INFORMATION SYSTEM

Defi itio A o i atio of ha d a e, soft a e, i f ast u tu e a d t ai ed

pe so el o ga ized to fa ilitate pla i g, o t ol, oo di atio , a d de isio
aki g i a o ga izatio .

Use i fo atio s ste i a se te e

 You should al a s e a le to a ess ou i fo atio s ste f o

a he e so that ou a get the k o ledge that ou eed.

 You should ha e a good i fo atio s ste i pla e so that ou a get a

i fo ou eed ui kl a d effi ie tl .

N/B :I fo atio s ste , a i teg ated set of o po e ts fo olle ti g,

sto i g, a d p o essi g data a d fo deli e i g i fo atio , k o ledge, a d
digital p odu ts. Busi ess fi s a d othe o ga izatio s el o i fo atio
s ste s to a out a d a age thei ope atio s, i te a t ith thei
usto e s a d supplie s, a d o pete i the a ketpla e. Fo i sta e,
o po atio s use i fo atio s ste s to ea h thei pote tial usto e s
ith ta geted essages o e the We , to p o ess fi a ial a ou ts, a d to
a age thei hu a esou es. Go e e ts deplo i fo atio s ste s
to p o ide se i es ost-effe ti el to itize s. Digital goods, su h as
ele t o i ooks a d soft a e, a d o li e se i es, su h as au tio s a d
so ial et o ki g, a e deli e ed ith i fo atio s ste s. I di iduals el
o i fo atio s ste s, ge e all I te et- ased, fo o du ti g u h of
thei pe so al li es: fo so ializi g, stud , shoppi g, a ki g, a d
e te tai e t.

As ajo e te h ologies fo e o di g a d p o essi g i fo atio ha e

ee i e ted o e the ille ia, e apa ilities ha e appea ed. The
i e tio of the p i ti g p ess Joha es Gute e g i the id- th
e tu a d the i e tio of a e ha i al al ulato Blaise Pas al i the
th e tu a e ut t o e a ples. These i e tio s led to a p ofou d
e olutio i the a ilit to e o d, p o ess, a d disse i ate i fo atio
a d k o ledge. The fi st la ge-s ale e ha i al i fo atio s ste as
He a Holle ith’s e sus ta ulato . I e ted i ti e to p o ess the
U.“. e sus, Holle ith’s a hi e ep ese ted a ajo step i auto atio , as
ell as a i spi atio to de elop o pute ized i fo atio s ste s.

O e of the fi st o pute s used fo su h i fo atio p o essi g as the

UNIVAC I, i stalled at the U.“. Bu eau of the Ce sus i fo
ad i ist ati e use a d at Ge e al Ele t i i fo o e ial use.
Begi i g i the late s, pe so al o pute s ought so e of the
ad a tages of i fo atio s ste s to s all usi esses a d to i di iduals.
Ea l i the sa e de ade the I te et ega its e pa sio as the glo al
et o k of et o ks. I the Wo ld Wide We , i e ted Ti
Be e s-Lee as a ea s to a ess the i te li ked i fo atio sto ed i the
o pute s o e ted the I te et, as i stalled to e o e the p i ipal
se i e deli e ed o the et o k. The glo al pe et atio of the I te et
a d the We has e a led a ess to i fo atio a d othe esou es a d
fa ilitated the fo i g of elatio ships a o g people a d o ga izatio s o
a u p e ede ted s ale. The p og ess of ele t o i o e e o e the
I te et has esulted i a d a ati g o th i digital i te pe so al
o u i atio s ia e- ail a d so ial et o ks , dist i utio of p odu ts
soft a e, usi , e- ooks, a d o ies , a d usi ess t a sa tio s u i g,
selli g, a d ad e tisi g o the We . With the e e ge e of s a tpho es,
ta lets, a d othe o pute - ased o ile de i es, all of hi h a e
o e ted i eless o u i atio et o ks, i fo atio s ste s ha e
ee e te ded to suppo t o ilit as the atu al hu a o ditio .

As i fo atio s ste s ha e e a led o e di e se hu a a ti ities, the

ha e e e ted a p ofou d i flue e o e so iet . These s ste s ha e
ui ke ed the pa e of dail a ti ities, affe ted the st u tu e a d i of
o ga izatio s, ha ged the t pe of p odu ts ought, a d i flue ed the
atu e of o k. I fo atio a d k o ledge ha e e o e ital e o o i
esou es. Yet, alo g ith oppo tu ities, the depe de e o i fo atio
s ste s has ought e th eats. I te si e i dust i o atio a d
a ade i esea h o ti uall de elop e oppo tu ities hile ai i g to
o tai the th eats.

Co po e ts of i fo atio s ste s

The ai o po e ts of i fo atio s ste s a e o pute ha d a e a d

soft a e, tele o u i atio s, data ases a d data a ehouses, hu a
esou es, a d p o edu es. The ha d a e, soft a e, a d
tele o u i atio s o stitute i fo atio te h olog IT , hi h is o
i g ai ed i the ope atio s a d a age e t of o ga izatio s.

Co pute ha d a e

Toda e e the s allest fi s, as ell as a households th oughout the

o ld, o o lease o pute s. These a e usuall i o o pute s, also
alled pe so al o pute s. I di iduals a o ultiple o pute s i the
fo of s a tpho es a d othe po ta le de i es. La ge o ga izatio s
t pi all e plo dist i uted o pute s ste s, f o po e ful pa allel-
p o essi g se e s lo ated i data e t es to idel dispe sed pe so al
o pute s a d o ile de i es, i teg ated i to the o ga izatio al
i fo atio s ste s. Togethe ith the pe iphe al e uip e t, su h as
ag eti o solid-state sto age disks, i put-output de i es, a d
tele o u i atio s gea , these o stitute the ha d a e of i fo atio
s ste s. The ost of ha d a e has steadil a d apidl de eased, hile
p o essi g speed a d sto age apa it ha e i eased astl . Ho e e ,
ha d a e’s use of ele t i po e a d its e i o e tal i pa t a e
o e s ei g add essed desig e s.

Co pute soft a e

Co pute soft a e falls i to t o oad lasses: s ste soft a e a d

appli atio soft a e. The p i ipal s ste soft a e is the ope ati g
s ste . It a ages the ha d a e, data a d p og a files, a d othe s ste
esou es a d p o ides ea s fo the use to o t ol the o pute ,
ge e all ia a g aphi al use i te fa e GUI . Appli atio soft a e is
p og a s desig ed to ha dle spe ifi tasks fo use s. E a ples i lude
ge e al-pu pose appli atio suites ith thei sp eadsheet a d o d-
p o essi g p og a s, as ell as e ti al appli atio s that se e a spe ifi
i dust seg e t—fo i sta e, a appli atio that s hedules, outes, a d
t a ks pa kage deli e ies fo a o e ight a ie . La ge fi s use li e sed
appli atio s, usto izi g the to eet thei spe ifi eeds, a d de elop
othe appli atio s i -house o o a outsou ed asis. Co pa ies a also
use appli atio s deli e ed as soft a e-as-a-se i e “aa“ o e the We .
P op ieta soft a e, a aila le f o a d suppo ted its e do s, is ei g
halle ged ope -sou e soft a e a aila le o the We fo f ee use a d
odifi atio u de a li e se that p ote ts its futu e a aila ilit .

Tele o u i atio s

Tele o u i atio s a e used to o e t, o et o k, o pute s ste s

a d t a s it i fo atio . Co e tio s a e esta lished ia i ed o i eless
edia. Wi ed te h ologies i lude oa ial a le a d fi e opti s. Wi eless
te h ologies, p edo i a tl ased o the t a s issio of i o a es a d
adio a es, suppo t o ile o puti g. Pe asi e i fo atio s ste s
ha e a ise ith the o puti g de i es e edded i a diffe e t
ph si al o je ts. Fo e a ple, se so s su h as adio f e ue
ide tifi atio de i es RFIDs a e atta hed to p odu ts o i g th ough
the suppl hai to e a le the t a ki g of thei lo atio a d the o ito i g
of thei o ditio . Wi eless se so et o ks that a e i teg ated i to the
I te et a p odu e assi e a ou ts of data that a e used i seeki g
highe p odu ti it o i o ito i g the e i o e t.

Va ious o pute et o k o figu atio s a e possi le, depe di g o the

eeds of a o ga izatio . Lo al a ea et o ks LANs joi o pute s at a
pa ti ula site, su h as a offi e uildi g o a a ade i a pus.
Met opolita a ea et o ks MANs o e a li ited de sel populated
a ea. Wide a ea et o ks WANs o e t idel dist i uted data e t es,
f e ue tl u diffe e t o ga izatio s. The I te et is a et o k of
et o ks, o e ti g illio s of o pute s lo ated o e e o ti e t.
Th ough et o ki g, use s gai a ess to i fo atio esou es, su h as
la ge data ases, a d to othe i di iduals, su h as o o ke s, lie ts, o
people ho sha e thei p ofessio al o p i ate i te ests. I te et-t pe
se i es a e p o ided ithi a o ga izatio a d fo its e lusi e use
a ious i t a ets that a e a essi le th ough a o se ; fo e a ple, a
i t a et a e deplo ed as a a ess po tal to a sha ed o po ate
do u e t ase. To o e t ith usi ess pa t e s o e the I te et i a
p i ate a d se u e a e , e t a ets a e esta lished as so- alled i tual
p i ate et o ks VPNs e pti g the essages.

Data ases a d data a ehouses

Ma i fo atio s ste s a e p i a il deli e ehi les fo data sto ed i

data ases. A data ase is a olle tio of i te elated data e o ds
o ga ized so that i di idual e o ds o g oups of e o ds a e et ie ed
to satisf a ious ite ia. T pi al e a ples of data ases i lude e plo ee
e o ds a d p odu t atalogs. Data ases suppo t the ope atio s a d
a age e t fu tio s of a e te p ise. Data a ehouses o tai the
a hi al data, olle ted o e ti e, that a e i ed fo i fo atio i
o de to de elop a d a ket e p odu ts, se e the e isti g usto e s
ette , o ea h out to pote tial e usto e s. A o e ho has e e
pu hased so ethi g ith a edit a d—i pe so , ail o de , o o e
the We —is i luded ithi su h data olle tio s.

Hu a esou es a d p o edu es

Qualified people a e a ital o po e t of a i fo atio s ste .

Te h i al pe so el i lude de elop e t a d ope atio s a age s,
usi ess a al sts, s ste s a al sts a d desig e s, data ase ad i ist ato s,
o pute p og a e s, o pute se u it spe ialists, a d o pute
ope ato s. I additio , all o ke s i a o ga izatio ust e t ai ed to
utilize the apa ilities of i fo atio s ste s. Billio s of people a ou d the
o ld a e lea i g a out i fo atio s ste s as the use the We .

P o edu es fo usi g, ope ati g, a d ai tai i g a i fo atio s ste a e

pa t of its do u e tatio . Fo e a ple, p o edu es eed to e esta lished
to u a pa oll p og a , i ludi g he to u it, ho is autho ized to u
it, a d ho has a ess to the output.

T pes of i fo atio s ste s

I fo atio s ste s suppo t ope atio s, k o ledge o k, a d

a age e t i o ga izatio s. The o e all st u tu e of o ga izatio al
i fo atio s ste s is sho i the figu e. Fu tio al i fo atio s ste s
that suppo t a spe ifi o ga izatio al fu tio , su h as a keti g o
p odu tio , ha e ee suppla ted oss-fu tio al s ste s. “u h
s ste s a e o e effe ti e i the de elop e t a d deli e of the
fi ’s p odu ts a d a e e aluated o e losel ith espe t to the
usi ess out o es.

Ope atio al suppo t a d e te p ise s ste s

T a sa tio p o essi g s ste s suppo t the ope atio s th ough hi h

p odu ts a e desig ed, a keted, p odu ed, a d deli e ed. I la ge
o ga izatio s, t a sa tio p o essi g is f e ue tl a o plished ith la ge
i teg ated s ste s k o as e te p ise s ste s. I this ase the
i fo atio s ste s that suppo t a ious fu tio al u its—sales a d
a keti g, p odu tio , fi a e, a d hu a esou es—a e i teg ated i to
a e te p ise esou e pla i g ERP s ste , the p i ipal ki d of
e te p ise s ste . ERP s ste s suppo t the alue hai —that is, the e ti e
se ue e of a ti ities o p o esses th ough hi h a fi adds alue to its
p odu ts. Fo e a ple, a i di idual o a othe usi ess a su it a
usto o de o e the We that auto ati all i itiates just-i -ti e
p odu tio to the usto e ’s spe ifi atio s th ough a app oa h k o as
ass usto izatio . This i ol es se di g o de s f o the usto e s to the
fi ’s a ehouses a d pe haps to supplie s to deli e ate ials just i ti e
fo a at hed usto p odu tio u . Fi a ial a ou ts a e updated
a o di gl , a d illi g is i itiated.

Alo g ith helpi g to i teg ate a fi ’s o alue hai , t a sa tio

p o essi g s ste s a also se e to i teg ate a o ga izatio ’s o e all
suppl hai . This i ludes all fi s i ol ed i desig i g, p odu i g,
a keti g, a d deli e i g the goods a d se i es—f o a ate ials to
the fi al deli e of the p odu t. A suppl hai a age e t “CM s ste
a ages the flo of p odu ts, data, o e , a d i fo atio th oughout
the e ti e suppl hai , hi h sta ts ith the supplie s of a ate ials,
u s th ough the i te ediate tie s of the p o essi g o pa ies, a d e ds
ith the dist i uto s a d etaile s. Fo e a ple, pu hasi g a ite at a
ajo etail sto e ge e ates o e tha a ash egiste e eipt; it also
auto ati all se ds a esto ki g o de to the app op iate supplie , hi h i
tu a all fo o de s to the supplie ’s supplie s. With a “CM s ste ,
supplie s a also a ess a etaile ’s i e to data ase o e the We to
s hedule effi ie t a d ti el deli e ies.

The thi d t pe of e te p ise s ste , usto e elatio ship a age e t

CRM suppo ts deali g ith the o pa ’s usto e s i a keti g, sales,
se i e, a d e p odu t de elop e t. A CRM s ste gi es a usi ess a
u ified ie of ea h usto e a d its deali gs ith that usto e , e a li g
a o siste t a d p oa ti e usto e elatio ship.

Ma t a sa tio p o essi g s ste s suppo t ele t o i o e eo e

the I te et. A o g these a e s ste s fo o li e shoppi g, a ki g, a d
se u ities t adi g. Othe s ste s deli e i fo atio , edu atio al se i es,
a d e te tai e t o de a d. Yet othe s ste s se e to suppo t the
sea h fo p odu ts ith desi ed att i utes, p i e dis o e fo e a ple,
ia a au tio , a d deli e of digital p odu ts fo e a ple, soft a e,
usi , o ies, o g eeti g a ds . A g o i g a a of spe ialized se i es
a d i fo atio - ased p odu ts a e offe ed a ious o ga izatio s o
the We , as a i f ast u tu e fo ele t o i o e e is e e gi g o a
glo al s ale.

T a sa tio p o essi g s ste s a u ulate the data i data ases a d data

a ehouses that a e e essa fo the highe -le el i fo atio s ste s.
E te p ise s ste s also p o ide soft a e odules eeded to pe fo a
of these highe -le el fu tio s.
Suppo t of k o ledge o k

A la ge p opo tio of o k i a i fo atio so iet i ol es a ipulati g

a st a t i fo atio a d k o ledge u de stood i this o te t as a
o ga ized a d o p ehe si e st u tu e of fa ts, elatio ships, theo ies,
a d i sights athe tha di e tl p o essi g, a ufa tu i g, o deli e i g
ta gi le ate ials. “u h o k is alled k o ledge o k. Th ee ge e al
atego ies of i fo atio s ste s suppo t su h k o ledge o k:
p ofessio al suppo t s ste s, olla o atio s ste s, a d k o ledge
a age e t s ste s.

P ofessio al suppo t s ste s

P ofessio al suppo t s ste s offe the fa ilities eeded to pe fo tasks

spe ifi to a gi e p ofessio . Fo e a ple, auto oti e e gi ee s use
o pute -aided e gi ee i g CAE soft a e togethe ith i tual ealit
s ste s to desig a d test e odels fo fuel effi ie , ha dli g, a d
passe ge p ote tio efo e p odu i g p otot pes, a d late the use CAE
i the desig a d a al sis of ph si al tests. Bio he ists use spe ialized
th ee-di e sio al odeli g soft a e to isualize the ole ula st u tu e
a d p o a le effe t of e d ugs efo e i esti g i le gth li i al tests.
I est e t a ke s ofte e plo fi a ial soft a e to al ulate the
e pe ted e a ds a d pote tial isks of a ious i est e t st ategies.
I deed, spe ialized suppo t s ste s a e o a aila le fo ost p ofessio s.

Colla o atio s ste s

The ai o je ti es of olla o atio s ste s a e to fa ilitate

o u i atio a d tea o k a o g the e e s of a o ga izatio a d
a oss o ga izatio s. O e t pe of olla o atio s ste , k o as a
o kflo s ste , is used to oute ele a t do u e ts auto ati all to all
app op iate i di iduals fo thei o t i utio s.

P i i g a d app o al of a o e ial i su a e poli is a p o ess that a

e efit f o su h a s ste . A othe atego of olla o atio s ste s
allo s diffe e t i di iduals to o k si ulta eousl o a sha ed p oje t.
K o as g oup a e, su h s ste s a o plish this allo i g o t olled
sha ed a ess, ofte o e a i t a et, to the o k o je ts, su h as usi ess
p oposals, e desig s, o digital p odu ts i p og ess. The olla o ato s
a e lo ated a he e i the o ld: i so e ulti atio al o pa ies,
o k o a p oje t o ti ues hou s a da . Othe t pes of olla o atio
s ste s i lude e ha ed e- ail a d ideo o fe e i g s ste s,
so eti es ith telep ese e usi g a ata s of the pa ti ipa ts. Yet a othe
t pe of olla o atio soft a e, k o as iki, e a les ultiple pa ti ipa ts
to add a d edit o te t. “o e o li e e lopedias a e p odu ed o su h
platfo s. Colla o atio s ste s a also e esta lished o so ial et o k
platfo s o i tual life s ste s. The e e s of the pu li , as ell as
pote tial usto e s, a e d a i if desi ed to e a le the o eatio of
e p odu ts o p oje tio of futu e out o es.

K o ledge a age e t s ste s

K o ledge a age e t s ste s p o ide a ea s to asse le a d a t o

the k o ledge a u ulated th oughout a o ga izatio . “u h k o ledge
a i lude the te ts a d i ages o tai ed i pate ts, desig ethods,
est p a ti es, o petito i tellige e, a d si ila sou es, ith the
ela o atio a d o e ta i luded. Pla i g the o ga izatio ’s
do u e ts a d o u i atio s i a i de ed a d oss- efe e ed fo
e a les i h sea h apa ilities. O ga izatio al k o ledge is ofte ta it,
athe tha e pli it, so these s ste s ust also di e t use s to e e s of
the o ga izatio ith spe ial e pe tise.

Ma age e t suppo t

A la ge atego of i fo atio s ste s o p ises those desig ed to

suppo t the a age e t of a o ga izatio . These s ste s el o the
data o tai ed t a sa tio p o essi g s ste s, as ell as o data a d
i fo atio a ui ed outside the o ga izatio o the We , fo e a ple
a d p o ided usi ess pa t e s, supplie s, a d usto e s.

Ma age e t epo ti g s ste s

I fo atio s ste s suppo t all le els of a age e t, f o those i
ha ge of sho t-te s hedules a d udgets fo s all o k g oups to those
o e ed ith lo g-te pla s a d udgets fo the e ti e o ga izatio .
Ma age e t epo ti g s ste s p o ide outi e, detailed, a d olu i ous
i fo atio epo ts spe ifi to ea h a age ’s a eas of espo si ilit .
These s ste s a e t pi all used fi st-le el supe iso s. Ge e all , su h
epo ts fo us o past a d p ese t a ti ities, athe tha p oje ti g futu e
pe fo a e. To p e e t i fo atio o e load, epo ts a e
auto ati all se t o l u de e eptio al i u sta es o at the spe ifi
e uest of a a age .

De isio suppo t s ste s a d usi ess i tellige e

All i fo atio s ste s suppo t de isio aki g, ho e e i di e tl , ut

de isio suppo t s ste s a e e p essl desig ed fo this pu pose. As these
s ste s ha e ee de eloped to a al ze assi e olle tio s of data, the
ha e also e o e k o as usi ess i tellige e appli atio s. The t o
p i ipal a ieties of de isio suppo t s ste s a e odel-d i e a d data-
di e .

I a odel-d i e de isio suppo t s ste , a p ep og a ed odel is

applied to a elati el li ited data set, su h as a sales data ase fo the
p ese t ua te . Du i g a t pi al sessio , a a al st o sales a age ill
o du t a dialog ith this de isio suppo t s ste spe if i g a u e
of hat-if s e a ios. Fo e a ple, i o de to esta lish a selli g p i e fo a
e p odu t, the sales a age a use a a keti g de isio suppo t
s ste . “u h a s ste o tai s a odel elati g a ious fa to s—the p i e
of the p odu t, the ost of goods, a d the p o otio e pe se i a ious
edia—to the p oje ted sales olu e o e the fi st fi e ea s o the
a ket. B suppl i g diffe e t p odu t p i es to the odel, the a age
a o pa e p edi ted esults a d sele t the ost p ofita le selli g p i e.

The p i a o je ti e of data-d i e usi ess i tellige e s ste s is to

a al ze la ge pools of data, a u ulated o e lo g pe iods of ti e i data
a ehouses, i a p o ess k o as data i i g. Data i i g ai s to
dis o e sig ifi a t patte s, su h as se ue es u i g a e house,
follo ed a e di e ta le , luste s, a d o elatio s la ge fa ilies
a d a sales , ith hi h de isio s a e ade. P edi ti e data i i g
atte pts to fo e ast futu e out o es ased o the dis o e ed t e ds.
Data-d i e de isio suppo t s ste s i lude a a iet of statisti al odels
a d a el o a ious a tifi ial i tellige e te h i ues, su h as e pe t
s ste s, eu al et o ks, a d a hi e lea i g. I additio to i i g
u e i data, te t i i g is o du ted o la ge agg egates of u st u tu ed
data, su h as the o te ts of so ial edia that i lude so ial et o ks,
ikis, logs, a d i o logs. As used i ele t o i o e e, fo e a ple,
te t i i g helps i fi di g u i g t e ds, ta geti g ad e tise e ts, a d
dete ti g f aud.

A i po ta t a iet of de isio suppo t s ste s e a les a g oup of

de isio ake s to o k togethe ithout e essa il ei g i the sa e
pla e at the sa e ti e. These g oup de isio s ste s i lude soft a e
tools fo ai sto i g a d ea hi g o se sus.

A othe atego , geog aphi i fo atio s ste s, a help a al ze a d

displa data usi g digitized aps. “u h data isualizatio suppo ts apid
de isio aki g. B looki g at a geog aphi dist i utio of o tgage loa s,
fo e a ple, o e a easil esta lish a patte of dis i i atio .

E e uti e i fo atio s ste s

E e uti e i fo atio s ste s ake a a iet of iti al i fo atio eadil

a aila le i a highl su a ized a d o e ie t fo , t pi all ia a
g aphi al digital dash oa d. “e io a age s ha a te isti all e plo
a i fo al sou es of i fo atio , ho e e , so that fo al,
o pute ized i fo atio s ste s a e o l of pa tial assista e.
Ne e theless, this assista e is i po ta t fo the hief e e uti e offi e ,
se io a d e e uti e i e p eside ts, a d the oa d of di e to s to o ito
the pe fo a e of the o pa , assess the usi ess e i o e t, a d
de elop st ategi di e tio s fo the futu e. I pa ti ula , these e e uti es
eed to o pa e thei o ga izatio ’s pe fo a e ith that of its
 o petito s a d i estigate ge e al e o o i t e ds i egio s o
ou t ies. Ofte i di idualized a d el i go ultiple edia fo ats,
e e uti e i fo atio s ste s gi e thei use s a oppo tu it to d ill
do f o su a i fo atio to i easi gl fo used details.

A ui i g i fo atio s ste s a d se i es

I fo atio s ste s a e a ajo o po ate asset, ith espe t oth to the

e efits the p o ide a d to thei high osts. The efo e, o ga izatio s ha e
to pla fo the lo g te he a ui i g i fo atio s ste s a d se i es
that ill suppo t usi ess i itiati es. O the asis of lo g-te o po ate
pla s a d the e ui e e ts of a ious i di iduals f o data o ke s to top
a age e t, esse tial appli atio s a e ide tified a d p oje t p io ities a e
set. Fo e a ple, e tai p oje ts a ha e to e a ied out i ediatel
to satisf a e go e e t epo ti g egulatio o to i te a t ith a e
usto e ’s i fo atio s ste . Othe p oje ts a e gi e a highe
p io it e ause of thei st ategi ole o g eate e pe ted e efits.

O e the eed fo a spe ifi i fo atio s ste has ee esta lished, the
s ste has to e a ui ed. This is ge e all do e i the o te t of the
al ead e isti g i fo atio s ste s a hite tu e of the fi . The
a uisitio of i fo atio s ste s a eithe i ol e e te al sou i g o
el o i te al de elop e t o odifi atio . With toda ’s highl
de eloped IT i dust , o pa ies te d to a ui e i fo atio s ste s a d
se i es f o spe ialized e do s. The p i ipal tasks of i fo atio
s ste s spe ialists i ol e odif i g the appli atio s fo thei e plo e ’s
eeds a d i teg ati g the appli atio s to eate a ohe e t s ste s
a hite tu e fo the fi . Ge e all , o l s alle appli atio s a e de eloped
i te all . Ce tai appli atio s of a o e pe so al atu e a e
de eloped he e the p og a i g e i o e t suppo ts si ple e d-use
e ha e e t.

A uisitio f o e te al sou es
The e a e se e al p i ipal a s to a ui e a i fo atio s ste f o
outside the o ga izatio . Ma fi s ha e eso ted to the outsou i g of
thei i fo atio s ste s. Outsou i g e tails t a sfe i g the ajo
o po e ts of the fi ’s s ste s, su h as data e t es,
tele o u i atio s, a d soft a e de elop e t a d ai te a e, to a
spe ialized o pa that p o ides its se i es u de lo g-te o t a ts
spe if i g the se i e le els. I so e ases the outsou i g e tails o i g
the se i es a oad—i.e., offsho i g. Respo si ilit fo the a uisitio of
e appli atio s the falls to the outside o pa . I othe ases the
o pa a outsou e just the de elop e t o ai te a e of thei
i fo atio s ste s, ith the outside o pa ei g a s ste s de elope .

Cloud o puti g is i easi gl ei g adopted as a sou e of i fo atio

se i es. It offe s o -de a d a ess ia the I te et to se i es fu ished
a p o ide that u s data e t es ith the e essa soft a e. The
se i es a e p o ided at o e of th ee le els: as the i f ast u tu e fo
u i g e isti g appli atio s, as the platfo fo de elopi g e
appli atio s, o as soft a e-as-a-se i e “aa“ to e used the fi o e
the et o k. I pa ti ula , “aa“ has e o e a ost-effe ti e a to use
e te p ise s ste s. Ge e all , loud o puti g is p o ided e te al
e do s, although so e fi s i ple e t thei o p i ate louds i o de
to sha e esou es a d a ess the o e the et o k. “ ala ilit a d
a oida e of apital e pe ditu es a e ota le ad a tages of pu li louds;
the pa tial loss of o t ol is a d a a k.

Co pa ies a hoose to a ui e a appli atio leasi g a p op ieta

pa kage f o a e do u de a li e se a d ha i g the soft a e usto ized
i te all o e te all the e do o a othe outside o t a to .
E te p ise s ste s a e ge e all leased i this a . A alte ati e is to
deplo a ope -sou e appli atio , hose p og a ode is f ee a d ope
fo all to odif u de a diffe e t t pe of li e se that e fo es the
ope ess of the appli atio i pe petuit . Ge e all , the osts of the use of
ope -sou e soft a e i lude the te h i al suppo t f o spe ialized
e do s.
I te al i fo atio s ste s de elop e t

Whe a i fo atio s ste is de eloped i te all a o ga izatio ,

o e of t o oad ethods is used: life- le de elop e t o apid
appli atio de elop e t RAD .

s ste life leE lopædia B ita i a, I .The sa e ethods a e used

soft a e e do s, hi h eed to p o ide o e ge e al, usto iza le
s ste s. La ge o ga izatio al s ste s, su h as e te p ise s ste s, a e
ge e all de eloped a d ai tai ed th ough a s ste ati p o ess, k o
as a s ste life le, hi h o sists of si stages: feasi ilit stud , s ste
a al sis, s ste desig , p og a i g a d testi g, i stallatio , a d
ope atio a d ai te a e. The fi st fi e stages a e s ste de elop e t
p ope , a d the last stage is the lo g-te e ploitatio . Follo i g a pe iod
of use ith ai te a e as eeded , the i fo atio s ste a e
eithe phased out o upg aded. I the ase of a ajo upg ade, the s ste
e te s a othe de elop e t life le.

The p i ipal o je ti e of a feasi ilit stud is to dete i e hethe the

s ste is desi a le o the asis of lo g-te pla s, st ategi i itiati es, a d
a ost- e efit a al sis. “ ste a al sis p o ides a detailed a s e to the
uestio , What ill the e s ste do? The e t stage, s ste desig ,
esults i a e te si e luep i t fo ho the e s ste ill e o ga ized.
Du i g the p og a i g a d testi g stage, the i di idual soft a e odules
of the s ste a e de eloped, tested, a d i teg ated i to a ohe e t
ope atio al s ste . Fu the le els of testi g e su e o ti ui g ualit
o t ol. I stallatio i ludes fi al testi g of the s ste i the o k
e i o e t a d o e sio of o ga izatio al ope atio s to the e
s ste , i teg ati g it ith othe s ste s al ead i pla e. The late stages
of de elop e t i lude su h i ple e tatio a ti ities as t ai i g use s
a d odif i g the o ga izatio al p o esses i hi h the s ste ill e
used.

Life- le de elop e t is f e ue tl faulted fo its lo g de elop e t ti es

a d olu i ous do u e tatio e ui e e ts—a d, i so e i sta es, fo
its failu e to fulfill the use ’s e ui e e ts at the e d of the lo g
de elop e t oad.

I easi gl , life- le de elop e t is ei g epla ed RAD. I a ious

RAD ethodologies a p otot pe—a p eli i a o ki g e sio of a
appli atio —is uilt ui kl a d i e pe si el , al eit i pe fe tl . This
p otot pe is tu ed o e to the use s, thei ea tio s a e olle ted,
suggested odifi atio s a e i o po ated, a d su essi e p otot pe
e sio s e e tuall e ol e i to the o plete s ste . Fo al p o esses fo
the olla o atio et ee s ste de elope s a d use s, su h as joi t
appli atio s de elop e t JAD , ha e ee i t odu ed so e fi s.
“o eti es RAD a d life- le de elop e t a e o i ed: a p otot pe is
p odu ed to dete i e use e ui e e ts du i g the i itial s ste a al sis
stage, afte hi h life- le de elop e t takes o e .

I dust ial ethods of soft a e p odu tio a d euse ha e ee

i ple e ted i s ste s de elop e t. Thus, eusa le soft a e
o po e ts a e de eloped, tested, a d atalogued to e deplo ed as pa ts
of futu e i fo atio s ste s. A pa ti ula l i po ta t ethod of
o po e t- ased de elop e t is the use of We se i es, hi h a e
soft a e o je ts that deli e a spe ifi fu tio su h as looki g up a
usto e ’s o de i a data ase a d a e stit hed togethe i to
i te o ga izatio al i fo atio s ste s e a li g usi ess pa t e s to
oope ate.

Afte a i stalled s ste is ha ded o e to its use s a d ope atio s

pe so el, it ill al ost i a ia l e odified e te si el o e its useful
life i a p o ess k o as s ste ai te a e. A la ge s ste ill t pi all
e used a d ai tai ed fo so e to ea s o e e lo ge . Most
ai te a e is to adjust the s ste to the o ga izatio ’s ha gi g eeds
a d to e e uip e t a d othe soft a e, ut i e ita l so e
ai te a e i ol es o e ti g desig e o s a d e te i ati g soft a e
ugs as the a e dis o e ed.
Relatio of i for atio syste s to levels of orga izatio

The se o d atego of i fo atio e ui ed the iddle a age e t is

k o as a age ial i fo atio . The i fo atio e ui ed at this le el is
used fo aki g sho t te de isio s a d pla s fo the o ga izatio .
I fo atio like sales a al sis fo the past ua te o ea l p odu tio
details et . fall u de this atego . Ma age e t i fo atio s ste MI“
ate s to su h i fo atio eeds of the o ga izatio . Due to its apa ilities
to fulfill the a age ial i fo atio eeds of the o ga izatio ,
Ma age e t I fo atio “ ste s ha e e o e a e essit fo all ig
o ga izatio s. A d due to its ast ess, ost of the ig o ga izatio s ha e
sepa ate MI“ depa t e ts to look i to the elated issues a d p ope
fu tio i g of the s ste .

The thi d atego of i fo atio is elati g to the dail o sho t te

i fo atio eeds of the o ga izatio su h as atte da e e o ds of the
e plo ees. This ki d of i fo atio is e ui ed at the ope atio al le el fo
a i g out the da -to-da ope atio al a ti ities. Due to its apa ilities to
p o ide i fo atio fo p o essi g t a sa tio of the o ga izatio , the
i fo atio s ste is k o as T a sa tio P o essi g “ ste o Data
P o essi g “ ste . “o e e a ples of i fo atio p o ided su h
s ste s a ep o essi g of o de s, posti g of e t ies i a k, e aluati g
o e due pu hase o de s et .

T a sa tio P o essi g “ ste s

TP“ p o esses usi ess t a sa tio of the o ga izatio . T a sa tio a e

a a ti it of the o ga izatio . T a sa tio s diffe f o o ga izatio to
o ga izatio . Fo e a ple, take a ail a ese atio s ste . Booki g,
a eli g, et a e all t a sa tio s. A ue ade to it is a t a sa tio .
Ho e e , the e a e so e t a sa tio s, hi h a e o o to al ost all
o ga izatio s. Like e plo ee e e plo ee, ai tai i g thei lea e status,
ai tai i g e plo ees a ou ts, et .
This p o ides high speed a d a u ate p o essi g of e o d keepi g of asi
ope atio al p o esses. These i lude al ulatio , sto age a d et ie al.

T a sa tio p o essi g s ste s p o ide speed a d a u a , a d a e

p og a ed to follo outi es fu tio s of the o ga izatio .

Ma age e t I fo atio “ ste s

These s ste s assist lo e a age e t i p o le sol i g a d aki g

de isio s. The use the esults of t a sa tio p o essi g a d so e othe
i fo atio also. It is a set of i fo atio p o essi g fu tio s. It should
ha dle ue ies as ui kl as the a i e. A i po ta t ele e t of MI“ is
data ase.

A data ase is a o - edu da t olle tio of i te elated data ite s that a

e p o essed th ough appli atio p og a s a d a aila le to a use s.

De isio “uppo t “ ste s

These s ste s assist highe a age e t to ake lo g te de isio s.

These t pe of s ste s ha dle u st u tu ed o se i st u tu ed de isio s. A
de isio is o side ed u st u tu ed if the e a e o lea p o edu es fo
aki g the de isio a d if ot all the fa to s to e o side ed i the
de isio a e eadil ide tified i ad a e.

These a e ot of e u i g atu e. “o e e u i f e ue tl o o u o l
o e. A de isio suppo t s ste ust e fle i le. The use should e a le
to p odu e usto ized epo ts gi i g pa ti ula data a d fo at spe ifi
to pa ti ula situatio s.

“u a of I fo atio “ ste s

Catago ies of I fo atio

Cha a te isti es
S ste

T a sa tio P o essi g “ ste “u stitutes o pute - ased

p o essi g fo a ual p o edu es.
 Deals ith ell-st u tu ed p o esses.
I ludes e o d keepi g appli atio s.

Ma age e t i fo atio P o ides i put to e used i the

s ste a age ial de isio p o ess. Deals
ith suppo ti g ell st u tu ed
de isio situatio s. T pi al
i fo atio e ui e e ts a e
a ti ipated.

De isio suppo t s ste P o ides i fo atio to a age s

ho ust ake judge e ts a out
pa ti ula situatio s. “uppo ts
de isio - ake s i situatio s that a e
ot ell st u tu ed.