

MA and PhD levels of both genders (except PhD classes who were all female) to analyse their

training needs and receive feedback about their programme. Saudi TT institutions that provided

such degrees in TS agreed to permit interviews and questionnaires to be conducted with their

students. However, after close coordination with one of the PhD programme trainers, it

appeared that for cultural reasons, the students, who were all female, would not feel

comfortable taking part in a face-to-face focus group led by a male researcher. Moreover, the

majority of male students were somewhat reluctant to express their views freely in a group. For

these reasons, questionnaires were designed and emailed to students individually. This proved

to be a more effective data collection method than focus groups for this segment, and indeed

for the other student groups, by minimising the researcher’s influence on respondents and

allowing them more freedom (through anonymity) to express their opinions on sensitive issues

openly. The excellent rapport between the trainer and the students in this group also contributed

to the successful data collection process.

All of the data was gathered from individuals, agencies and institutions located in Saudi

Arabia between June 2014 and April 2016. During this period, interviews, focus groups and

questionnaires were conducted at various times and in different venues throughout the data

collection period using different media depending on the availability of the participants. While

most interviews were conducted face to face, three interviews with professional translators

were conducted by telephone and one interview with a university administrator was conducted

via Skype. Because the range of participants was large and wide, a high level of flexibility was

deemed necessary.

The interviews and focus groups were designed, conducted and transcribed by the

researcher, who also designed the questionnaires. Ethical approval was obtained for this study

247
before gathering any data from human participants. In addition, every participant signed a

consent form and an informed interviewee release form.

To facilitate data processing, the researcher developed a storage and management

system for the large volume of data obtained from the various sources which contributed to this

study. This data was then organised and sorted as a prelude to coding, categorising and

theming, a process which consisted of three cycles. In the first round, every notion, idea and

concept to emerge from the data was coded; during the second round, these codes were grouped

and categorised; the final cycle involved a more refined display and combining of all similar

codes, with the aim of linking them to filtered and recurrent categories and themes. Following

thematic analysis, the findings, discussion and conclusion were written.

4.1.4 Limitations

As previously noted, access to data from some female interviewees initially was limited by

cultural factors. Another constraining factor was the limited space and time allowed for the

study, which resulted in the exclusion of certain stakeholders. A large amount of data was

generated, which took time to analyse, code, categorise and interpret. Having fewer sub-groups

of participants would have allowed more time for reflection on the details provided by each

individual participant. Thirdly, although NVivo was useful in terms of facilitating data analysis

and making connections between datasets, because the wording of certain questions was

somewhat different for each group of stakeholders, it was not possible to cross-reference and

compare data amongst the various groups of stakeholders. Unlike paper-based analysis which

in previous studies created a kind of intimacy with participants’ words, analysing data using

NVivo resulted in distancing the researcher from the data. A fourth limitation stemmed from

the unavailability of information and statistics on certain aspects of TT programmes. The

248
absence of such vital information made it difficult to measure the success of those programmes

in these areas.

4.2 Stakeholder Mapping

In accordance with the TTCDC, SM was used at this stage to identify key players in the Saudi

translation sector. This process initially revealed two main categories of stakeholders:

academic stakeholders (including BA, MA and PhD students, TT administrators and

coordinators, translator trainers and translation scholars) and market stakeholders (including

professional translators and employers, i.e. translation agencies), as shown in Figure 4.2:

Current & future

students
BA / MA / PhD

Translation
Professional scholars/
translators Translotr
Trainers

Academic
Stakehlders in TT
curriculum
development

Pprogramme
Translation
administrators
agenices
and coordinators

Course
developers &
instructional
materials writers

Figure 4.02: Initial SM

Due to the limited scale of the current study, however, and after careful consideration of their

relevance to and impact on TT programmes in Saudi Arabia, some of those identified initially

were excluded during a second SM cycle, which identified the most relevant stakeholders from

249
which participants for this study were drawn. The final results of this exercise are shown in

Figure 4.3 below:

Final
Stakeholder
Mapping

Market Academic
Stakeholders Stakeholders

Translation TT
Professional Students (BA,
agency adiminstrators
translators MA and PhD)
managers and trainers

Figure 4.3 Final SM

Accordingly, the training needs analysis (TNA) focused on these two main categories with

whom semi-structured interviews, focus groups and questionnaires were selectively carried

out. The academic stakeholders are summarised in Table 4.2:

Group name Data collection method Number of responses

BA students Focus groups and 27 (males and females, drawn from
questionnaires four universities)
MA students Focus groups and 30 (males and females, drawn from
questionnaires two universities)
PhD students Questionnaires 9 (one university/ females only)
Admin and teaching staff Semi-structured interviews 3 Administrators and 5 Trainers
(males only)

Table 4.2: Academic Stakeholders

Professional participants representing market Stakeholders are summarised in Table 4.3:

Group name Data collection method Number of interviews

Professional Translators Semi-structured interviews 14 (males and females)
Translation Agencies Semi-structured interviews 13 (males only)
Table 4.3: Market Stakeholders

250
In all cases, the questions posed revolved around the main research question: How and to what

degree are Saudi TT programmes suitable for current and future translation students and

market? Although the researcher heavily relied on qualitative methods in the form of interviews

and focus groups, quantitative methods were also used to ensure the interviewer remained as

neutral as possible while conducting interviews and focus groups by minimising intervention,

using structured interview schedules and clearly-designed questions that related directly to the

aims of the study. While the interactive aspect of interviews is undeniable, it should be

considered a valid aspect of the method that feeds into the themes of the study.

The data was coded both during and after the data collection process. As an analytic

tactic, this assisted the researcher to manage the huge amount of data collected. During

analysis, coding was used to categorise data, leading to themes. In other words, coding helped

lead the researcher from the categorised data to ideas (i.e. themes) and from ideas to other data

which are relevant to those ideas. This process was repeated through several cycles of sorting,

filtering and focusing on the most salient features of the data in order to arrive at categories

and themes through which to explore participants’ reactions and perceptions of the main issues

leading to an explanation for existing gaps between Saudi TT programmes and the real

demands of translation students and the market.

251
4.3 Academic Stakeholders

As noted previously, academic stakeholders are comprised of two sub-groups: Saudi university

administrators and trainers, and translation students. The analysis of the findings obtained from

administrators and trainers is presented in the following section.

4.3.1 Administrators and Trainers

Interviewees Profiles

Three TT programme administrators (hereafter coded as SUA1 to SUA3) and five trainers

(hereafter coded as SUT1 to SUT5) were interviewed for this study. All of the interviewees in

this group work in public Saudi universities. Table 4.4 summarises their profiles:

Participant Role Qualification Professional Main interests

Code experience
SUA1 Dean of a Associate Prof, Over 35 years SLA, Teaching
college of PhD in Applied managing and Methods
languages and Linguistics teaching TEFL
translation (Earned in the
US in 1986)
SUA2 Vice-Dean of a Assistant Prof, Over 10 years Language
college of PhD in Applied managing and Testing
languages and Linguistics teaching TEFL
translation (Earned in the
US in 2003)
SUA3 Quality Vice- Assistant Prof, Over 10 years Lang learner
Dean of a PhD in Applied teaching TEFL strategies, EFL
college of Linguistics reading,
languages and (Earned in the research
translation UK in 2011) methods ESL
SUT1 Translator Assistant Prof, Over 3 years’ Translation &
Trainer/ and PhD in TS teaching Post-colonial
Professor of TS (Earned in the experience Studies, Comp.
and English US in 2012) Literature &
language Lit. Criticism
SUT1 Translator Professor, (PhD Over 10 years’ TS
Trainer/ and in TS (Earned teaching
Professor of TS in Sudan in experience
and English 2006)
language

252
 SUT3 Translator Associate Prof, Over 20 years’ TS, Contrastive
Trainer/ and PhD in TEFL teaching Linguistics in
Professor of (Earned in the experience Arabic, English
English UK) and French
SUT4 Translator Associate Prof, Over 20 years’ Comp.
Trainer/ and PhD in TEFL teaching Linguistics,
Professor of (Earned in the experience corpus
English UK in 2004) Linguistics, TS
SUT5 Translator Assistant Prof, Over 15 years’ TEFL and
Trainer/ and PhD in TEFL teaching TESL, EFL
Professor of (Earned from experience writing
English Egypt in 2014)
Table 4.4: Profiles of Saudi TT administrators and trainers

TTCDC recommends that a situational analysis and a TNA be carried out to provide a solid

basis for the development of TT programmes that cater for the social, professional and

disciplinary needs of their stakeholders. Therefore, data gathering tools that enhance situational

analysis such as PEST and SWOT analyses were applied to the data gathered from this

participant group.

4.3.1.1 PEST Analysis

As recommended by the TTCDC described in Chapter Three, a PEST analysis was carried out

to investigate the political, economic, social and technological challenges impeding TT

strategically and operationally. This analysis was based on the responses of administrators and

trainers at TT institutions on the argument that they are best placed to identify the main external

factors, challenges and threats at the strategic and the operational levels. The results of the

PEST analysis are summarised in Table 4.5:

253
 Political Economic

Pressing market demands and new economic

Legislations and regulations
strategic directions (Saudi 2030 vision)
Political situation in the Middle East
Decreasing oil prices / Less support and funding
Change of strategic direction (ministerial,
Translators’ salaries and financial rewards
provincial, national, continental)

Translation industry economic trends

Emergence of new power blocks and

organisational politics / forces opposing TS Employment legislation / Saudi Civil Service

rules

Tuition and employment levels

Risks of branching / tracking (BA level)

Social Technological

Social trends and expectations Internet-based translation trends

Student / staff / client preferences

Rate of advancement in translation technology

Social attitudes and misconceptions

Investment in technology

Social / cultural attitudes

High cost of translation technology

Social status of the profession

Scarcity of translation technology experts

Social perception of / preference for public jobs

Lack of awareness of translation technology

Lack of “Train the Trainer” courses in

technology

Table 4.5: PEST Analysis of TT Administrators’ data (adapted from Gregory 2015 and Theaker 2008)

As Table 4.5 indicates, the administrators who took part in this study highlighted a range of

external factors impacting Saudi institutions offering translation education and training

254
programmes. Politically, factors included legislations and regulations; the political situation in

the Middle East; change of strategic direction at ministerial, provincial, and national levels; the

emergence of new power blocks and organisational politics/forces opposing TS. To serve

national political strategic directions in the area of cementing relations with China, SUA1

stressed the need to launch a Chinese/Arabic languages and translation department in their

college:

Actually, the College has suggested that Chinese be introduced into the College, thinking of Chinese
and China as a very important country, with a lot of good relationships with Saudi Arabia, in terms
of, you know, trade and political affairs and other things. And we signed an agreement with Beijing
University of Cultures and Languages. We have followed up this agreement with the Higher Council
of Education in order to have the approval of that Council to start our Chinese Department.

In regards to the impact of new regulations for academic accreditation at the ministerial level,

all participants highlighted the new quality assurance and assessment measures introduced by

the Saudi National Commission for Academic Accreditation and Assessment (NCAAA) at the

directives of the Saudi Ministry of Education (MOE).8 Although the administrators supported

the concept of quality assurance and assessment, they had a few reservations about some

recommendations made by the NCAAA team that evaluated their TT programme. SUA2, for

example, stated that one of the strengths of their TT programme is its integrated nature that

enables students to study linguistics, literature and translation courses in addition to language

learning and other courses required by the university. According to SUA2, the problem was

that a major recommendation from the NCAAA team was to dedicate the first two years of the

BA programme to language learning; and in the last two years require students to select a

specific ‘track’ of linguistics or literature or translation. Tracking was strongly opposed by

almost all participants in this sub-group. In fact, SUA1, SUA2 and SUA3 reported that the

8
Previously Saudi public universities were under the supervision of the Ministry of Higher Education. Only in
late 2015 were the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry of Primary Education joined by a Royal Decree
under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, a major structural change that had its own effect on universities.

255
issue of tracking was exhaustively debated in meetings of department councils and college

councils.9 Almost all members of the two councils rejected the idea of tracking for a number

of reasons. First, it will limit students’ job opportunities after graduation. Secondly, studying

linguistics, literature and translation produces more qualified language professionals because

the three subjects are interconnected and work in a complementary manner to boost students’

knowledge, skills and attitudes. As evidence, SUA2 cited a BA programme in Riyadh, which

they described as ‘one of the best programmes in Saudi Arabia’ because its ‘combination of

linguistics, literature and translation’ gives it a competitive advantage over its counterparts.

The economic factors impacting TT in Saudi Arabia mentioned by both administrators

and trainers include pressing market demands and new economic strategic directions such as

the Saudi Government’s 2030 vision announced in May 2016. Moreover, other economic

obstacles are ramifications of low oil prices, limited financial rewards for translators, and

employment legislation particularly Saudi Civil Service regulations.

The social factors highlighted by the participants include social trends and expectations,

student/staff/client preferences, social attitudes and misconceptions, cultural challenges, the

social status of the profession and the social perception of/preference for public jobs. One of

the most important issues raised by SUA1 and SUA2 was the fact that even though graduates

of their college could work as translators in the private or the public sector, they prefer teaching

posts in public schools, which are seen as stable jobs with shorter working hours and longer

holidays. According to SUA1, ‘80% of our graduates go into teaching. However, some of them

enrolled in the programme for a very specific purpose: not to teach, but to be in public relations

or media. This was their goal when they enrolled’. However, as no statistics are available in

9
These meetings are normally attended by all PhD-level teaching staff, heads of departments, deans and vice-
deans.

256
relation to the numbers of employed and unemployed graduates of the college and the types of

jobs they hold, this claim cannot be substantiated.

SUA1 and SAU2 explained that their curriculum went through phases of review. Given

that the programme was designed with the purpose of graduating English language teachers,

the focus in the first phase was on pure language skills and TEFL. Later at advanced levels

students studied English and American literature subjects, linguistics and translation. To ensure

that new enrolees could handle advanced literature and linguistics courses, an intensive course

(one semester) of basic English language skills was introduced in the second phase. A language

placement test was required for admission. Students scoring 80 or above join the main four-

year BA programme directly, while those scoring between 40 and 80 are required to take an

intensive preparatory English course. Those scoring less than 40 were declined admission.

Seven years later and due to intervening higher and external forces, the third phase was initiated

in response to a Civil Service regulation that required graduates of this programme to take more

courses in education and teaching methodology in order to be recognised as certified teachers

and be eligible for employment at the Saudi Civil Service at Grade 5. 10 Accordingly, new

education courses were introduced and more general language skills subjects were distributed

over two extra semesters, extending the BA programme at this college to five years. In short,

in ‘phase one there was only General English and a blended programme with English,

Linguistics and Translation. In phase two there was restructuring of the content, not of the

programme’ (SUA2).

Regarding technological factors, almost all interviewed administrators and trainers

emphasised the need to embed translation technology in the curriculum and to provide

necessary equipment and support. Some trainers raised concerns about the lack of translation

10
There are fifteen Grades in the Saud Civil Service system and each Grade has 15 steps. Grade 5 is considered a
low paying starting job in comparison to other professions that start at Grade 7.

257
technology equipment and proper practical training. SUT1, for example, stated that they ‘don't

teach CAT, Computer Assisted Translation. Even when we teach interpreting, we don't use

technologies. We just go on with audio file and we use an audio-cassette to play and that's it’.

The approach, SUT1 asserted, is ‘very basic’. Although SUT1’s institution has six computer

labs, teaching staff ‘don't use them’. The Machine Translation course in the MA programme,

SUT1 revealed, is ‘theoretical and also it only focuses on CAT’. When asked about practical

elements in this area, SUT1 replied that ‘the College ten years ago bought Trados and they

installed it in computers and nobody used it because they don't know how to use it’. This

problem, SUTI claimed, is linked to ‘a shortage of people specialised in Translation. We got

two people specialised in Translation’.

Other participants were less concerned, however, and thought that basic labs were

sufficient. SUA2 mentioned that their MA programme has one course entitled ‘Machine

Translation [where students] are required to practice translation’. SUA1 explained that labs

were used for multiple purposes, including teaching translation technology and training

interpreters. All five trainers emphasised the importance of including translation technology

modules in their courses, but some had reservations about the lack of specialised staff training

in translation technology and the lack of modern facilities such as workbenches and interpreting

booths.

4.3.1.2 SWOT Analysis

To identify the internal factors impacting TT in a Saudi context, a SWOT analysis was used.

Table 4.6 summarises the findings from this exercise:

258
 Strengths Weaknesses

Lack of TS/TT specialists

Many years of experience
Lack of TT technology
Integrated programmes vs. TT only
Low student linguistic and professional competences
Regular programme reviews
Lack of a systematic approach to TT curriculum
Responsive to government regulations
Current economic environment
Availability of tertiary and HE in translation
Old school approaches
Awareness of need for and tendency towards
developing the curriculum Lack of systematic TNA and feedback
Availability of some needed resources (labs and Lack of internships
training aids)
Lack of alumni database/employment support

Opportunities Threats
Enhance TT quality and bridge gap between TT Social and market dissatisfaction
institution and market
Danger of TT curriculum being outdated
Obtain accreditation and increase recognition
Programme’s image and reputation
Increase graduate employability rates
Loss of students’ interest in the discipline/ profession
Potential to diversify programmes and expand
Change resistance
Weaknesses as areas for development
TT structural challenge (internship)
Using NCAAA regulations to improve quality
Perception of specialisation (tracking)
Wide range of job prospects

Table 4.6: SWOT Analysis of TT administrators’ and trainers’ data

As Table 4.6 shows, the SWOT analysis of participants’ responses revealed a number of

positive and negative observations, opportunities for developing TT programmes and threats

that may impede their progress. Starting with the positive aspects, these strengths include long

experience in translation education that extends over thirty years; an integrated programme

with translation, literature and linguistics subjects offering graduates a wide range of

employment opportunities; regular programme reviews in response to government regulations;

and availability of translation education at the tertiary level and TT at postgraduate level.

Moreover, there seems to be tendency towards developing and updating the curriculum based

on modern practices as well as availability of some needed resources such as basic labs and

training aids.

259
 Weaknesses include lack of TS/TT specialists, lack of TT technology, low student

linguistic and professional competences, lack of a systematic approach to TT curriculum, the

current economic environment, old school approaches, lack of systematic TNA and feedback,

lack of internships and lack of an alumni database/employment support.

Most of the trainers voiced concerns about the low linguistic and critical thinking

abilities of their students, weaknesses which they argued resulted from spoon-feeding at the

primary school level, as SUT3 explained:

Unfortunately, from primary school until university students are being spoon-fed. Sometimes, you
feel that they accept everything that the professor says. At the MA level I always ask my students.
When I propose something, when I put forward a point for discussion and give my point of view,
they just accept it. I tell them, “Why don’t you ask me questions? Try to challenge my idea!”, but
there’s one thing that you have to follow; you have to prove me wrong with certain logic.

SUT3 concluded that students were too afraid to oppose their teachers’ opinions and ‘they say

it’s because in the end, the correct answer depends on the professor’s point of view’.

It is important for TT programmes to take criticism constructively and address all of

the weaknesses highlighted in Table 4.6 as opportunities for development. It is fortunate that

most administrators and trainers were receptive to constructive criticism and calls for quality

assurance by their Quality and Development departments and the NCAAA. As a result of

NCAAA accreditation and ongoing review checks, participants believed their institutions

would become more recognised, that employability rates amongst their graduates would

increase, together with the potential of their institutions to diversify programmes and expand.

Participants identified several threats, including the difficulty of sustaining their

programmes and surviving in the face of social and market dissatisfaction. Although this is not

a serious threat in Saudi Arabia because departments rarely close down completely, the

participants viewed it as a challenge. Moreover, some trainers referred to the risks posed by

outdated TT curricula which might weaken the reputation of the programme, making it

260
unattractive to future students. A number of respondents warned that a combination of factors,

such as the social status of translators, their relatively low income, long working hours and job

instability in the private sector, may cause students to lose interest in the discipline and

profession. Resistance to change is another threat. Those TT trainers who favoured tracking,

for example, argued that much of the resistance to this proposal came from non-TT specialists.

Among its opponents were professors of English literary subjects who worried that tracking

could result in the majority of students favouring translation or linguistics, leading to the

discontinuation of the literature track and the loss of jobs for its trainers.

Although SUA2 tried hard to coordinate internship opportunities with translation

agencies for final-year BA students, there were some structural challenges; given their heavy

course load, particularly in terms of teaching practice, students were only able to work part-

time (less than 50% of standard working hours), which the agencies found unacceptable.

4.3.2 Students

Saudi translation students studying at different universities at the BA, MA and PhD levels were

surveyed by questionnaire.11The same questionnaire was sent to all students, with slight

variations in the wording of some questions depending on the respondent’s course of study to

ensure that all items were clear and understood fully. Despite these variations, which appeared

only in the phrasing of open-ended questions (Questions 11 to 24), the same information was

elicited in all cases. All questions were linked to the study’s main question and aims. Table 4.7

summarises this study’s surveyed students’ profiles.

11
For more information on items included in all questionnaires, please see appendix 5.

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Student profiles

Level of Students Number of Location Gender

respondents
BA students 27 Riyadh, Tabuk and Males and females

Abha

MA students 30 Riyadh, Tabuk and Males and females

Abha

PhD students 9 Riyadh Females only

Table 4.7: All Saudi Students’ profiles

SWOT Analysis

Before examining the responses received from each student group, a SWOT analysis of all

responses from students was conducted to identify the main issues of concern to all three. The

results of this analysis are presented in Table 4.8 below:

Strengths
Integrated programmes enhancing linguistic and translator
competences
Availability of tertiary and HE in translation
TT management open to positive change
Strong TT content at the theoretical level
Professors’ cordiality, patience and support
Professors’ clarity of goals, objectives, assessment
measures and demands
Growing awareness of translation challenges and
difficulties in academia
Growing interest in the discipline and profession
Weaknesses
Limited number of Translation specialists in Saudi
Arabia despite high demand for them
Purely theoretical, market-detached TT
Positive but slow response from TT management to
students’ proposals for change
Limited local TT programmes as alternative to studying
abroad
Insufficient specialised TT and CAT training at MA/PhD
Limited translation theory application and practice
Limited TS scope and knowledge of some TT professors
who are Linguistics specialists
Linguistics-influenced TT structure in MA/PhD
Lack of internships

Opportunities Threats
Enhance TT quality and bridge gap between TT institutions Social and market dissatisfaction
and market
Danger of TT curriculum being outdated

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 TT institutions to create links with local and international Programme’s image and reputation
translation associations
Loss of student interest in the discipline/profession
Increase graduates’ employability rates
Obstacles to implementing change
Potential to diversify programmes and expand
TT structural challenge (internship)
View weaknesses as areas for development
Perception of specialisation (tracking)
TT to consider rising demand for translators and design
market-driven curricula
More focus on the diversity of text types offering various
tracks of TS (e.g. interpreting, written translation,
translation technologies)
Table 4.8: SWOT analysis of all students’ data

4.3.2.1 BA Students

BA Student Profiles

Questionnaires were sent on 11 January 2016 to four final-year BA classes. Responses were

received from 1 February 2016 to 4 April 2016. Thirty responses were expected and twenty-

seven responses were received, giving a response rate of 90%. Most respondents reported that

they were either in the first semester of their final year or close to graduating, meaning they

were in a better position to give detailed, experience-based feedback. Their market translation

experience ranged from zero to four years. Respondents in this group came from different

universities located in the middle, south and north of Saudi Arabia. Both male and female

students were included.

Students’ Views on the nature of their programme

Almost 80% of BA students reported that their programmes combined theory and practice

rather than focusing purely on one or the other.

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Reasons for pursuing a BA in English Language and Translation

Around 34% stated clearly that the main reason for pursing this degree was their ‘passion for

the language ‘and ‘liking for English more than other majors’. Others wished to ‘improve and

master the English language’ in order to pursue their interest in literature, linguistics and/or

translation, or because they saw English as ‘the key of knowledge since almost all the sources

are in English’. Some wished to use English socially or ‘to spread my religion’; others wished

to become translators, to communicate and share their culture with others, or to obtain work

prospects.

Reasons for choosing to enrol in the programme

Asked why they had chosen the particular programme in which they were enrolled, BA students

frequently referred to the integration of linguistics, literature and translation. Other reasons

included the reputation of the institution and/or its teaching staff, the recommendations of

family members or friends, family pressure, convenience, the opportunities for practice

provided by the programme, having no other options (e.g. because no other university offered

a dedicated TT programme) or having been denied admission by their preferred institution.

Expectation vs reality in TT BA programmes

Figure 4.4 summarises the views of BA students regarding the extent to which their

expectations had been met by their programmes:

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 Figure 4.4: The extent to which BA TT programmes meet students’ expectations

As Figure 4.4 indicates, almost 53% of respondents thought that their TT programme met their

expectations to some extent. Approximately 30% indicated that their expectations were not

met. Among those who were critical of their programmes, some called for more courses (and

branches) in translation, a more practical approach to TT and a reduction in the large number

of courses required in some semesters, which they felt limits the depth at which professors can

cover most subjects. Undergraduates also wanted TT programmes to reconsider the number of

fields that were integrated into a single programme, as integrating too many left students feeling

lost. They wanted to be able to choose linguistics, literature or translation and to increase the

hours spent translating and learning its process and strategies. On the positive side, more than

30% of those responding to this question felt their education/training needs were met in that

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their linguistic competences were improved, they were able to study linguistics, literature and

translation and were developing strong written and oral communication skills.

TT programme approach

Just under 48% of respondents believed their TT programme followed a combination of

process- and product-based approaches. Almost 29% of students described their programmes

as product-oriented, while 19% viewed them as a process-oriented. Less than 5% saw their

programme as market-oriented.

Quality of Translator Trainers/Professors

As shown in Figure 4.5 below, most students were generally satisfied with their professors in

terms of their level of speciality, depth of knowledge and delivery methods.

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 Figure 4.5: Students feedback on translator trainers

One aspect with which more than 50% of the students were not happy was the balance between

theory and practice. One commented that there was very little in-class practice of translation

and that lecturing and teacher-centred delivery was excessive. Another commented that they

translated only one or two translations of passages in a whole semester. Almost 50% of

respondents were dissatisfied with their training in translation technology, which one student

stated was partly due to poorly-equipped computer labs. Approximately 40% did not feel that

professors/trainers were clear in their teaching goals or assessment measures. According to one

respondent, ‘Some of them give us the course syllabus to read but never go through it with the

students. Others never bother themselves giving one’.

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Best and worst aspects of BA programmes

Figure 4.6 illustrates aspects students liked most or least about their TT programmes.

Figure 4.6: What students liked most or least about the BA in TT

Although nearly 65% of students were satisfied with the content of their courses, approximately

75% were dissatisfied with the type of support provided by their universities, while 65% were

dissatisfied with the access provided to information and learning facilities. The same level of

dissatisfaction was expressed towards the online learning being offered by their TT schools.

Over 55% of students felt that too few opportunities for academic growth such as conferences

and seminars were provided for them.

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Most rewarding aspects of their experience as translation students

For BA students, one of the most rewarding aspects of the TT programme was the Translation

Graduation Project,12 which many described as a great opportunity to practice their translation

skills and develop their translation competence. Many students also enjoyed the Interpreting

Course. Some students felt enriched by the opportunities they had during their classes to learn

about the US and UK cultures, while others increased the speed at which they translated and

gained more confidence in their linguistic abilities, specifically writing and speaking.

Suggestions for Change

According to this group of respondents, there is an urgent need to provide more translation

practice in class, hire more translation specialists, add an internship element and invite

professional translators to be speakers, as shown in Figure 4.7.

12
To complete this project, students are required to translate 15 pages of a book. Through consultation with their
trainers/ professors, students can choose two texts to translate from Arabic into English and vice versa. The total
of the two texts is 15 pages.

269
 Figure 4.7: Students suggestions to improve TT BA

Post-Graduation Plans

As Figure 4.8 indicates, students’ plans for employment after graduation varied significantly.

Figure 4.8: BA students’ employment plans after graduation

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Almost 43% of BA students were planning to work in academic institutions either as professors

or researchers or in a few cases as a schoolteacher. Some students asserted that they had the

passion for teaching and academic work while others chose to be schoolteachers because the

relatively low work hours enabled them to take other jobs and increase their income.

Approximately 24% of respondents wanted to work in the private sector, but some were not

sure if they were sufficiently qualified. One student commented that ‘I’m not sure my language

is good enough to apply for a job but I'm working hard to achieve that’. Another was equally

concerned that he might not find a job easily ‘because as students in this college we don't have

practice hours’ while a third was reluctant to apply for a translation job because his ‘level in

translation is not good enough’. The remaining 33% of respondents had plans to apply for non-

academic translation jobs in the government.

Preparing professional translators for the Saudi market

In order for TT institutions to prepare future professional translators, students suggested adding

more translation classes, inviting highly experienced professional translators and translation

experts as speakers in university classes, offering students opportunities to participate in

symposia and conferences (to practice their interpreting), translation practice-only sessions,

more confidence building activities, more English subjects and less Arabic, more use of English

by professors in class to help students gain more language practice, and more tourism,

marketing and business fields terminology and translation. More importantly, students

proposed that TT programmes should provide internship opportunities in the Saudi translation

market, more Computer Assisted Translation (CAT) technology, and market-oriented in-class

translation exercises.

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4.3.2.2 MA Students

MA students Profiles

Saudi translation MA student’s questionnaires were distributed on 1 February 2016 to four MA

classes. Both male and female students were included. The responses were received from 1

February 2016 to 1 March 2016. Thirty responses were expected, and thirty were received,

making this the most responsive of the three groups. The respondents came from different

universities located in the middle of Saudi Arabia. A large number of the respondents went

through an MA programme offered by a major Saudi university in Riyadh.13 Many respondents

were in the final stages of writing their thesis. Some were in their third semester. Their

professional experience in the Saudi translation market ranged between zero to thirteen years.

Students’ views on the nature of their programme

Nearly 76% of the students thought that their programmes combined theory and practice; 21%

believed that their programmes were purely theoretical.

Reasons for pursuing an MA in Translation

The reasons respondents gave for pursuing an MA in translation included the intention to work

as a translator trainer, acquisition of ‘professional skills in language transfer and [the desire to]

get a job in the field’, expanding their knowledge in the discipline, mastering both Source

Language and Target Language and a passion for and interest in translation. Others were

13
This programme is designed into four semesters and delivered in two phases. In the first phase (semester one),
all MA students in the college, regardless of their major, take introductory courses in different fields such as
Introduction to Literature, Introduction to Translation, Introduction to Linguistics, Research Methodology and
Islamic Civilisation. In the second phase (semesters two and three), they take specialised translation courses and
in semester four they write a complementary research project of 60 to 70 pages. They may extend this semester
to a year if they need to do so with the approval of the department.

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attracted to a career in translation for the freedom and flexibility it provides and for the diversity

of the work involved; others wished to learn about different languages and cultures or

contribute to ‘transferring our culture to others and also transferring the modern science to our

culture’.

Reasons for choosing to enrol in the programme

Asked why they had chosen the particular programme in which they were enrolled, respondents

explained that it was the only one available in the city where they lived or that they were drawn

to the ‘great reputation [of the institution] and great opportunities to excel in your educational

goals’. Those who had received their BAs from the same institution found it easier to apply for

postgraduate study there, being already familiar with the delivery approach of the trainers and

the environment of the TT programme. Others chose it because staff members were

‘trustworthy and [had] extraordinary experience in the field of translation’.

Expectations vs. reality in TT

The views of MA students regarding the extent to which their expectations had been met by

the programmes are summarised in Figure 4.9:

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 Figure 4.9: The extent to which MA programme meet their students’ expectations.

Of the thirty students who responded to this question, seventeen (72%) felt that their TT

programme had met their expectations to some extent or gave an unequivocally positive

response. Just under 28% of respondents, however, expressed disappointment. Some of their

criticism was directed at certain courses unrelated to translation. Other negative aspects of

Saudi TT programmes included their overemphasis on theory at the expense of much-needed

practice, the fact that they were not ‘tailored to suit and satisfy students' academic demands’,

lack of clear vision and focus on translation training, the strong influence of linguistics, lack of

opportunities to practice translation, non-translation professors and trainers, their poor and

overly theoretical approach to training interpreting and machine translation (described as ‘a

disappointment’) and the unexpected exclusion of important translation types (typology

issues). More positively, students cited competent and supportive translator trainers/professors

and the coverage of major aspects of translation needed by students.

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TT programme approach

Approximately 43% of respondents thought their MA programme combined process- and

product-based approaches. Almost 32% of students described their programmes as product-

oriented, while almost 22% viewed them as a process-oriented. Less than 11% only felt that

their programme was market-oriented.

Translator Trainers/Professors

As key players in the success of TT programmes, feedback was sought on the delivery

approaches and assessment methods used by translator trainers/professors. Nearly 77% of

respondents were satisfied with their professors’ speciality level and depth of knowledge in

translation, and 60% were either extremely satisfied, very satisfied or satisfied with teaching

methods. Three students (10%) were ‘not sure’ and one, who reported being ‘very dissatisfied’,

commented that ‘I did not choose extremely dissatisfied for there are two professors who are

very helpful’.

275
 Figure 4.10: MA Students feedback on translator trainers

Roughly 80% of the respondents were happy with the learning and research support they

received, while 60% indicated that their trainers helped prepare them as translation specialists.

When asked if their trainers/professors prepared them as researchers, almost 64% agreed. Only

20% of respondents thought that their trainer’s goals and assessment measures were unclear;

the remaining 80% ranged from extremely satisfied to satisfied. Similarly, 75% indicated that

trainers’ evaluation of students was fair while 67% felt that their professors/trainers’ teaching

goals and assessment measures were clear.

While students were generally satisfied with the balance their trainers achieved

between theory and practice (57%), over a third (37%) were either dissatisfied or extremely

276
dissatisfied. The rest were unsure. Although 44% of respondents were dissatisfied with the lack

of practical training on translation technology, 57% were nevertheless happy with the way their

trainers taught translation technology.

Best and worst aspects of MA programmes

The most or least popular aspects of these programmes are shown in Figure 4.11.

Figure 4.11: What MA students liked most/least about their MA programmes

80% of the MA students surveyed were pleased with the content and materials of their TT

programmes, compared to 65% of undergraduates. MA students were also largely content with

the logical sequence of their courses, with 70% indicating that they liked this aspect most or

liked it to some degree. Four out of five students indicated that they liked their programme

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structure most or to some degree. The majority (65%) were also satisfied with the timing and

scheduling of classes. Most respondents thought very highly of their professors’ expertise and

knowledge in the field even though a high number of trainers were not translation specialists.

Over 60% of respondents liked their trainers’/professors’ delivery style, while roughly two

thirds thought that they were assessed fairly. Over 40% were not pleased with the support they

received in relation to training and research skills. Meanwhile approximately 59% of students

were content with the information access services available to them. As for opportunities for

academic growth, 28% either liked this aspect least or were unaware of any, but the remainder

were satisfied with the opportunities available to them. Lastly, most students were displeased

with their institution’s poor provision of free online learning support services such as MOOCS.

Suggestions for Change

As shown in Figure 4.12 below, students made a number of recommendations, including the

inclusion (or exclusion) of more theory, more translation practice, more translation research-

based courses, more focus on and practice in CAT tools and machine translation, TT

practice/practicums and opportunities to intern with a professional translation

company/agency.

278
 Figure 4.12: Students’ suggestions to improve TT MA programme

Including and emphasising more translation practice received the highest approval (96.55%

Yes, 3.45% Perhaps) from respondents. As one student put it, ‘We want some balance.

Translation won’t do without practice’; others agreed, asserting that ‘Theory is important, but

it is useless if it is not combined with practice’, and that emphasis should be placed on ‘Practical

patterns of translation and more explanations of its problems and issues’. Unsurprisingly,

including ‘more theory’ was viewed unfavourably by 57% of respondents.

Nevertheless, the majority of respondents (54%) still wanted more translation research-

based courses, while almost 43% thought this might be a good addition to the programme.

There was significant support (80%) for including a Train the Trainer practicum and for

internships.

279
The most rewarding aspects of students’ TT programme:

Several students mentioned similar benefits they gained from their MA programmes such as

translation and interpreting skills/ techniques/ procedures, translation error analysis (‘despite

lack of practice’), research papers writing skills and research methods, and more theoretical

knowledge and depth. Other students found class tasks and assignments enriching. One student

found the Arabic Syntax course refreshing and helpful in improving his Arabic translation.

Post-Graduation Plans

Just under half (45%) of MA students intended to work in academic institutions following

graduation compared to 43% of the BA students surveyed. When asked if their MA programme

was preparing them well for the job they wanted, some felt they were prepared academically

for employment and for potential advancement to a PhD programme. Others who were already

government employees reported that the MA programme helped them produce better quality

translations. Over half of respondents were planning to work in the public sector and felt that

their course helped them solve translation problems strategically and to master the Arabic and

English languages.

Recommendations for preparing students to translate professionally

To better prepare students to be professional translators, respondents suggested more practice

in machine translation courses, developing a range of professional and linguistic skills

appropriate to the translation profession, providing practical training in the translation of a

range of specialised texts and equipping students with the technological tools and skills

required in the profession. Other students proposed that their MA programmes offer a

280
confidence-building course/module, translation teaching strategies, tailored curriculum, textual

diversity and guidance on how to benefit from translation-related technological software

programmes. They also suggested including courses (or placing more focus) on error analysis,

replacing non-translation courses with more useful specialised translation subjects, updating

the curricula, focusing on interpreting practice using modern labs with fully functioning

equipment and booths, and hiring more specialised and inspiring teaching staff. Other

recommendations include the improvement of ‘teaching methods and encouraging the use of

technology’ and training support and workshops as well as more research courses.

4.3.2.3 PhD Students

Students’ Profiles

Participants in this group consisted of nine students who mainly came from the one Saudi TT

institution in the central region of Saudi Arabia (if not the whole country) offering a PhD in TS

at the time of the study. The respondents were either finishing the taught component of the

programme or writing their thesis.

The questionnaires were sent on 25 January 2016 to two classes of female PhD

students and nine responses were received between 29 of February 2016 and 18 April 2016.

Although the wording differed slightly, respondents were asked the same questions as the

previous two student groups. Unlike the other student respondents who came from various

institutions, these were all from the same university in Riyadh. They also differed from other,

mixed-gender groups in that all were female. Their professional translation experience in the

Saudi market ranged between zero to eleven years.

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Findings

The nature of the programme

Like the MA students, a high percentage of PhD students (78%) described their programme

as a combination of theory and practice. The remaining 21% of students believed that it was

purely theoretical, including one who commented that ‘the practical part was not given as much

attention as the theoretical’.

Reasons for pursuing a PhD in Translation

Asked to explain their decision to purse a PhD in translation, students cited the fact that

translation involves comparative knowledge of writing and reading in Arabic and English, the

high demand in Saudi TT institutions for ‘qualified translation instructors and faculty members

in this speciality’ and high demand for translation specialists generally in Saudi Arabia. One

student based her decision on her ‘interest in languages and an abiding love to reading new

things married to the fact that I want to serve my country and preserve my language’.

Other students stated that they joined the programme ‘to learn more about the field’, to

‘be aware about the new studies and approaches of the field’ and conduct ‘several projects’.

Others were motivated by their passion for TS. One student commented that ‘the field has been

a passion of mine and later it became apparent for me that it is a virgin area of studies that had

been untouched’.

Reasons for choosing to enrol in the programme

Asked why they had chosen their particular PhD programme, most respondents explained that

it was the only one available in Riyadh. Some of the students had been planning to do their

282
PhDs abroad but for various reasons that choice ‘was set aside’. One student commented that

studying in this programme ‘was not a matter of choice’ but rather ‘a step that I took in

accordance with my personal circumstances’, for this being the only PhD programme in TS to

be offered locally ‘in an environment and among professors that I can relate to, since the option

of pursuing my studies in America was set aside’. Three students were already staff members

at this institution and therefore ‘had the chance to complete’ their PhD in the institution. Others

chose it for its reputation as one of the best universities in KSA, offering top-level religious

translation and a well-established academic PhD.

Meeting students’ expectations

Figure 4.13 summarises the views of PhD students regarding the extent to which their

expectations had been met by their programmes:

Figure 4.13: The extent to which PhD programme meet student expectations.

283
Of the nine students, nearly 67% believed that their programme catered for their needs and met

their expectations to some extent. One student stated that:

The program […] is very sound and comprehensive, yet practical courses such as Simultaneous and
Consecutive Interpretation were quite weak because of equipment transfer to the new campus long
before the end of our last term.

Another student answered ‘yes in terms of gaining new information on the theoretical level as

well as the professors’ cordiality and patience’ and ‘no in terms of practicing the theory and

the limited scope and knowledge of some professors since they are specialists in Linguistics’.

That non-specialist translation trainers impede the success and limit the benefit of translation

subjects was clearly highlighted by one student who stated that a course such as ‘computer

applications for translators-statistics’ was ‘not taught by specialists in the field and therefore

the content of the course changed to meet their expertise’.

Although one student noted that ‘there are some disappointments regarding the practice

of real translation’, just over a third of respondents felt the programme had met their

expectations fully or to a great extent. One student felt the programme fared well against

international competitors:

The program is stronger than those of some British universities (when I and my four colleagues who
are studying in Britain discuss certain issues related to translation, I usually notice that they are
better than me in writing a research paper, but they do not have enough knowledge about translation
as a general discipline and about specific areas in this field like translation theories, MT, etc.).

While this remains the opinion of one student, other students wrote suggestions to the

programme administrators to follow new international approaches of US and UK TT

institutions in using the new widely adopted name ‘Translation Studies’ and including new

courses in the MA and PhD programmes such as localisation, project management, history of

translation, translation assessment, Translation workshops, and audiovisual translation

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TT programme approach

As shown in Figure 4.14 below, almost 45% of students thought their programme’s approach

was process-oriented, which is the same proportion as those who thought that it combined both

process and product-oriented approaches. Only 11% believed the programme was product-

oriented; a further 11% felt that it was market-oriented.

Figure 4.14: Students’ perception of PhD programme’s approach

Quality of Translator Trainers/Professors

Students’ views of the trainers/professors are summarised in Figure 4.15:

285
 Figure 4.15: PhD student views on translator trainers

Three quarters of respondents (75%) stated that they were satisfied or very satisfied with their

trainers’ level of speciality. One student noted, however, that ‘we have professors specialised

in linguistics’. The depth of the trainers’ knowledge in translation received a very positive

rating, with 88% of students reporting that they were satisfied or extremely satisfied. However,

one remarked that ‘of the two TS specialised professors who taught us, one had actual

experience and the other’s knowledge was theory-based. I felt conflicted because neither had

a rounded knowledge and experience’.

On the topic of trainers/professors’ teaching methods, 62% stressed that they were

satisfied or extremely satisfied although none chose to elaborate on their responses. Of those

who did not find the teaching methods suitable (38%), two asserted that ‘some teachers use

286
traditional teaching methods’ such as ‘reading together with class discussions in the best of

cases [although] the more common [method] is lecturing’.

However, trainers/professors were willing to support their students in their learning and

research, which earned them a very high satisfaction rating (99%). A large majority (78%) of

respondents were also satisfied with the clarity of their trainers’/professors’ goals, objectives,

assessment measures and demands. Students were even more satisfied (88%) with how their

trainers/professors evaluated them.

Furthermore, the majority of the students (75%) did not see a balance of theory and

practice in their trainers’/professors’ approach to TT, and were highly dissatisfied with this

aspect of the programme as a result. As one student put it, ‘the programme was much more

theoretical than practical. ‘

Another source of dissatisfaction was the professionalism of their trainers in relation to

training future translation experts/trainers: 44% of responses were ‘Not Sure’ or ‘Extremely

Dissatisfied’. One student expressed concern that she and her classmates spent ‘two semesters

studying general subjects mostly linguistics’, in which many professors had a background.

Other mostly dissatisfying aspects included lack of or ineffective use of translation technology

and lack of training on its applications. Nevertheless 63% of students were pleased with their

trainers’/professors’ use of teaching/training aids and technology.

Most and least popular aspects of TT programmes

Asked to identify what they liked most and least about their TT programmes, students

highlighted a number of areas, including course content, the sequence of courses, the balance

between theory and practice, class scheduling, the delivery and expertise of their

trainers/professors, student learning support, access to learning and research facilities,

287
opportunities for academic growth and the availability of free online learning facilities such as

MOOCs. These findings are illustrated in Figure 4.16 below:

Figure 4.16: Students’ views of the most/least popular aspects of the PhD programme

288
Compared to the 65% rating given by BA students and the 80% rating given by MA students

to the content and materials in their course, PhD students were much more satisfied, with 100%

indicating that they ‘liked it most’ or ‘to some degree’. Sixty-seven percent were content with

the logical sequence of their courses. However, respondents were divided in their views of the

programme structure, with 50% liking it most and the remaining half either unsure (13%) or

liking it least (37%).

Over 87% of students thought very highly of their professors’ expertise and

knowledge in the field. Respondents also had a positive view of their trainers’/professors’

delivery style, which was either most-liked or liked to some degree by all. A similar response

was given to how fairly trainers/professors assessed students.

Over 75% of students were happy with the support they received in training and

research skills. However, roughly three-fifths were not pleased with the information access

services available to them, and almost all felt there were no opportunities for academic growth

through conferences or seminars. Lastly, all were unhappy with the institution’s provision of

free online learning support services such as MOOCS.

Suggestions for change

Most students were against adding more theory to their programmes on the grounds that it was

already heavily theoretical. On the other hand, 90% of them suggested emphasising more

translation practice because

theory comes after practice. Theorists of translation were practitioners. In the workplace, it is
unlikely that someone will ask the translator on which theory he/she bases her performance, let alone
the fact that a student will not fully understand a theory without putting it into practice.

289
While most students (75%) wanted more translation research-based courses, almost 89%

thought that a TT practicum on how to train translators should be added since a large number

intended to work in academia. A similarly high approval was shown for adding an internship.

Most rewarding aspects

Students highlighted many gains from this PhD programme including considerable specialised

knowledge in translation, interpretation, linguistics, research, and quality research skills.

Moreover, students benefited from the intensive preparation for the comprehensive exam,

learning about translation theories and scholars, exchanging views and information with their

professors and peers on a wide range of issues and being taught and supervised by highly

qualified TS scholars.

Post-graduation plans and job market preparation

All the PhD students surveyed intend to work in academic institutions. However, their views

on how well this programme prepared them for such employment differed. In general,

respondents believed that the programme helped develop them more as academic researchers

than translator trainers or professional translators. One student stated that the programme

‘didn't train me well in translation teaching and training, but [was] highly beneficial in research

practice’. Generally, however, this participant group was satisfied with the programme because

such knowledge is needed for academic research-based advancement.

290
Recommendations for preparing students to translate professionally

Students made several recommendations for improving the programme, including a shift in

focus to translation practice according to the needs of real firms and institutions using

translation technology. Others stressed that different universities should focus on different

market needs and try to be professional and well-qualified in delivering the needed skills and

knowledge. Some suggested that TT programmes offer students opportunities to join a real

translation agency in different fields of translation as part of their course. Others insisted on

the need to review BA programme plans, offer more hours for translation and provide better

labs and equipment.

4.3.3 Discussion

TT administrators and trainers ‘input sheds light on significant issues relating to the quality of

the TT programmes in which they work, including the structure, goals and admission criteria

of those programmes, low student linguistic and translation competences, student assessment

measures and the methods used for overall programme evaluation.

A number of trainers were especially concerned with the low level of KSA (knowledge,

skills and attitudes) amongst students at entry, which they trace to lenient screening processes.

These weaknesses were apparent in poor writing and speaking skills in the students’ target

languages. Consequently, rather than focus on developing students’ translation competences,

trainers must spend time and effort correcting basic linguistic errors. The more professional

and rigorous the admission process, the better the investment of all available resources,

including students and trainers.

At the strategic level, administrators identified issues arising from efforts to enhance

the quality of TT programmes through NCAAA review cycles and accreditation regulations.

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Despite the administrative burden created by lengthy paperwork and adherence requirements,

NCAAA quality assurance measures remain a useful and well-prepared mechanism through

which TT institutions can develop and measure their success.

Students of all levels shared many concerns such as scarcity of translator trainers, lack

of internships, lack of training on translation technology and equipment, and the clear mismatch

between their TT curricula and demands of the translation market. Undergraduate students had

contradicting views on their trainers as some were content and others were hoping for more

supportive specialised student-centred trainers. MA and PhD students were equally divided in

regards to the content and delivery of TT in their programmes. Positive aspects included the

support offered by the trainers and the attempts of some trainers to engage students in class

activities. Negatively, many students were displeased with the traditional teacher-centred

approach of lecturing.

Almost all administrators, trainers and students agreed in one way or another on the

importance of considering professional market needs in TT curriculum design. Saudi academic

participants in this study showed increasing awareness of the necessity to adopt modern TT

practices, models and approaches.

4.4 Market stakeholders

4.4.1 Professional Translators

Because they were educated in Saudi TT institutions and could provide feedback on the

relevance of their previous TT to their current jobs, professional translators are the first most

important market stakeholder. Therefore, this study interviewed fourteen Saudi male and

female professional translators from June 2014 to December 2015. The findings obtained from

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the interviews with professional translators are summarised in Table 4.9 in the form of a SWOT

analysis used to pinpoint the key issues they raised.

Strengths Weaknesses
Lack of support for translators’ rights and status
TT-related degrees
Lack of translation technology
Availability of higher studies in TS
Lack of proper professional certification
Awareness of professional development
Lack of professional associations
Optimistic view of profession
Lack of professional TT and market-driven
Exerting efforts to develop profession
translation education
Awareness of importance of balancing translation
Limited promotion prospects in the public sector
theory and practice
Damage to image and reputation caused by non-
Increasing demand for translators due to an open
specialists entering the market
local industry and Foreign Direct Investment in local
market Little awareness of online training opportunities
(such as MOOCs)

Opportunities Threats
Build strategic and personal networks with TT Social and market dissatisfaction
institutions to reflect on profession
Low pay in private and public sectors
Initiate profession-related regulations to protect
Preference to hire non-Saudi translators in private
translators’ rights and jobs
sector due to low pay
Increase recognition through media and social media
TT curricula being outdated
Increased recognition resulting in better pay scales in
Translators’ image and reputation
public and private sectors
Obstacles to implement change
National plan for a knowledge-based society
Limited opportunities for public sector employment
Local media highlighting demand for professional
and promotion
translators and addressing their problems
Table 4.9: SWOT analysis of professional translators’ data

As Table 4.9 indicates, this participant group identified a wide range of strengths, weaknesses,

challenges and opportunities. Most of these are related to translation education/TT, the status

of the profession itself and regulatory/procedural obstacles in the private and public translation

markets. Before considering these issues and their ramifications for Saudi professional

translators and TT institutions, it is useful to profile the fourteen professional translators who

took part in the study.

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Profiles of professional translators

Code Qualification Age Place and Role Type of agency Gender

PT1 BA in Eng. language 27 Riyadh / Translator Large public agency Female
and literature (KSU) (education sector)
PT2 BA in Translation 37 Riyadh / Senior Large, private Male
(KSU) Project Coordinator multinational Telecom.
and translator company
PT3 BA in Translation 40 Riyadh / Chief Large multinational Male
(KSU) Translator company (military
training)
PT4 BA in translation 45 Jeddah and Riyadh / Royal Court Male
(KSU); MA in Translator and
TESOL and PhD in interpreter (for
foreign language
employer and as
education (USA)
freelancer)
PT5 BA in Eng. language 47 Riyadh / Translator Large public agency Male
and literature, MA in (tourism and archaeology)
translation (IMISIU)
PT6 BA in Eng. language 27 Dammam and other Private event management Female
and literature (KFU) major cities / and translation agency
Translator
PT7 BA in Eng. language 23 Riyadh / Translator / Private Female
and translation (PNU) Administration and telecommunications
Accountant Assistant company
PT8 BA in translation 35 Riyadh / Translator / Large public agency Male
(KSU), MA in public Administration work (equivalent to a
administration (KSU) parliament)
PT9 BA in translation 25 Riyadh / Translator Large multinational Female
(KSU) company (aerospace
training and business)
PT10 BA in Eng. language 37 Alqaseem / Translator Large public agency Male
and (research and training
translation(IMISIU); agency)
MA in TESOL, PhD
in TS(Canada)
PT11 BA in Eng. language 30 Riyadh / Translator Large public agency Male
and literature (KSU) (equivalent to a
parliament)
PT12 Three prof. translation 58 Riyadh / Interpreter, Large public agency Male
diplomas (KSA and Translator (equivalent to a
Egypt) parliament)
PT13 BA in Eng. language 37 Riyadh / translation Large public agency Male
and translation; MA in project manager (full (translation and
linguistics (IMISIU) time), freelance Arabization research and
translator (spare time) training agency)
PT14 BA in translation 37 Riyadh / Translator large public agency Male

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 (KSU) (equivalent to a
parliament)
Table 4.10: Profiles of professional translators

As Table 4.10 shows, six of the fourteen translators interviewed had a BA in translation, three

had a BA in languages and translation, four had a BA in language and literature and one had a

diploma in translation. In other words, while the majority of those interviewed were hired with

a BA specifically in translation, other qualifications were accepted in both the public and

private sectors.

It is worth mentioning that some of the translators earned higher degrees while on the

job. For example, PT13, a translator specialising in archaeology, earned his MA in TS from

IMISIU while working. Another interesting phenomenon was how translators changed careers

and pursued higher studies in other areas for promotion. PT8, for example, was studying an

MA in Public Administration at the time of the interview, in the hope of progressing to more

executive positions.

Participants’ experience

Those interviewed had between three and twenty years’ experience working in a variety of

public and private agencies. The types of translation work they handled include legal

translation (PT13); official letters, company policies, educational and training materials

(PT10); business books and documents, military, aerospace, banking, official certificates,

company notices, legal contracts, general correspondence documents (PT9); military training

documents translation and interpreting (PT2); annual reports and economic, financial, political

and parliamentary translation and interpreting (PT8, PT11, PT12 and PT14); and business and

legal documents (PT3) in addition to literary and other types of technical translation mentioned

by other translators.

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 Some preferred to freelance part time in addition to their main, normally government

job as a teacher, administrator or project manager. PT13, for example, who had freelanced for

the last seven years, had been employed as a manager of translation projects for two and half

years.

Challenges faced by professionals

One of the many challenges that emerged from the interviews with this group was the

detachment of TT programmes from the market and the effect this has had on their

employability. Translators stressed that graduate employability was a crucial indicator of a

programme’s success. On this point, PT1 argued that:

It is very important for translation programmes to be linked with the market because it would help
the programmes keep up with the changing technology of the translation market, and ensure a better
structure for the programmes.

Likewise, employability was also ‘a very high indicator’ for PT10, because

basically when students join a programme, whether it is translation or any other programme, this is
what they’re looking for: looking for employment. If the department’s graduates are known to be
hired in a short time and it has a very good reputation within the professional field with the
companies that are in the market, I think it’s a very good indicator.

According to PT2, ‘a lot of translators are graduating but they cannot start’ because their

universities have not equipped them with the starting skills necessary for the translation market.

To address this, PT4 suggested that for ‘any translation degree programme in every university,

there should be a department or a coordinator for employment, finding job opportunities for

the translators’.

The group also indicated that pay scale regulatory challenges somewhat impede the

progress of government-employed translators. For example, within the government civil

service scale for translators, promotion prospects are limited. PT8 stated that where he worked

currently, it was possible to get promoted to Senior Translator in ‘four years. Then in five or

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six years to Director of the Translation Department’, which is the top of the scale in his

agency.14

Generalist vs. Specialist

Despite their years of experience, most of those interviewed still categorised themselves as

generalist translators. Some believed that this tendency to avoid specialisation could be linked

to pressure from employers demanding that translators be capable of handling different genres

of translation.

PT10, who was working on his PhD in TS, offered this explanation for why he saw

himself as a generalist:

Because for my future plans I will continue to work on translations, but after obtaining my degree I
wouldn’t continue doing like before I did, I would be more like a project manager, not actually
dealing with texts and doing translations. So I wouldn’t need to specialise.

PT11 claimed that ‘we don’t have specialists in the Arab world’ while PT13 believed that he

was ‘a mix of the two’: he can ‘do translations in another field. Although you do concentrate

on and love that field, you can’t do all your translations only in this field’.

Translators’ satisfaction with their TT degrees

Participants’ satisfaction with their TT degrees varied widely. PT1 stated that ‘education in

Saudi Arabia, especially in the teaching modern languages does not prepare graduates for these

fields’ but listed a number of other factors that had contributed to her success as a translator,

such as her ‘aspiration in this area, previous contributions with professional translators and

attempts to address some specific problems in translation’. PT1 opposed integrating TT into

14
As previously noted, there are 15 Grades in the Saudi civil service job scale, each with 15 steps that must be
passed to progress from one grade to the next. Depending on the number of vacancies at the time, a translator with
a BA (in languages and translation) is normally hired at Grade 5 or 6, with an approximate starting monthly salary
of £800.

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foreign language programmes in Saudi Arabia, which she saw as ‘a vital problem’. Giving the

example of ‘English Language and Literature’ degrees that integrate literature, linguistics and

translation, she concluded that ‘this issue has created some obstacles for translators in general;

consequently, they will not be adequately equipped to handle the job’.

Similarly, PT10 thought that the TT component in his BA programme ‘was kind of

amateurish’. With a PhD in TS, PT10 was well-versed in both the profession and discipline

and therefore able to provide a detailed diagnosis of the problems resulting from the inability

of TT programmes to cater for the needs of the discipline, the profession and the wider society.

In his view, ‘we don’t receive the proper training [in theory], but I would say that we receive

actual training, we did actual translation, but as far as theory is concerned, I don’t believe we

received much’. Moreover, PT10 added, the texts used for in-class translation were chosen

randomly; students did not have criteria for selecting content to be translated or how it was

translated, nor did they know why they needed to translate them. To make matters worse,

although courses had different titles such as ‘Islamic Translation’ or ‘Technical Translation’,

‘the approach was the same’ (PT10). PT10 was particularly critical of training methodology,

stating that ‘they would simply give us the texts, give us 15 to 20 minutes to translate and [then]

the professor would ask: “How did you translate such and such sentence or phrase?” Sometimes

they collected at the end and corrected something for the following week’.

Disputing the approach his translator trainers took in training him, PT10 added that

‘they would take suggestions of what is the best translation of a certain sentence and they would

eventually give us what they claimed to be the right translation, but why this is the right

translation, we don’t really know’.

Not all translators disapproved of integration, however. PT13, for example, felt the

integration of TT into BA modern languages programmes boosted his translation competence:

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 [It is] very important, in fact, because in our BA programme we had to study three majors at once:
linguistics, translation and literature. [. . .] My English became very good because I took these three.
[…] Studying at that time was very hard. You could hardly pass the programme unless you were
capable in language.

Having been ill prepared by his TT programme, PT2 had to self-train: ‘I depended on myself.

I did a lot of training, a lot of practising in translation offices for free, just to support myself

and to be ready for the challenge’. In his view,

To be honest, the main problem was that not all the professors were specialists in translation. Most
of them were […] We lack specialists in translation and its teaching. There is lack of translation
practice.

According to PT5, the random selection of translation texts for class exercises is equally

problematic, so ‘professors selected topics/texts from newspapers sold in shops. The professors

choose the texts themselves’. PT5 concluded by asserting that ‘we needed more focus on

translation and its practice. There is a need for review of curriculum’. More positively, PT5

commended his TT programme for facilitating an internship at a private agency.

Translation Degree as a requirement for work in the translation market

When asked if having a translation degree was necessary to work in the market, PT1 replied

that ‘the relationship between acquiring the science of translation and engaging in the

translation profession cannot be dissociated’: stating that

Translators/ interpreters should be familiar with the conception of translation, what is a translation,
how we translate, what are the methods of translation, translation problems, how do we address it.
Secondly, they have to recognize how to put theoretical knowledge into practice. Lastly, they also
should read more about the source and the target language, contact experienced translators and take
advantage of their expertise, and correct the negative aspects continuously. As a result, translators
will be able to deal with this job scientifically.

But the reality of the profession is chaotic, PT10 complained, arguing that although translators

should have a degree in translation (or at least a relevant field), the opposite is true in Saudi

Arabia, where ‘many translators are working who don’t have a degree in languages, they don’t

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have official certificates, being a professional in a given language. Some of them are not even

bilingual. Their second language skill is not even close to professional, but they do translate

and they get published as well’.

Motivation to work in the translation profession

Some were attracted to the profession by the fact that translation is more challenging than other

jobs. Others referred to it being socially respected, knowledge enrichment by having to read in

the area one translates and variety of experiences. PT10 simply had a passion for working as

translator: ‘For me, my intention has been always translation, but at the time I graduated it

didn’t pay as much as being a teacher. So my passion has always been translation, but for

economic reasons I chose the teaching track.’

Surprisingly, ten of the fourteen translators did not initially plan to enter the profession

not because they were not interested in it but because other jobs seemed more well-established.

PT1 studied English language and literature but was attracted to translation because it ‘educates

one more by learning and researching both the source and the target language. Not only does

it feed our minds linguistically, but it is considered as a way that leads translators from one

culture to another culture and from one community to another one’. For PT12, translation and

interpreting brought joy and self-discovery: ‘I found myself in it. I love it. I enjoy being one, I

like the team work. Frankly speaking, I find myself: I was searching for my inner self and I

found it here.’

For PT7, by contrast, working as a translator was ‘not a thing that I chose. It’s my

destiny. I wanted to learn a language, but I didn’t want to be a translator, I wanted the language

for myself, but now I’m a translator’. PT8 ‘didn’t have any plans, it happened by coincidence’.

When he first applied to university, he wanted to be a dentist, but was not accepted onto the

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course. He then ‘changed the whole plan to become a translator’, the option he’d listed second

on his application.

Rewarding aspects of the profession

Despite their clients’ lack of awareness of the nature and process of professional translation,

and the fact that they always gave short notices for translation jobs, PT14 still found translation

‘enjoyable’. PT3 hoped to pursue higher studies in other areas, and planned to continue

translating. To him, translation is ‘a hobby’. PT5 felt that as a translator, he was contributing

‘something new and specialised’ and also ‘meeting external and internal specialists in this

field’. PT11 saw several benefits to working in translation, such as enriching one’s vocabulary,

improving one’s writing style and developing one’s translation and linguistic competences by

reading books. For PT12, the most rewarding aspect was client satisfaction, while for PT5 it

was the opportunity to spread knowledge both inside and outside the Kingdom.

Recommendations for developing TT

To improve the ability of TT to cater for the needs of the market and society, participants

recommended recruiting TS and TT specialists, offering internal and external translation

courses and workshops for all translators generally, updating and evaluating curriculum

constantly in both languages in order to improve translators’ skills and abilities academically

and practically, and giving undergraduates the opportunity to specialise either in legal or

literary translation (PT1). PT10 stressed the need to focus on translation technology training

while PT11 emphasised building strong links with the market, arguing that universities must

visit the marketplace, see what it requires, then adjust their courses accordingly. PT13 called

for a better balance between theory and practice, with more emphasis on practice. PT3

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recommended more focus to be placed on economic translation, technology, communication

and computer skills, ‘but theory is also important’.

Use of translation technology at work

Some translators used modern dictionaries, translation books and textbooks in Arabic and

English. Others used CAT tools such as Trados. Some, like PT6, use specialised technology to

‘find acronyms in financial and IT translations’. Others use translation memories and online

dictionaries. PT9 and his colleagues use an in-house memory system and templates developed

by their IT department. Five of the fourteen translators did not use or preferred not to use

translation technology or CAT tools because they were not trained on them.

Status of translators in Saudi Arabia and the need for professional associations

Asked whether translators needed associations and agencies to protect their rights and help

regulate the profession, PT10 affirmed that ‘it’s a good idea to have that: one hand doesn’t

clap’. There is one professional association in KSA called the Saudi Association of Languages

and Translation (SAOLT), which drew a mixed reaction from the translators who took part in

this study. Some were not even aware of its existence. Of those that did, some, such as PT13,

were not attracted to its activities and therefore discontinued their memberships. PT13

preferred the international Proz.com to SAOLT. PT8 proposed that SAOLT should reach out

to translators and activate its role in supporting them.

PT5 explained that SAOLT used to organise conferences and events which he found

valuable, but these activities have since been ‘discontinued for reasons I am not aware of’.

Regarding the status of the translation profession, participants’ views varied widely.

Some saw it as prestigious and flourishing. PT1, for example, asserted that ‘due to substantial

progress in Saudi universities and the critical need to study international approaches, this

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profession has gained popularity in recent years and it is a prestigious occupation as it is gaining

more importance’. Similarly, PT10 thought that the profession was ‘pretty prestigious in Saudi

Arabia. The payment is not as we would expect, but being a professional and being known,

you are appreciated’.

By contrast, PT11 complained that the translator doesn’t get ‘the attention and care

from the agency to which he works. He doesn’t receive much care, [and has] no status’. He

advised translators to ‘raise people’s awareness on our job: how difficult it is, how many skills

I developed to become a translator. When people know the hard time you spent studying and

gaining knowledge in that field, they will be more respectful towards you’. PT13 also thought

that the profession was ‘not really prestigious’ and lamented the fact that society viewed it ‘just

like any paperwork job, which it is absolutely not. It’s not prestigious’. The picture is not totally

bleak, nevertheless. According to PT13, the profession is gradually becoming ‘more important

because now the focus of the whole country, in fact, is transferring knowledge. Knowledge has

become a priority these days. Now it’s becoming more prestigious, people are recognising the

importance of this job’. But this positive change is ‘not to the level that we wish as translators’.

Moreover, translators need ‘more training, more support’.

Although PT4 thought that the profession was not yet ‘as prestigious as we hope for’,

he believed its status had improved recently due to higher demand and the growing visibility

of prizes such as the Saudi King Abdullah International Prize for Translation, which recognises

excellence in five genres of translation annually.

Growth of the translation industry

Opinion differed over whether or not the translation industry was expanding. The majority of

participants were generally optimistic. PT4, for example, thought that the Saudi market was

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‘definitely expanding’ on the evidence of the strong national economy and annual increases in

the state budget, which created opportunities for ‘more government business, more contracts

[and] more international cooperation with major companies’, leading in turn to higher demand

for ‘translation because all these contracts and agreements need to be translated’. As for the

private sector, PT4 felt it was ‘growing’ because he is ‘always contacted regarding translation

jobs here and there with companies’. Similarly, PT10 asserted that the demand for translators

was increasing and described the business as lucrative provided ‘you know how to approach

the work and you know the right people’. Furthermore, he linked this growing demand to

globalisation and the fact that ‘people all over the world are getting closer and the need for

translations for them to communicate has risen dramatically. I believe that it has increased a

lot’.

Opportunities for continuous professional development (CPD)

Opportunities for CPD varied widely between agencies. Some participants like PT11 were

frustrated and left to do it themselves; others like PT13 benefited from in-house training

provision. Most participants complained about scarcity of professional TT seminars and

workshops in Saudi Arabia and lack of CPD support they received from their employers. Some

were unaware that alternative CPD opportunities were available online. Others had plans to

pursue higher studies in TS.

4.4.2 Translation Agencies

Interviewee profiles

Interviews were conducted with the managers of thirteen translation agencies. All are based in

Riyadh with branches and support offices in other cities around the Kingdom and have been in

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operation from three to thirty-one years. To protect confidentiality, the names and personal

information of participants were anonymised. Accordingly, the interviewees were coded from

TA1 to TA1315. The key details of each manager are summarised in Table 4.11 below.

TA Location Role Qualification Type of

Agency

TA1 Riyadh and Owner and Manager BA Trans. (KSU) Private

Jeddah

TA2 Riyadh Senior Manager BA English (KSU), MA Public

Linguistics (USA), PhD TS

(UK)

TA3 Riyadh Manager BA English Language and Public

Translation (IMISIU), and MA

and PhD in Linguistics (USA)

TA4 Riyadh and Owner and Manager BA English (USA) Private

other cities

TA5 Riyadh Head of Dept. BA and MA English Lit. (KSU) Public

TA6 Riyadh and Head of Translation Dept. BA in Librarianship and Private

other cities Information Studies (IMISIU)

TA7 Riyadh Director General of BA in Linguistics (KSU) Public

Translation Dept.

TA8 Riyadh Manager BA English lit. (Basrah Private

University, Iraq)

TA9 Riyadh and Head of Translation Dept. BA English, MA Translation Public

other cities (UK), MA Int. Relations

(Germany)

15
TA stands for Translation Agency.
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 TA10 Riyadh and Chief Consultant for BA Trans. (IMISIU), MA and Public

other cities Translation Projects PhD Applied Linguistics (USA)

TA11 Riyadh and Owner and Manager BA English Lit. (KSU) Private

other cities

TA12 Riyadh Manager (Co-founder) BA Applied Linguistics (AUB), Private

Diploma TESOL (UK)

TA13 Riyadh and Manager BA Trans. (KSU), MA and PhD Public

Jeddah Linguistics (USA)

Table 4.11: Profiles of translation agencies’ managers

Several managers had more than one job at the same time. For example, TA8 had a number of

roles including translator, manager and appropriator. In the case of one public translation

agency (TA5), no official title was used. TA5 identified their role a ‘Senior Translator’ but

colleagues also called TA5 the head of the translation department.

Regarding promotion, in certain cases there was gradual development from a pure

translation managerial job to more of a consultancy role or executive post. TA10, for example,

‘was the Director General, and now I’m a Chief Consultant for translation projects, and recently

I was moved to the Advisory Board of the Centre’.

As Table 4.11 shows, almost all participants had a BA in English language, linguistics,

literature or translation and some held postgraduate degrees in translation or a relevant area.

Most had graduated from Saudi universities with extensive training in translation and between

five and thirty-five years’ experience in the translation market. It is worth noting that some of

the managers still link translation to linguistics. For example, TA3 believes that ‘translation

has always been a branch of linguistics, applied mainly’, while others, such as TA9 who held

an MA in translation and interpreting from Durham University, had a clear understanding of

translation as an independent discipline and called for the update of current Saudi TT

programmes.

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Types/genres of texts handled

The translation activities performed by these agencies included translating and Arabising

academic/literary/general knowledge books, research in translation and Arabisation, training

in translation and Arabisation, parliamentary consecutive interpreting, translating medical

reports, certificates, contracts and general documents, reviews of products, government

administrative documents, correspondence between government agencies and their

international counterparts and clients, guidebooks, internet website content and scientific and

literary translation.

Upon entry into the translation market, some agencies begin by offering written

translation services. As they gain more experience and a better understanding the market’s

needs, they tend to vary their services or shift to highly specialised translation and conference

simultaneous and consecutive interpreting services. When TA1 first started in 2005, for

example, they

decided to focus on written translations for a good three years and then we shifted to interpreting.
I started as an interpreter myself and it became like a business to me, so I hired part-time
interpreters to help me with events interpretation services.

TA10, for example, who worked in a government ministry until 2010, translated documents

for the top management as well as official correspondence documents, contracts with the

ministry’s international counterparts, guidebooks for other departments within the ministry,

ministry’s website content, higher education topics and over 45 educational books. Other types

of translation carried out by these agencies included subtitling films, translating voiceovers,

legal translation and medical translation (TA11). TA12, with thirty years’ market experience,

built a strong client base and gained a relatively large market share handling big projects such

as translating high-profile and large scale administrative information systems and commercial

banking control systems such as the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency (OCC) manuals

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borrowed from the United States, high-volume documents that exceed 10,000 pages. TA12’s

agency worked on adapting these OCC documents to the Saudi culture and market. The agency

also handled banking and financial translation for twelve banks in the Kingdom, including three

high-profile European banks: Credit Suisse, UPS and Paribas. This agency also translated

Service Level Agreements (SLA) that enabled foreign banks to obtain their Saudi business

license and operate in the Kingdom in partnership with a local bank. PT12 indicated that this

type of translation is so highly specialised and complex that only a few translation agencies in

the Saudi market choose to venture into it and there are few Saudi translators working there.

Most of the translation handled by TA5 by contrast involves legal, technical (focused

on fire fighting and protection of civilians), military, and security-related articles and studies,

including articles published in well-known newspapers such The New York Times and The

Washington Post as TA5 explained:

For example, we had a study about Saudi Arabia […]. First, I translated the study, then I was told
to write, actually I did the research, I wrote a response or something. I did analyse the study and I
was able to find out that the study was full of plagiarism, misquotation, distortion, a lot of things.
The author of the study wasn't honest, to put it nicely. So, I wrote the response in Arabic, then I
translated it into English. (TA5)

Employment issues

The agencies involved in this study varied in a number of aspects, including whether its status

as public or private, its employment procedures, the number of Saudi translators employed and

its reasons for employing (or not employing) Saudi translators. Some of those interviewed

worked in public organisations such as the Centre of Translation and Publication in the Saudi

Ministry of Higher Education, the Institute of Public Administration and the Shura Council

(the Consultative Council). Others were employed by private agencies such as TA1’s. When it

was established in 2005, the majority of translators were non-Saudi and the few Saudi

translators worked only on a part-time basis, as TA1 explained:

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 Most of the Saudis were PhD [holders], they were competent enough, but they weren't many. Many
of them were busy with their full-time jobs. They wouldn't dedicate some of their time to the
interpretation services. Although it pays well, […] there aren't many competent in Saudi Arabia.
And I say if they were competent, many diplomatic jobs or whatever, many organisations would
attract them with bigger bucks.

Accreditation was a major challenge facing some agencies in terms of types of degrees required

for employment, the preference for degree-holders over those with experience only, the impact

of academic recruitment regulations on professional translators and many other issues related

to external factors such as the client’s awareness of work process and lack of translation

services standards regulation.

TA10, for example, uses the services of Saudi translators on a part-time basis. Most of

these translators hold PhDs, but given how poorly remunerated full-time translators put them

off: ‘My agency would never hire Saudi recruits because the pay does not live up to their

expectations’ (TA10).

Low pay for translators and other problems are linked to the chaos in the Saudi

translation market. TA12 described it as

a real mess. You have hundreds, maybe approaching thousands of translation licences being issued
in the market, but who’s doing what? Is it professional work? Do they have a kind of database for
keeping translation work to be evaluated, to be used, to avoid redundancy? None of these things
are available in the market because [you need] an organisation for translators like the rest of the
Arab world, for example, the Arab Translation Association, there’s nothing here, not even a branch
for a Pan-Arab translation association.

The Saudi Association of Languages and Translation was established in 2003, yet TA11

believes it is still ‘in the formation stages’. Lack of clear leadership puts the situation in the

Saudi translation market in doubt. As TA9 put it, ‘I’m not sure on what basis these [translation]

offices have been licensed, accredited, what qualifications the translators in these offices have:

is it a true qualification or fake?’

Other managers expressed concern over the confusion in the market between licencing

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a translation office and certifying one. They claimed that unprofessional agencies were using

this confusion to their advantage by claiming that they were licenced and certified by various

local and international associations. ‘There’s a big difference between a licensed and a certified

office’, however, as TA11 explained: ‘For instance, with the American Translators

Association, I was reading some information about certifying Delta with ATA: there are certain

requirements, certain procedures, and certain fees’. By contrast, ‘there is no certification in

[Saudi Arabia], no certification agency’.

TA13 believed that a BA in languages and translation (or English language and

literature, as it is commonly called in Saudi Arabia) was enough to qualify translators for

employment. TA4 stated that while their agency would offer a bigger financial package to

translators with a BA or MA, the individual translator’s performance in the screening process

was also important. Financial gain was not the agency’s only objective, however, TA4 added:

‘Sometimes we don’t look for huge profit to hire Saudis. Also it is a national goal shared by

the private sector and the government’. TA4 emphasised that generally companies did not hire

Saudi translators because they were expensive, although some could afford it. TA7, who

managed a prestigious government agency, believed that professional and highly qualified

translators and interpreters would not consider working for that agency because it was bound

by civil service recruitment regulations that kept salaries below the expectations.

Client awareness

Several managers expressed concern over their clients’ lack of understanding of the nature of

translation business.

Mainly they think anybody who can speak English is able to translate or interpret, which is not the
case. This is one thing. The other thing is sometimes the complication of translation which requires
time. We face the time limitation which is required by our clients to finish the job within a very
short period of time, which unfortunately sometimes detracts from the quality of the work.

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 Sometimes if you don’t agree on their terms, because they figure that they pay the money, but we
have limited resources in terms of translators. (TA4)

TA4’s agency could not afford to hire a large number of translators to cover what is in effect

only ‘seasonal work’, noting that demand is high in winter but in the summer it ‘declined by a

substantial percentage’.

While some managers believed that the translation profession enjoyed a degree of

prestige, most of the participating agencies (including TA4) were challenged by their clients’

misconceptions about the profession of translation (‘They think it's like a Xerox machine, you

put in the paper, press the button and voilà, it's done!’ (TA5)) and the imposition of unrealistic

deadlines that took no account of the complexity of the material to be translated. Produced

under pressure, the quality of their work suffered, potentially affecting the reputation of the

agency and its relationship with clients., To address this challenge, TA5 suggested raising

awareness among high-level government and private sector officials of the importance of

translation, reviewing translators’ job scales and benefits and introducing more relevant and

effective translator training/development schemes.

Cooperation and partnerships

TA13 summarised the need to build bridges between the market and TT institutions thus:

This is the real world link, because not only in the translation profession but in any higher
education output, you need to have connection with the real world because you need to employ,
you need to provide employment for these young people. So I think it's very important to have a
certain organisation or institution make the link to be a bridge between the job market and
educational institutions.

In support of the same premise, TA1 argued that academic institutions offering TT programmes

should select potential students carefully, and preferentially ‘accept or enrol students who are

really determined to be interpreters or translators’.

TA10 by contrast was driven by a sense of ‘social responsibility’ to provide internship

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opportunities for students. On one occasion, TA10 reported, ‘we hired a group of [male]

translators who were about to graduate; they came to our Department and worked under my

supervision’ for one semester. At the time of interview, TA10 was also preparing to receive ‘a

group of females with another university’ to work as interns during the summer. It was clear

from the interview that the scheme is driven by TA10 personally, and is not part of a wider

systematic or institutional initiative.

In fact, TA11 described a ‘complete disconnection’ between the market and the

universities: ‘Nobody, no students came to me and ask me to make training for them.’

Curriculum challenges

The participants highlighted a number of curriculum-related challenges, including the duration

of the programme and the balance between theory and practice. While TA11 felt strongly that

a 5-year TT programme was sufficient to prepare translators for the Saudi translation market,

given that ‘the teaching material is good and they are doing good practice in the universities’,

TA12 had serious concerns about the curricula:

There are two big gaps: the pre-entry, the official level between their curriculum, teaching English
or translation, although it’s a local university, and their high school English language and Arabic
language background. This gap is not professionally bridged and it continues through graduation;
this is one point. Another thing: when they go and they join a government department or a bank
or anything and they take the management side of a translation facility but they don’t do the
translation itself. So the gap continues, and the lack of experience continues.

On the importance of incorporating theory into TT curricula, TA12 asserted that ‘theory is the

base: translation theory, cultural adaptation […] this is a must, applied linguistics, structural

approach. Translation theory is an amalgam of disciplines’. On the other hand, TA12 also

warned that Saudi TT curricula continued to produce graduates who lacked market skills:

‘When you go to actual practice, you still find those gaps with which they graduated. […] They

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go for the managerial posts, they supervise, but they have big gaps between the practice and

the theory, real big gaps. That’s a major issue.’

Likewise, TA13 described ‘the lack of the experience on the part of the translators when

they graduate from college’, commenting that TT programme graduates ‘are thrown into the

job market without further preparation’. The same manager suggested that in addition to the 4-

5 years that students spend in TT programmes including their foundation year, they should do

‘a 6-month training programme before they are thrown into the market’.

In sharp contrast, TA2 argued that TT institutions could not and should not prepare a

professional translator because translators are not made but born: ‘Translation is a creative

area. There are good translators who have never had any formal instruction. And there are

people with very high training in translation studies and they can't translate.’

TA3 noted that the main recommendation to emerge from a forum held by King

Abdullah Institute for Translation and Arabisation in Riyadh in 2013 at which representatives

of many academic institutions in the Arabian Gulf region met with representatives of the

market and universities decision makers was to review the curriculum, a project whose success

depended on cooperation between translation agencies and TT institutions.

In the case of TA3, a successful internship/training programme was in place with a

Saudi university that sent seven of its Arabic/English translation students and seven of its

Arabic/French translation students to this agency for training and such fruitful collaboration

was meant to be carried on in the years to come.

Most participants thought that four to five years are enough to prepare translators. But

that is not the main issue. PT9 explained that

The problem might mostly rely on the teaching methodologies and the curricula. It may not be the
professors or the length of the programme – because four or five years is more than enough to do
the job – but I think the teaching methodology is still… I mean, translation cannot be taught just
by giving texts and just asking the students to translate and say “This is right, this is wrong”.

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Type and volume of demand in the Saudi market

TA10 believed that there was a growing need for translation services in Saudi Arabia, but

stressed the need to distinguish between need and demand:

There’s huge need, not huge demand. The demand means that you know you need something, but
most of the cases I’ve seen, people really need translation services, but they don’t know they do.
When they realise that, they realise it at the wrong time, they ask the wrong people to do it, and
it’s all wrong! The last time I was in a conference there was a team of 8 interpreters who failed to
do the translations because they were too technical for them: it was a nutrition conference. They
got into the matter of saturated fats, you know, the kind of terminology we have to go through,
and they had to evacuate within the next five minutes of the inauguration, they just couldn’t do it!

TA10 added that because there were so few professional Saudi translation agencies, most

clients turned to other Arab countries to satisfy their translation needs. In part, this was a result

of lack of regulations and the fact that ‘it’s a chaotic market, it’s a mess: that’s the least

[statement] I could use to describe the market.’

Reflecting on the translation of materials for publication purposes, TA6 highlighted the

challenge of selecting the right materials to translate into Arabic. To meet that challenge, TA6

suggested that translators ask themselves the following questions:

 What field of knowledge is attractive and marketable to the Saudi audience?

 What topics are appropriate for translation into Arabic?

 Will the translated text add value to the target language?

 Will it be beneficial to the target audience?

 Will it sell?

At this agency, there was high demand (almost 80%) for translations of novels, management

books, self-development, psychology and educational books. To a lesser degree, there is a

rising demand for economic, financial and legal translation.

TA8 linked the increase in foreign direct investment (FDI) in Saudi Arabia with the

growing demand for economic and financial translation. This agency also offered high-quality,

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specialised medical translation, for example, patients’ leaflets. Commenting on the challenge

involved in delivering high-quality translation at a competitive price, TA8 explained that:

In my case I deliver quality that is a bit higher than the price they offer. I started with the medical
companies, the patient leaflets, I do translation of this. This is highly technical and it’s me they
came to. Over time I try to select people who have background in medicine to do that, for years I
have done it. It’s not expensive at all, it’s usually 300 riyals and I’m taking 70. You have
competitors in the market. I have better quality for the price, that’s how I stay in the market.
Sometimes my clients don’t appreciate quality at all, they don’t have the tools to differentiate.

Noting that their agency also translates licences, permits, certificates, birth certificates and

other legal documents, TA9 asserted that the translation market is expanding in all fields and

specifically in legal and medical translation.

Generalist vs. Specialist

Asked if they preferred to recruit generalist or specialist translators, some managers, such as

TA11 and TA4, expressed a preference for generalists. TA11 justified his choice by explaining

that he enjoyed working with a wide range of people while TA4 explained that because of

pressure from clients to keep prices low, one ‘can’t afford to have translators in each topic’.

On the other hand, those who favoured specialist translators, such as TA2, TA8 and TA9,

stressed the needs of the contemporary market demand specialisation; they used part-time

specialists whenever that need arose.

Quality as a challenge

Almost all interviewees voiced concern over the poor quality of translation, which they saw as

symptomatic of the many unprofessional translation offices throughout the country. TA10

blamed the poor quality on the absence of auditing and regulation and suggested adopting the

Australian model of quality assurance, the National Accreditation Authority for Translators

and Interpreters (NAATI):

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 You cannot sell a book being a translation without auditing: who would audit that for you? Who
would seal it with quality other than these people? And if there is any conflict between two
different parties, the judge, the professional auditor, the arbitrator is going to be NAATI and no-
one else. We don’t have this here.

Almost all participants stressed the need to regulate the Saudi translation industry and protect

the rights of clients and agencies. TA10 was equally concerned about the unprofessional level

of translated books and materials in the Saudi market.

To address these concerns, TA12 called for benchmarking and importing professional

standards from existing international models of translation quality elaborating that ‘We

[should] adapt those standards to the Saudi situation and we get some really good stuff to work

with’.

Remuneration and translation-related financial regulations

The remuneration of Saudi translators was briefly referred to earlier, but this section offers a

more in-depth analysis of the feedback from participants. For example, the manager of TA1, a

private agency, explained that because translators and interpreters have effective oral and

written communication skills, they ‘can get a much better job than an interpreter, [a] higher

paid job than an interpreter or a translator’. Consequently, Saudi translators tend to take better

paid jobs outside the profession because translation jobs are ‘not very well paid’. Non-Saudi

translators end up taking those jobs, especially in the private sector, despite ‘lower rates’.

The manager of TA10, a public agency, agreed that for Saudis, working in translation

is ‘not rewarding. It doesn’t mean we don’t have good translators, but it’s not worth it’. TA10

felt that translators were underpaid and should be offered higher salaries, but ‘the system

wouldn’t [do so]. The regulations are never helpful’. Therefore, TA10 argued, change should

come from the top: ‘I believe it’s important to instil this concept in the decision makers’ heads

first. People in the Ministry, people in the civil service, they have a job named “translator”,

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that’s all they have for you, and it’s an entry-level job, it’s the lowest level of jobs and it doesn’t

go that far.’

TA10 also complained that for those employed by the government, opportunities for

promotion were limited because translators enter the civil service at Grade 6 and cannot

progress past Grade 8 or 9 even after 10 years. The only way to escape this dead end is to

‘switch to another track’, which indicates that translators are not expected to ‘continue […] as

a translator’ in Grade 9.

Training as a challenge

For TA10, most of the problems associated with TT programmes could be solved by requiring

those programmes to be accredited by the National Commission for Academic Accreditation

and Assessment (NCAAA):

This agency is going to help you put things in perspective. One of the requirements of this agency,
like every other agency in the world, is that you’re expected to have a programme plan that links
professors to majors, textbooks and curricula. They all have to be related, to be linked and to be
properly placed. You can’t have an applied linguistics professor teach Hamlet. If you do, you don’t
get the accreditation. It has to be a translation major, someone who has the proper training to teach
something like that. You have to have the proper infrastructure, a translation lab. All of that
structure that qualifies you to be accredited as a programme that prepares translators. [Based on
those criteria], I don’t see any English department from the ones I’ve seen, for the ones I know,
that would qualify to be a good programme for translation training.

TA1 believed that Saudi TT programmes lacked practical components and were too theoretical;

consequently, they did not reflect what was required by ‘the real world, where you translate

different subject matters and sophisticated ideas. That doesn't happen in the universities’. TA1

added that TT institutions should have more rigorous admission criteria and should review their

‘selection process’ and improve the process of accepting and enrolling students: ‘The

admission process should be focused on those who will really [want] this job as a career.’ While

the manager of TA10, a public agency, said TT graduates were ‘good, they did a very good

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job’, TA10, who worked in academic institutions before managing this agency, identified a

number of challenges in relation to TT programmes, the first of which is the lack of TT or TS

specialists:

they don’t exist! We don’t have them! It’s the common understanding of [our universities] in the
decision-making process to sponsor a student to go over to a foreign university to study translation.
The people who are making the decision for this student to go are absolutely clueless about
translation: they don’t see the difference between translation studies and translation training and
training translators, translation theory […] they don’t have that background! Whatever paper you
throw at them with the word “translation”, they’re going to say “OK, go ahead!” Then you go, and
you come back with a PhD in Translation Whatever and you’re again a clueless addition to the
department!

In twenty years of previous academic work, TA11 did not encounter a single Saudi or non-

Saudi TT specialist, and all the current trainers/professors teaching translation ‘are people with

interests’. According to TA11, ‘We’re far away from the proper practice in this area’ but

‘there’s some hope that the new generation is going to be different’. Highlighting the need to

build bridges between TT programmes and the market, TA11 confirmed that ‘they’re not linked

to the market. They’re far away. They don’t even take the initiative seriously’. But when

attempts were made to improve the situation, TA11 added, it failed due to the shortage of

specialists in the field.

TA12 believed that TT programmes should incorporate training in translation

management skills. TA13 asserted that internships (or cooperative training, as it is called in

Saudi Arabia) should be incorporated into TT programmes. TA2 warned TT institutions against

allowing professors with a background in language training to teach/train translators, which he

described as ‘a blind leading a blind’.

TA2 also asserted that translator trainers should not be focusing on grammatical

mistakes. TA3 had low expectations of translation graduates of Saudi colleges of languages

and translation and English departments because ‘they do not have vocational training, nor do

they have real world experience, especially interpretation’.

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 To address this challenge, TA3 suggested that TT programmes’ students be offered

practical training opportunities through which they can ‘flourish and then work’, and ‘develop

their abilities and do their best’. Having finished their internships and graduated, these students

will be able to work in the market. They should then receive on-the-job training to help them

advance, which TA3 noted ‘is something that they lack here in Saudi Arabia’.

The manager of TA9, a private agency, justified the lack of (or weak) support and

training the agency provided on the grounds that, as a private agency, ‘you can’t guarantee that

all your goals will be achieved in a certain time’.

Challenges as opportunities

The large number of challenges, weaknesses and threats in the Saudi translation market are

best addressed as opportunities for development. Doing so would involve improving the status

of translators professionally and economically. TA10 emphasised that an interest in translation

was essential for entry to the profession; ‘even with a degree in Translation you’re never put

to the test [by being able to perform well in the market]’. TA10 expects translators to graduate

from professionally-oriented programmes such as Salford University in Manchester,

which was a very, very good school, with a very powerful programme: a school that I would really
love to see Saudi students go to. Because they have a very powerful hands-on programme, they
are really good at preparing translators.

The ideal translator trainer, TA10 believes, is ‘a very good reader’, because ‘background is

vital for trainers to be able to select the areas of interest they prepare the students in’. In

addition, translator trainers should have some professional market experience, and should ‘be

very comfortable with technology, especially editing tools [and] empty systems’.

TA11 expected TT graduates to have received sufficient professional translation

training and preferred to hire MA holders with experience and ‘some knowledge in Arabic

literature’. Likewise, TA13 believed that translator trainers should have professional

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translation experience and not just teach theory. For TA12, it was important that TT graduates

have professional skills and ethical principles. In TA12’s view, the most pressing issue in the

current Saudi translation scene was the need for review and renewal of university curricula to

match international best practice in TT.

TA4 expected TT graduates to ‘possess many characteristics, skills and talents’,

including strong bilingual competence, ‘to deal with the spirit of the language instead of literal

translation, to be creative’ and patient, because ‘this is a very tedious, difficult, demanding

job’. TA5 believed translators should have a high linguistic competence, ‘love and passion’ for

languages, research skills, excellent writing skills and be ready to obtain technical knowledge.

While TA6 believed that translators should have extensive experience in translating

books and research studies, charge reasonably, be professional and convey meaning not

literally but meaningfully and faithfully, be highly proficient in both languages but especially

in their mother tongue, and be well-versed in the Arabic language, mastering its syntax and

semantics. In addition, they should be able to meet deadlines and manage their time well.

As a large translation and publishing agency, TA6 expected translators to take a

professional approach to translation and specify their line of specialisation and career direction.

They should be avid readers of translation books and master editing skills, especially Arabic

Grammar, writing norms and punctuation. Furthermore, TA7 expected translators (and

interpreters) to learn specialised terminology, have confidence and the ability to concentrate as

well as high bilingual competence. TA9 needed translators who are committed, can exhibit a

high degree of bilingual competence (‘especially the target language’) and who have had theory

and professional academic training.

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Professional bodies and legislation to protect the profession

In terms of what is lacking in the translation industry, a number of issues were raised by the

participants. TA10 asserted that the most pressing issue was lack of legislation:

When we talk about legislation, it doesn’t have to be the government. Legislation should lead to
putting things in perspective. In Saudi Arabia, and the same – by the way – applies to all Arab
countries, you can easily claim to be a translator with absolutely no qualification, no background,
no experience.

TA10 concluded that introducing the proper legislation would facilitate proper regulation and

professional classification, certification, testing and auditing. In other words, it would lead to

‘all kinds of control that we know in professional authorities around the world’ such as NAATI,

and ‘you just can’t release a translation in the Australian market without their approval’.

TA10 added that control and regulations should also ensure that translation training

programmes are evaluated properly and professionally. On the topic of short-term

vocational/professional translation programmes, TA10 suggested that they should be

accredited by the NCAAA rather than the Technical and Vocational Training Corporation

because the former is more academically and professionally relevant to TT programmes than

the latter. According to TA10 that the priorities in addressing problems in the translation

industry and academia were first to ‘to get the industry legislated and organised’ and then move

on to evaluating TT institutions tested before ‘look[ing] at the market needs and determin[ing]

what they need’.

TA13 suggested that there was a pressing need for professional ‘organisations that

provide training in the field of translation, or corporate-type institutions’ and called for the

establishment of an organisation focusing on studies (or databases and job services) of

employment and training opportunities for aspiring Saudi translators to make ‘this connection

between the market and education programmes’.

TA8 warned against the lack of government regulation of translation activities; the

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‘government doesn’t need to control each and every aspect of the […] translation profession or

any other, what it needs to do is to impose restrictions and enforce those restrictions.’ In

addition, TA8 suggested that real control should come from within the translation agency

through an association or a syndicate

not only for translation, [but also] for all freelancers: they control their work by these kinds of
associations. The government should establish the rules, regulations, after that those people are
supposed to comply with them.

Moreover, TA8 suggested that translation businesses should not be licensed through the

Ministry of Commerce (as is the case currently) because ‘they have nothing to do with it’.

Rather, it should be handled by the Ministry of Justice, because ‘in most countries, translators

work with the legal system’. TA8 also warned that many Saudi translators were not interested

in developing their translation experience; they tended to be business owners who hired non-

Saudi translators to do the work for them. This practice is an obstacle to forming translation

associations and syndicates: ‘This is the issue, this is what makes it difficult to start some sort

of association or society, because 95% of translation business is run by non-Saudis, this is the

issue.’

4.4.3 Discussion

Both groups of professional stakeholders addressed TT in Saudi Arabia from different angles;

the professionals analysed it from the recipient’s perspective and employers highlighted issues

that impacted them as beneficiaries and incubators of its output. There was almost unanimous

agreement on the urgent need to gradually move in the direction of attaching TT programmes

with the market, which in turn was seen as a major contributor to the employability of aspiring

translators. In order to initiate this change in paradigm and attitude (that of academic ivory

towers and translation market), the participants emphasised that the relationship between TT

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institutions and market representatives should be built on mutual benefits and long-term

partnership.

As recommended by participants, for example, TT institutions could benefit from

professionals as speakers in classes and workshops, internship opportunities, market’s needs

being considered in TT curricula and highly qualified aspiring translators being prepared to

work in the market. Similarly, the market could benefit from its professional translators’

involvement in TT and being abreast of new academic research in the field as well as fulfilling

their corporate social responsibility by contributing to educating and training future translators.

Due to the many negative points that led to the poor outputs of TT programmes, it is

undoubtedly time for both camps (academia and market) to prioritise the enormous benefits

they and their society will gain from their collaboration in improving the quality of TT

programmes and level of translators. It is high time that both camps to put aside their pride and

work together.

Other pressing issues that all professional participants pinpointed including absence of

profession’s regulations, improper licencing of translators, and scarcity of CPD resources

necessitate launching a national initiative (or project) to address all of these challenges. This

initiative could be shared by TT institutions, market representatives and all relevant

stakeholders. As Saudi Arabia nowadays is moving towards major structural changes inspired

by its new 2030 government vision, this initiative is well-justified and timely. If public and

private agencies aim to reach out to their local and international clients and target audience,

highly professional translators are a key player in the success of those agencies’ endeavour.

But this means that for these translators to carry out their tasks as expected, their training,

professional rights and industry environment ought to be kept in good stead matching

international high standards and best practice. This will not only help make bridges between

the profession and academia but it will also address concerns raised in most participants’

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accounts with translation as a career making it much more attractive to young Saudi males and

females.

4.5 Conclusion and implications

The significant findings reached as a result of the large analysed data of this study revealed a

great wealth of useful feedback on the reality of Saudi TT as opposed to the expectations of

relevant academic and market stakeholders. The predominant reaction of participants to the

main question of the current study provides evidence for symptoms of a persistent gap between

the real world and TT institutions resulting in underperforming translators, outdated curricula,

heavily theoretical teaching of translators, lack of much needed sources including specialised

translator trainers, translation courses and technology equipment and expertise.

All the participating agencies and professional translators shared the perception that

current TT programmes must make a serious effort to build bridges with the real world (i.e. the

translation market) to better prepare aspiring translators to enter it confidently and perform

well. Most academic stakeholders (especially students) agreed with the same perception. Both

camps are in agreement, but everyone is occupied in their daily business, not realising that

working together could save time, efforts and direct their focus to more harmonised fruitful

work and results in terms of training quality and graduates’ employability and social, economic

and professional contribution.

Other major issues which were highlighted by most participants include the state of the

translation industry where the majority agreed that the need for translation services is

increasing in Saudi Arabia, and that there is considerable momentum in the industry. This is

encouraging both for TT institutions to perfect their efforts in preparing aspiring translators

and for employers in their future business development plans.

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 However, most of the market representatives in this study expressed concern over the

poor quality of most existing translation offices, the poor level of output by universities and

the lack of legislation, regulation, proper certification and proper auditing and, most

importantly, the lack of high-quality TT programmes. These are big challenges that no one

institution or association can solve without the help of other key players. It is high time that TT

institutions, market representatives, translation associations and relevant government agencies

all work collaboratively to address such challenges. This could be under the umbrella of a

translation commission that ensures the execution of an effective strategy and proper,

sustainable long-term solutions to existing and future challenges in the Saudi translation scene.

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 Chapter Five: Conclusion

The findings of this study have significant implications for Saudi TT programmes. The

predominant response of participants to the main research question provides evidence of a

persistent gap between the real world and TT institutions, resulting in underperforming

translators, outdated curricula, heavily theoretical teaching and insufficient resources,

including specialised translator trainers and translation technology facilities.

In general, participants believed current TT programmes might fruitfully consider

building bridges with the real world (i.e. the translation market) to better prepare aspiring

translators to enter it confidently and perform well. Both academic and professional camps are

in agreement, but each is focused on their daily business, not realising that working together

could save time and effort and produce better results in terms of training quality, graduate

employability and social, economic and professional development. Other highlighted issues

include the state of the translation industry and the rising demand for translation services in

Saudi Arabia, an incentive both for TT institutions to perfect their efforts to prepare aspiring

translators and for employers to support their business development plans.

Other major areas of concern to participating market representatives include the poor

quality of many existing translation offices, the low level of output by universities, lack of

legislation, regulation, proper certification and auditing and, most importantly, lack of high-

quality TT programmes. Such sizeable challenges cannot be addressed by one institution or a

single association. The time has come for TT institutions, market representatives, translation

associations and relevant government bodies to address these challenges collaboratively. A

translation commission that ensures the execution of an effective strategy and proper,

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sustainable, long-term solutions to existing and future challenges in the Saudi translation scene

may be one mechanism for doing so.

The response from participants to the main question of this study – how suitable today’s

Saudi university-level TT is for translation students and market – focused on two areas: the

strategic management of TT institutions (and external agencies impacting it) and their internal

operations.

Strategically, academic and market stakeholders’ feedback highlighted several

impediments to establishing a professional translation environment in Saudi Arabia including

lack of regulation and auditing and the absence of proper certification, failure to optimise the

professional profile of the translator and ignorance regarding the expectations of employers.

Existing and relatively successful international models of translator skill sets could help to

mend this problem. For example, a tertiary level EMT Competence profile for translators

(2009) and the OPTIMALE employers’ consultation survey (2011) identifying skills required

by employers could, if replicated and appropriately customised, help fulfil the Saudi translation

industry’s demand for suitably qualified translators.

A major conclusion that emerged from the data is that existing Saudi TT curricula are

outdated, enlarging the already enormous gap between them and the market. Therefore, it is

recommended that all TT programmes take a proactive approach to designing and developing

their curricula. The content, methodology and all necessary resources should not only be up-

to-date but also be future-proofed. One way to achieve this is to cultivate constant links with

key players in the local and international translation industry and to remain actively involved

in professional and academic research and development groups and associations both within

the country and abroad. Another tactic for achieving future proofing is to establish strong

partnerships with world-renowned universities with demonstrated expertise in TS and TT in

the Middle East, Europe and elsewhere.

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 Participants also highlighted the lack of quality standards and translation service

provider/customer protection. Translation market policy makers can address this issue at the

strategic regulatory level by establishing a professional association of Saudi translation

companies, whose members are thoroughly vetted before admission and formally certified

subsequently, are expected to comply with a code of professional conduct, are held to a high

standard of professional ethics and are subject to professional indemnity insurance cover,

thereby protecting the interests of both translation companies and clients. The experience of

the UK’s Association of Translation Companies, founded in 1976, could be instructive in the

early stages of establishing such an association in Saudi Arabia.

To further strengthen the link between TT programmes and the real world, it is advised

that Saudi institutions realise their national duty in preparing highly professional translators

who are able to present Saudi culture to others clearly and effectively. In the midst of the

political and economic conflicts that characterise today’s highly demanding and chaotic world,

the image of many Arab and Muslim countries, including Saudi Arabia, has been greatly

distorted, thanks in part to certain international media outlets and government agencies with

hidden agendas against Saudi Arabia that have perpetuated misconceptions about the Saudi

people, their beliefs, religion and ideology. These distorted images and misconceptions cannot

be changed without the collaboration of highly qualified translators and interpreters who can

function as cultural ambassadors. Therefore, it is high time for TT institutions to cater to both

the public and private sectors, providing professional translators and interpreters who can meet

that challenge. Differences between nations will always exist. It is not the goal of the translator

to abolish these differences, yet he/she should aim to minimise them for the sake of building

bridges rather than enlarging the already enormous gaps between cultures, proving to all that

the world we live in is not homogenous, but rather diverse, multicultural and heterogeneous.

Translators therefore need to be highly trained intellectuals and professionals who can perform

328
at a highly advanced level to enhance the strategic position of countries like Saudi Arabia in

the global political and economic arenas, put paid to any attempts to distort it and present their

culture and country at its best to other nations.

In terms of the internal operations of TT institutions, several conclusions can be

reached. The first observation shared by participants is that TT programmes provide

insufficient practical training, leaving their graduates unequipped with the entry level skills

required in the Saudi translation market. Almost all participants stressed the need to close the

enormous gap between course content and market needs, to replace ineffective TT

methodology, address the lack of specialised, professional translator trainers and the lack of

contact with, and involvement of, employers in analysing and assessing TT needs and

curriculum planning. Moreover, there was clear discontent with the lack of internships, over-

emphasis on theory, and limited training in translation technology.

One way of developing these areas is to prioritise improving the quality of TT curricula

and base the review, renewal and design of their content and delivery on TNA of all relevant

stakeholders using a systematic approach such as TTCDC. To provide innovative, market-

driven translator education/training, it is imperative that any training or teaching programme

for translators analyse the needs of its main participants, i.e. the students and trainers, or it will

fail to achieve its goals. Successful TT also depends on adopting modern TT approaches that

encourage a market-oriented, group-based class environment facilitating inductive learning.

Ultimately, TT institutions should aim to prepare professional generations of translation

thinkers and doers: thinkers who are highly intellectual, reflective and creative and doers who

are able to match the expectations of their employers and society.

To address the contentious issue of whether to offer translation education or TT at the

tertiary level, Saudi TT institutions could benefit from the example of the many successful

329
scenarios in the UK, USA and elsewhere that focus on generic translation education and

transferable skills at the undergraduate level and specialised TT at the postgraduate level. This

approach is based on the assumption that TT students’ linguistic command of the target

language at postgraduate level is sufficient to enable them to dedicate their efforts to acquiring

translation competence rather than language learning. Given that, for example, English is

spoken as a foreign language in Saudi Arabia and linguistic competence at the BA level is not

normally advanced enough for specialised TT, this approach lends itself to the Saudi context.

However, to equip aspiring translators at the undergraduate level with advanced linguistic and

cultural skills of the target language and culture, they should spend a year abroad in a country

where they can immerse themselves in that language and culture.

Ensuring effective curriculum design by adopting TTCDC model is also recommended.

The model takes a systematic approach to TT, through which institutions can develop a well-

written action plan that addresses the needs of all relevant stakeholders and enables continuous

development by providing ample opportunities for gathering feedback. In order to mitigate

fragmentation and misunderstanding amongst faculty members, it is important that TTCDC

instils a set of agreed principles on the basis of which all staff design their course content,

teaching/leaning activities and formative/summative assessments. Examples of such principles

include 1) well-informed eclecticism in teaching/training content, delivery and student

assessment; 2) robust research in TT/TS supported by multi-componential

translator/translation competence models and translator trainer competence models, hence

promoting measurable sets of interdisciplinary, market-oriented knowledge, skills and

attitudes; 3) skill sets covering linguistic, cultural, technological and professional aspects that

ultimately meet market demands; 4) empowering students by adopting an inductive, task-based

learning approach in the early stages of TT and moving towards a more challenging project-

based training; and 5) offering students a wide range of theoretical positions on translation,

330
allowing them open space for critical reflection and providing practical, market-oriented

exercises through which students can adopt various positions and decide for themselves which

translation theories and approaches they believe best suit the texts and the context; 6) balancing

translation theory and practice, with an emphasis on integrating academic research skills

development and professional translation applications; and 7) embracing the approach

advocated by the TTCDC that market-oriented TT should focus on the transferable skills that

students need to enter the market at the undergraduate level and on highly specialised skills

and knowledge at the postgraduate level.

Encouraging active engagement by relevant stakeholders by providing opportunities

for hands-on practice in translation technology, for example, or through access to professional

translation tools and specialised translator trainers, helps TT institutions respond to the short-

and long-term demands of the translation market. This proposition requires long-term strategic

planning to encourage coordinated and collaborative efforts from all key players. As this study

has clearly shown, adopting and adapting useful concepts such as TNA, situational analysis

and quality assurance can assist both the short and long-term development of more suitable TT

programmes in Saudi Arabia.

The current study has many implications. Saudi translation experts, students and

professionals have called for a professional body that certifies Saudi translators and offers life-

long learning and training programmes. A consortium led by leading Saudi universities (similar

to that of TransCert16 in Europe) is needed to fill this gap. Such a project, which requires

generous funding, could be supported through the corporate social responsibility budgets of

the Saudi private sector. The possibility of either a Saudi or an Arab equivalent of the EMT

16
Linked with EMT, TransCert (Trans-European Voluntary Certification for Translators) is a European project
which aims to address the urgent need for continuing professional development and EU-wide certification for
translators. Primarily, TransCert is designed to cater for these needs jointly (involving all stakeholders in the
translation industry) and to establish a comprehensive certification for the job profile "Translator” (euatc.org).

331
network, through which a solid MA programme in Arabic translation into (and from) other

languages can provide innovative and high-quality translator training, should be discussed.

This process can easily be followed by certification to ensure a high standard of

professionalism and the adoption of the principle of life-long learning.

Similarly, the failure to benchmark in the quality of translation services provision could

partially be addressed by providing a national (or possibly transnational) certification system

based on best practice at the national and international levels. To achieve this, it will be

necessary to adopt an innovative approach that combines best practice in assuring the quality

not only of individual translators but of the translation industry as a whole.

Again the TransCert certification scheme provides a good example: it combines

translation quality assurance best practices (e.g. EN 15038) and industry certification at the

European level (e.g. ECQA) with international standards in personal certification (e.g. ISO

17024 – General requirements for bodies operating certification of persons).

Another important implication of the study is that TT should move away from teacher-

centred training practices that not only limit students’ creativity and restrict their learning

opportunities but also produce outputs that leave students incapable of doing the job for which

they have been trained and therefore end up being unemployable. To boost the employability

of their graduates and protect the economy of the countries in which they are based, TT

programmes should provide workplace training opportunities by adding an internship element

in the final year of their BA and MA programmes that prepare aspiring translators for the

realities of the market.

Moreover, Saudi TT programmes should emphasise innovative translator education and

training. This issue has been a focal point for professionals and academics specialising in the

field of translation studies for many years and applies to translator education at the tertiary

332
level and beyond. In addition, to meet the needs of their students, the market and wider society,

TT institutions may fruitfully consider maintaining the highest standards of quality and

professional relevance in vocational and adult educational training. Their efforts could support

the certification of professional translators and the development of a uniform standard through

which to differentiate translator certification bodies. It is also advisable to ensure that training

at the tertiary level is in line with best practice within the industry and adopts effective learning

and teaching approaches. In so doing, TT programmes can promote competitiveness, increase

employability, ensure sustainability and build a professional set of translator skills to help

Saudi translators enter the market confidently and mobilise freely.

Success will depend on the ability of TT institutions to future proof curricula and

predict future demands. This can be achieved by establishing strong links with world-class

educational institutions, building long-term collaborative partnerships with highly regarded

international TT programmes, maintaining strong links to the local, regional and international

translation market and industry as well as (local and international) university research groups,

and adopting a balanced approach when preparing translation students professionally and

academically. Furthermore, the strategic direction of TT programmes should be based on local,

societal and market needs while at the same time considering international trends in TS and TT

research training and education and bearing in mind the political, economic, social and

technological factors impacting TT.

Using SWOT, administrators of TT institutions can capitalise on the strengths of their

programmes and address any weaknesses, threats and challenges impeding their development

and the achievement of their teaching aims, learning outcomes and overall operational and

strategic goals. These challenges may positively be seen by administrators as opportunities for

advancement in terms of course content, training methodology, assessment of students and

trainers and the overall evaluation of their programmes. For example, many students

333
commented on the lack of support in terms of the availability of learning resources, the quality

of academic guidance for undergraduates and supervision for postgraduates, access to

advanced information-based systems and the development of a positive learning environment

in which there are ample opportunities for academic and professional development for all

students. These are serious issues that require consideration by those in charge of TT

programmes.

It is also recommended that Quality Assurance is placed at the heart of TT strategic and

operational functions so that it becomes an ongoing process, ensuring high standards of content,

delivery and assessment. To better prepare their postgraduate students for work in a highly

demanding research environment both locally and internationally, TT programmes should offer

comprehensive postgraduate training programmes based on the modern researcher

development frameworks currently used in UK universities such as Queen’s University of

Belfast. This framework should aim to 1) help researchers to evaluate and plan their

professional development, 2) assist managers and supervisors of researchers to support the

development of researchers, and 3) guide trainers, developers, human resources specialists and

careers advisors in the planning and provision of support for researchers’ development.

Finally, there are opportunities for further research through pilot studies of TTCDC at

various levels, including undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. A further study could

investigate the views of translation scholars regarding systematic, need-based approaches to

TT curriculum development such as TTCDC. As this study has focused exclusively on the

training of translators, investigating opportunities to improving interpreter training in Saudi

Arabia may be worthwhile.

The initiatives proposed by this study will hopefully help to establish strong links

between Saudi (and non-Saudi) TT academics and translation professionals. An independent

body with responsibility for creating those links and protecting both academic and professional

334
interests would be the ideal means to achieve this end, with all concerned parties taking part in

moulding highly effective future Saudi translators.

335
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Appendices

Appendix 1. Saudi Professional Translators’ Interview Questions:

Section a) Personal information:

Name: Age: Gender:

Educ. Qualification: Educ. Institution you graduated from: Years of work

experience: Years of professional translation experience:

Country/ City you work in: Your current role / job in your department/ agency:

Section b) Professional information:

1. Could you tell me about your translation experience?

2. Types of translation jobs you have done/ you have been doing recently
3. The companies/ agencies you have worked for prior to the current one.
4. Why did you become a translator? How popular and prestigious is it as a profession in Saudi Arabia?
5. What prepared you most to be able to handle this experience?
6. What did you learn from this experience (so far) that might help others who are considering a
certificate or programme in translation?
7. What has been the most rewarding part of your experience so far?
8. How relevant was your degree programme to the types of translation jobs you have been doing? In
other words, do you feel it prepared you to work in the translation industry?
9. Describe your translation degree programme experience (types of courses, areas of specializations,
practical training and internship if any).
10. More specifically, could you tell me how satisfied you are with:
- Your degree programme in general
- Courses you have attended
- Curricula, and programmes content / Delivery methods
- Teachers/trainers support to students
- Translation technology or software programmes used
11. Do you think that having a degree in translation is indispensable for working in the industry? Why?
12. What is your concept of an ideal / professional translator?
13. In your opinion, what do university translation departments need to focus on mainly in order to prepare
an ideal translator for a highly competitive and technologically advanced market?
14. Based on your experience, how have the market and its demands changed over the last few years? How
will they change in the nearest decade, in your opinion?
15. It appears that two types of translators exist: those, who are specialists in a given area and who found
that their translation services were sought after, and those, who decided to become translators and then
specialised later on. To which group do you belong? Why did you take that path?
16. How significant to you are the following points: The programme’s link with today’s market Graduates’
employability
17. How important is Continuous Professional Development? What available sources do you use ensure
you are up to date with changes in translation technology and industry? What do you think of MOOCs
(massive open online courses)? Are they useful in filling knowledge gaps?
18. What is your advice to new translators? What to do, what to avoid?

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Appendix 2. Saudi Translation Agencies’ Interview Questions:

Section a) Agency Profile:

Name of agency: Name of interviewee: His/ Her role in the agency: Educ. Qualification:
Agency’s years of existence in the Saudi market:

Section b) Professional info:

1. Could you give me an overview of your agency’s / department’s translation activities?

2. Could you describe the status of the translation industry/market in Saudi Arabia nowadays?
3. What challenges do you face in the business of translation?
4. What is the percentage of Saudi translators in your company/ agency?
5. In your department/ agency / company, what selection conditions or criteria are used for recruiting
translators?
6. What strategic partnerships do you have with translation departments at Saudi universities?
7. Are you willing to offer final year university students any internship/ training opportunities in your
department / agency /company if you were asked?
8. How satisfied are you with Saudi translators who graduated from Saudi universities?
9. Would your department/ agency/ company recruit fresh graduates (who no past experience in
translation) with bachelor’s degrees in translation from Saudi Universities? If yes, Why / If no, why
not?
10. Would your department/ agency/ company require graduates with specialised master’s degrees in
translation from Saudi Universities? If yes, Why / If no, why not?
11. Would you offer a Saudi university graduate with a BA/MA in translation a higher financial package
than to someone with no educational qualification? If yes, why / If not, why not?
12. What is the appropriate duration/ period of education and training for a translator to be ready to work in
your agency/ department?
13. In your opinion, what type of translation is most required in the Saudi translation market?
(Financial/ legal / literary/ medical /scientific /technical/ political/ media/ or generic)
14. Could you describe what you believe as the ideal Translator Training programme in this highly
technologically advanced world?
15. What do university translation departments need to focus on mainly to prepare an ideal translator for a
highly competitive and technologically advanced market?
16. Some translator training programmes in the Middle East (specifically Saudi Arabia) are now
considering renewing their curricula. In your opinion, how should they do that in terms of content and
delivery? Areas of specializations? Meeting the needs of the market?
17. You are a leading agency/ company in the Saudi translation industry. What translation technology have
you found most useful? Are Saudi translators competent in using such technology?
18. In your opinion, what are the main traits or characteristics of a successful translator trainer?
19. Many Translation Studies scholars emphasise the importance of:
- Translator Training programmes’ link with the translation market (the real world)
- Graduates’ employability and employers’ satisfaction rates or levels of the graduates. What is your
view on these issues?
20. As for continuous professional development, what resources do you use to ensure your employees can
cope with changes in translation technology and industry?
21. In your opinion, how can university translation programmes instil the concept of translators’
continuous professional development (CPD) in their students?
22. What future needs do you forecast for translator training and translation industry? How can we future-
proof our translation education or training programmes?

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Appendix 3. TT Administrators’ Interview Questions:

1. Could you provide an overview of the types of TT programmes you offer at this College, please? In terms of

a) Its nature (integrated TT or a separate track),

b) Structure and duration (and reasons for selecting this structure),

c) Level of TT specialisation at BA, MA and PhD levels

d) Sources available (trainers and training aids/ facilities)

2. What is the overall aim of offering TT in your institution?

3. What is your approach and philosophy in teaching translation?

4. How often do you review your programme and reflect upon how well it’s achieving its objectives?

5. What challenges do you face in your programme?

6. What measures do you use to ensure your TT programmes respond to the needs of the students and market?

7. What components does your programme have to provide sufficient translation practice opportunities for
students to prepare them for the market?

8. Does the programme include an internship (or cooperative training) in a professional translation company/
agency? Is it compulsory? How long is it? When/how is it done? How do assess the benefit from it?

9. How do you design your TT programmes and who is involved the process?

10. At the MA level, does your institution offer both translator training and interpreter training? Are they
separate or they offered in the same programme?

11. Please tell me about the nature of your postgraduate programmes in TS. Are the product-oriented? Process-
oriented? Purely-theoretical, market-oriented, or both?

12. Could you tell me the translation technology modules at the BA and MA levels in terms of content,
practicality, trainers and available equipment?

13. What assurance quality measures do you use in your institution?

14. What support services do you offer to your translation students and trainers?

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Appendix 4. Translator Trainers’ Interview Questions:

1. Please tell me about your experience as a trainer/ professor of Translation in this college in terms of the
number of years and types of courses that you've taught.
2. What approach do you follow in training translators? Does it differ based on level (BA / MA/ PhD) and
how does it differ?
3. Does your BA programme produce generalist translators or specialists? When can students specialise?
4. What type of topics are covered in the MA programme? Are they more professional, specialised
translation, technical translation or more literary translation?
5. How do you evaluate the current TT undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in your institution in
terms of admission policies / structure/duration/ translation genres covered/ content and delivery?
6. How much emphasis do TT programmes in this college put on theory? Practice? Market professional
translation needs?
7. In terms of approach, are they product-oriented or process-oriented? How?
8. Do your programmes offer translation technology components? If yes, how are they trained? Do you
have the facilities and equipment required for it?
9. What changes would you like to suggest to the current TT programmes in this college?
10. What support services do you get in the college? Are there continuous professional development
opportunities here?
11. How important is translation theory in TT? How can it be incorporated?
12. Does that impact your approach of teaching? Do you focus more on the practical side than the
theoretical side?
13. What do you think of task-based and group project-based TT?
14. How much freedom do you give to students in terms of selecting translation texts, making decisions on
what an acceptable translation is and defending their choices?
15. How do you assist your students in developing their translation competence?
16. Do you train them on certain strategies? How?
17. Are assignments done at home? Or in class? Individually or collaboratively?
18. How happy are you with students’ linguistic competence (both in their mother tongue and target
language) when they start the BA programme? MA? PhD? If unhappy, how do you address such a
challenge?
19. Have you noticed any gender differences in terms of approach to study, linguistic competence and
translation competence?
20. Does your BA programme produce generalists or specialists? At what level do you think translation
specialisation should start?
21. In current Saud TT tertiary education, do you believe that students should study linguistics, literature,
translation subject and university required subjects as the case now? Or do you prefer two years of
generic courses and tracking into specialised TT in the last two years? Why?
22. Do you have any final comments on translator training in the College?

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Appendix 5. Saudi Students’ Questionnaire’s Items:
(These items were used with BA, MA and PhD students with slight modifications for each specific stage.)

Project background information sheet:

Dear Participant,

I would like to invite you to kindly take part in a research project carried out by Ahmed Altuhaini, a PhD
research student at Queen’s University of Belfast (UK), in the Translation and Interpreting Studies PhD
programme. First, please allow me to provide you with some background information on the purpose for
conducting this project. Please read the following:

Purpose for conducting the project:

This research is a major part of my postgraduate study. It aims at making useful recommendations to decision
makers in translation departments at Saudi educational institutions to review, renew and develop the quality of
translator training programmes and improve the level of their graduate translators to better serve the Saudi
translation market.

The way and procedure of this questionnaire:

You are invited to complete a questionnaire that has two sections. The first section covers information about you
and years of professional translation experience, if any. The second section will ask you to provide your opinion
on a few important topics and issues on translator training, its market as you see it and according to your
accumulative experience. The duration of the questionnaire will be about 15 minutes.

Future gains and benefits from this project:

The data gathered from your answers and those from other participants will potentially help in making sound
and useful recommendations and suggestions to key players and decision makers in translation departments at
Saudi educational institutions. Your answers will help them review, renew and improve the quality of translation
programmes curricula and make them more up to date and more strongly linked to the needs of aspiring
translators and market.

Protection and confidentiality of data:

Please be assured that all information you provide and all data gathered through your participation in this
questionnaire will be protected and anonymous. It will not be linked to your identity. It will solely be used in my
PhD work and thesis. If you provide your e-mail address, you will be sent a summary of the research findings
provided that you indicate so in your reply email. Any data associated with your identity will be stored
separately and will not be linked to your answers in the questionnaire.

Your participation or withdrawal:

You are encouraged to participate in this questionnaire as it will benefit the researcher and the translation
teaching/ training status in Saudi Arabia, but the decision to take part in it is all yours. If you choose to
participate, you may still withdraw at any point of time without having to provide any justification. If you do
decide to withdraw, all your information will be removed from this project.

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Inquiries about the project:
Please feel free to contact me by email if you have any queries about this project. My contact details are:
Ahmed Altuhaini - Email: aaltuhaini01@qub.ac.uk
My supervisor: Professor David Johnston – Email: d.Johnston@qub.ac.uk
Department of Translation and Interpreting Studies, School of Modern Languages – Queen’s University of
Belfast, UK
Participant consent:
_ Please tick all of the following statements:

_ I have read and understood the details and information sheet about the research project

_ I understand that all the data that I give will be handled in confidence by the researcher. Any personal
information including my name or identifying information will not be revealed publicly.

_ I understand that I have the choice of withdrawing from this questionnaire at any point of time without
justifying, and in this case all my data will be removed and destroyed.

_ I agree to participate in this questionnaire.

Name of Participant:
(You may provide initials if you wish.)

Q 1. How many years of professional translation experience do you have?

Q 2. At what stage of the programme are you now?

Q 3. How would you describe the nature of your programme? Please select the most appropriate answer.

a. purely theoretical
b. purely practical
c. a combination of both

Q 4. Why did you choose to pursue the translation programme you are enrolled in now?

Q 5. Why did you choose this university in particular?

Q 6. What expectations did you have from your current programme (what skills and abilities did you expect to
develop? What kind of knowledge did you want to gain?

Q 7. Has your current translation programme met your expectations? If yes, how? If no, why not?

Q 8. In terms of delivery approach, would you say that the current programme is: (Please use this sign ✓to
answer and explain why if possible)

Item Student's feedback

a. Product-oriented, i.e. types of translation texts are the basis of the programme?

b. Process-oriented, i.e. the process of translation is the basis of the programme?

c. A combination of both?

d. Professional and Market-oriented?

Q 9. How satisfied are you with the professors who taught you in this programme in terms of: (Please be open
and detailed in your answers? You do not need to provide names of professors. You could use ‘Extremely
satisfied’, ‘Very satisfied’, ‘Satisfied’,’ not sure’, ‘Dissatisfied’, ‘Very dissatisfied’, Extremely dissatisfied’)

372
Item Student's feedback

a. Level of speciality in TS and the courses’ content

b. Depth of knowledge in TS

c. Teaching methods

d. Professionalism in training future translation experts/ trainers

e. Willingness to support students in their learning and research

f. Their ability in preparing future TS researchers

g. Attending to different learning styles of students

h. Clarity of goals, objectives, assessment measures and demands (all classes have clear

i. syllabi and you know exactly what you are expected to do each week)

j. Professional and fair evaluation

k. Balance between theory and practice

l. Effective use of teaching/ training aids and technology

m. Effective use of translation technology and training students on its applications

Q 10. What did you like most/ least about your programme? Why?

Please indicate by writing ‘Most 'or 'least' in front of the item(s) and give details. Please comment on all items.

Item Student's feedback

a. Course content (textbooks and materials)

b. Logical sequence of courses

c. Programme structure

d. Timing of classes

e. Professors’ knowledge and expertise in TS

f. Professors’ delivery styles

g. Student support services

h. Access to information and research facilities

i. Other: please specify

Q 11. What changes or improvement would you like to suggest to the current programme based on your
experience as a student? Please use ‘Yes’, ‘Perhaps’, or ‘No’. Please explain provide details for your answer:

Item Student's feedback

a. More theory

b. More translation practice

c. More research-based courses

d. More focus on Computer Assisted Translation (CAT) tools and machine translation

e. More practicum/ internship opportunities

f. Other: please specify

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Q 12. How relevant and useful did your programme’s courses:

Please use ‘Relevant and useful’,’ Not sure’, ‘somewhat relevant and useful’, ‘Not relevant nor useful’, and
please give details why:

(Each level’s study plan was attached to evaluate each course)

Q 13. What has been the most rewarding aspect of your experience in this programme so far?

Q 14 What have you learned from this experience that might help others who are considering undertaking a
degree in translation?

Q 15 After earning your degree, where are you planning to work?

a. Academia (as a teacher/ trainer/ professor/ researcher):

If yes, do you think your current programme is preparing you well for this job? Please give reasons for your
answer?

b. Government agencies (as a translation expert or a language specialist...etc.):

If yes, do you think your current programme is preparing you well for this job? Please give reasons for your
answer?

c. Private Sector: (as a translation expert or a language specialist...etc.):

If yes, do you think your current programme is preparing you well for this job? Please give reasons for your
answer?

Q 16. Are you a practicing translator? If yes, has your experience helped you perform better in your courses?
How?

Q 17. Why did you become a translator?

Q 18. In your opinion, how popular and prestigious is translation as a profession in Saudi Arabia?

Q 19. In your opinion, what do university translation departments primarily need to focus on in order to prepare
professional translators for a highly competitive and technologically advanced market?

Q 20. Based on your experience, how have the market and its demands changed over the last few years? How
will they change over the next decade?

Q 21. Should the translation-market needs be considered in university translation curricula? Why?

Q 22. To what extent do you think graduate employability is an indicator of university translation programme
excellence?

Q 23. How important is it for translation programmes to be linked with the translation market?

Q 24. How important is Continuous Professional Development for you as a translation specialist/ translator?

Specifically,

a. What available sources do you use to ensure you are up to date with changes in translation technology
and industry?

b. What do you think of online translation courses and MOOCs (massive open online courses)? Are they
useful in filling knowledge gaps?

Q 25. If you have any further comments, please provide them here .

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Appendix 6. Consent Form

About the Research

I want to obtain feedback (opinion, satisfaction level, experience) of students, professional translators, agencies,
trainers and administrators of Translator Training programmes in university settings. Your opinion and feedback
on Translator Training programmes will help me develop a new model for training and teaching translation to
university students. This model will be based on the short and long-term needs of translation students and the
demands of the market. This will be achieved through assessing existing Translator Training programmes in a
number of countries and evaluating the satisfaction of those involved such as translation training programmes’
students and administrators, translator trainers, professional translators, and translation public and private
organizations. When I finish all the interviews, I’ll then look for common experiences between all the
interviewees. These experiences will then be compared and analysed to make recommendations as to how
Translator Training institutions can improve their curricula, training methodology and evaluation measures.

Consent of the interviewee:

I confirm I have been provided and understood information about this study and have asked and received
answers to any questions raised.

I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time without giving a
reason and without my rights being affected in any way

I understand that the researcher (Ahmed Altuhaini) will hold all information and data collected securely and in
confidence and that all efforts will be made to ensure that I cannot be identified as a participant in the study
(except as might be required by law) and I give permission for the researchers to hold relevant personal data

I agree to take part in the above research.

Name of Interviewee: ____________________________________

Interviewee signature: ____________________________________ Consent date: ___/____/___

Researcher signature: ____________________________________ Consent date: ___/____/___

375
Appendix 7. Informed Interviewee Release Form

I hereby agree to participate in an interview in connection with research being conducted by [Ahmed Altuhaini]
in connection with work for his PhD thesis.

The interview will be audio recorded. In the interview I will be identified by name.

I understand that, upon completion of the interview, the audio and information content of the interview may be
used as follows:

Material from this interview may be quoted in the research papers and PhD thesis of [Ahmed
Altuhaini], but I will remain anonymous.

I would like to receive an audio copy of the interview / printed copy of the interview and a printed
copy of any transcript produced.

I understand that at the conclusion of this particular study and the completed PhD thesis will be kept for public
use by Queen’s University, Belfast and may also be published.

Interviewer signature: ____________________________________

Interviewee signature: ____________________________________ Consent date: ___/____/___

Address _______________________________________________________________________

Preferred mode of contact: email/ text/ phone/ other ______________

Contact number/email ____________________________________________________________

376