CH 27

Physics 202
1436-1437 H
Instructor: Dr. Alaa Mahmoud
E-mail: alaa_y_emam@hotmail.com
Chapter 27
CIRCUITS
28.2 Resistors in Series and Direct Current Circuits
Parallel
28.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
CHAPTE R OUTLI N E
28.4 RC Circuits
28.1 Electromotive Force
28.5 Electrical Meters in Series and
28.2 Resistors
Parallel
28.6 Household Wiring and
28.3 Kirchhoff’s Rules
Electrical Safety
28.4 RC Circuits
28.5 Electrical Meters
28.6 Household Wiring and
Electrical Safety
▲ An assortment of batteries that can be used to provide energy for various devices.
▲ An assortment
Batteries provide aof voltage
batteries with
that can be used
a fixed to provide
polarity, energy for
resulting invarious
a directdevices.
current in a circuit, that
Batteries provide a voltage with a fixed polarity, resulting in a direct current in a circuit, that
is, a current for which the drift velocity of the charges is always in the same direction.
is, a current for which the drift velocity of the charges is always in the same direction.
(George
(GeorgeSemple)
Semple)
858
858
Outline
Introduction
Electromotive force emf devices
Calculating the Current in
Single-Loop Circuit
Multi-Loop Circuit
Resistances in Series and parallel
Kirchhoff’s current law and voltage law
The Ammeter and the Voltmeter
RC circuits
Introduction
You are surrounded by electric circuits
Almost all devices depend on modern electrical engineering
Radios are now tuned electronically instead of manually
Messages are now sent by email instead of through the postal system
Research journals are now read on a computer instead of in a library building
Research papers are now copied and filed electronically instead of photocopied and tucked into a
filing cabinet
The basic science of electrical engineering is physics

In this chapter we cover the physics of electric circuits that are combinations of resistors
and batteries (direct-current circuits or DC circuits)
We begin with the question: How can you get charges to flow?
“Pumping” Charges
To produce current, a “charge pumping device” is used to do work on the charge carriers
(to maintain the potential difference)
Such device is called emf device

It provides an emf (does work on charge carriers)
The term emf comes from the phrase electromotive force
Examples for emf devices:

Battery
Electric generator
Solar cells
The fuel cells that power the space shuttles
The thermopiles that provide onboard electrical power for some spacecraft
An emf device does not have to be an instrument

Living systems, ranging from electric eels and human beings to plants, have physiological emf devices
Company)
Work, Energy, and Emf
The emf device has two terminals: i

a
Positive +ve terminal (higher potential)
Negative –ve terminal (lower potential) a'
+
The emf of the device is represented with an arrow ( ) from –ve to +ve terminal i
R
A small circle is to distinguishes it from the arrows of the current direction –
When an emf device is connected to a circuit

i
à flow of positive charge carriers from –ve to +ve terminal
Fig. 27-1 A simple electric circuit, in
the flow is in the direction of the emf arrow which a device of emf ! does work on the
charge carriers and maintains a steady
Within the emf device, positive charge carriers move from low V and low U current i in a resistor of resistance R.
(–ve terminal) to high V and U (+ve terminal)
This motion is opposite of E between the terminals
the positive terminal). This motion is just the opposite of what the electric power field for 4 hours. Charged up at night, the
between the terminals (which is directed from the positive terminal towardbatteries the were then put to use during peak
negative terminal) would cause the charge carriers to do. power demands on the electrical system.
Thus, there must be some source of energy within the device, enabling (Courtesy it to Southern California Edison
do work on the charges by forcing them to move as they do. The energy source Company)
may be chemical, as in a battery or a fuel cell. It may involve mechanical forces, as
Energy source
in an in the emf
electric device:Temperature differences may supply the energy, as in a
generator.
Batterythermopile;
or a fuel cellorà thechemical
Sun mayenergy
supplysource
it, as in a solar cell.
Let us now
Electric generator analyze theforces
à mechanical circuit of Fig. 27-1 from the point of view of work and
energy transfers. In any time interval dt, a charge dq passes through any cross sec-
Thermopile àthis
tion of temperature differences
circuit, such as aa#. This same amount of charge must enter the emf
device
Solar cell à Sunat its low-potential end and leave at its high-potential end. The device
light
a must do an amount of work dW on the charge dq to force it to move in this way.
We define
The emf device must thedoemfanofamount
the emfofdevice
workindWtermsonofthethis work:dq to force it to move in certain way
charge
a'
dW a
i !$ (definition of !). (27-1) i
R dq
à The emf of anthe
In words, emf device:
emf of an is
emfthedevice
workisper
theunit
workcharge thatcharge
per unit the device does
that the in
device a'
+
does infrom
moving charge moving charge from itsterminal
its low-potential low-potential
to itsterminal to its high-potential
high-potential terminal termi- i
R
The SI nal. The SI unit for emf is the joule per coulomb; in Chapter 24 we defined that
unit for emf is the joule per coulomb (volt) –
ric circuit, in unit as the volt.
es work An ideal emf device is one that lacks any internal resistance to the internal
onThere
the are 2 kinds of emf devices:
movement of charge from terminal to terminal. The potential difference between i
ns a steady
stance R. the terminals of an ideal emf device is equal to the emf of the device. For exam-
Fig. 27-1 A simple electric circuit, in
1. An ideal emf device: has no internal resistance which a device of emf ! does work on the
V between the terminals = of the device charge carriers and maintains a steady
current i in a resistor of resistance R.
For example, an ideal battery with an emf of 12.0 V always has a potential difference of 12.0 V between its terminals
Solving for the current, we find
!
i#
R"r
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27-2 if t
Figure 27-4b shows graphically the chang
27-4 CALCULATING THE CURRENT IN Acircuit.
SINGLE-LOOP
(To better linkCIRCUIT
Fig. 27-4b with 707
the c
curling the graph into a cylinder with point a
2. A real emfple,
device: hasbattery
an ideal internal
withresistance
an emf of 12.0 V always has a potential difference of iA i
– +
Example: 12.0
realVbattery
between its terminals.
-11-2009 14:35 Page 707A real emf device, such as any real battery, has internal resistance to the b + A
Potential (V)
When a real emf device
internal is connected
movement to a circuit,
of charge. When aV real
between the terminals
emf device ≠ of the to
is not connected device
a M R
r R ii
circuit, and thus does not have current HALLIDAY REVISED
through it, the potential difference i
B
between its terminals is equal to its emf. However, when that device has current – +
a
–
through it, the potential difference between its terminals differs from its emf. We i B
When an emf device is connected to a circuit,
shall discuss such real batteries in Section 27-5.
the energy is transferred Real battery i
to other devicesWhen in theancircuit
emf device is connected to a circuit, the device transfers energy to PA R T 3 (a )
the charge carriers passing through it. This energy can then be transferred from Fig. 27-4 (a) A single-loop circuit containing a r
In the circuit
27-4 CALCULATING THE devices
CURRENT
m
in theIN A SINGLE-LOOP
for example, toCIRCUIT
here, B > A to other 707
r and emf !. (b) The same circuit, now spread out in
the charge carriers circuit, light a bulb.
à the chemical energy within battery B is decreasing
Figure 27-2a shows a circuit containing two ideal rechargeable (storage) batteries
in traversing the circuit
(a)clockwise from a are also sh
assigned a value of zero, and other potentials in the
à the chemical
A and energy
B, a withinR,
resistance battery
and anAelectric
is increasing
motor M that can lift an object by using
ery with an emf of 12.0 V always has a potential difference of A i
s terminals. à batteryenergyB is charging battery A
it obtains from charge – +
carriers in the circuit. Note that the batteries are Work done
by motor
evice, such asàany realconnected
Battery so that
B is providing
battery, has they tend
energy
internal to send
to M and tocharges
resistance the aroundMotor the circuit in opposite
A direc- on mass m
nt of charge. dissipating tions.
When a real The in
energy
emf actual
R direction
device of the current
is not connected toina the circuit is determined
M by > the battery R
with the larger emf, which happens to be battery B, so the chemical energyAwithin i B
does not have current through it, the potential difference B Chemical Thermal energy
battery B is decreasing as energy is transferred to the charge carriers – + passing
nals is equal to its emf. However, when that device has current energy lost produced
through it. However, the chemical energy within battery A isi increasing because by B by resistance R
tential difference between the its terminals
current differs
in it is from
directed its emf.
from We
the positive terminal to the negative terminal.
B
real batteries in Section Thus,

27-5. battery B is charging battery A. Battery B is also providing B & A areenergy to motor
connected in parallel
device is connected to M a circuit, the device transfers energy to Chemical
and energy that is being dissipated by resistance R. Figure i27-2b shows
direction all three
determined by energy stored
rs passing through it. This energy
energy can then
transfers frombe transferred
battery from
B; each decreases that
m battery’s battery
chemical energy.
B (has larger emf) in A
rs to other devices in the circuit, for example, to light a bulb.
(a) (b)
ws a circuit containing two ideal rechargeable (storage) batteries
27-4 Calculating the Current in a Single-Loop Circuit
nce R, and an electric motor M that can lift an object by using Fig. 27-2 (a) In the circuit, !B " !A;
so battery B determines the direction of
from charge carriers in the circuit. Note that the batteries are Work done
We discuss here two equivalent ways
they tend to send charges around the circuit in opposite direc- to calculate the current in the simple
bysingle-
motor the current. (b) The energy transfers in
on mass
circuit of Fig. 27-3; one method is based on energy conservation considera- m
irection of the current inloop
the circuit.
the circuit is determined by the battery
tions, and the other on the concept of potential. The circuit consists of an ideal
mf, which happens to be battery B, so the chemical energy within
battery B with emf !, a resistor of resistance R, and two connecting wires. (Unless
hod
ust beassome
27-3
sistor
harges
of
by
thermalsourceenergy.
resistance
forcing them
of energy
R, and
to
As
two
move
within
noted the device, enabling it to
connecting
as they
changes
do.
wires.
The
as we move. energy
(Unless
energy source
Our starting per unit charge point is at thefrom
transferred low-potential
them. Solving for terminal
i, we find of the b
d. (Because
assume that 2wireswe assume
in circuits thehave wiresnegligibletery. Because
resistance. theasbattery is ideal, the potential difference between its terminal
Method
as
27 in
will(P
merely
erator.
a battery i R)
to!provide
appear
Temperature
or a fuel
tells
in them.)
cell.
pathways us It
During
differences
may
that
along
may
involve
inwhich
the a equal
supply
mechanical
time charge interval
the to
forces,
carriers
!. When
The
energy,
dt an passamount
Energy Method
as in awe
battery drives current
of energy
through the battery toi !the R
!
.high-potential terminal, (27
dtved
Sunwillmay appear
through it,in
supply2battery the
as in a B, resistor
solar cell.theofchange
and Fig. 27-3 in as thermal
potential
through the is "!. energy.
resistor, from As noted
26-27 (Pcircuit
! ito R)Fig. tells us isthat in a time interval dt an amount of energy
ge,
alyze according
7, this theenergy ofEq. 27-1,
is said
27-1 to
from bethedissipated.
point of view As (Because
of
we
high work
walk Equation
and we
along
potential to assume
the
low 26-27 top
potential. (P
the
wire i 2R)
!wires
to thetells top us endthat of thein aresistor,
time interval there isd
R
gible
dt will
n any time interval appear
resistance,
Calculating
in
no
the
thermal
resistor
dt, a charge dq passes the
of
energy
Fig.
through Current
potential any cross sec-in a Single-Loop
27-3
will
as
appear
change
thermal
given in by
energy.
i
them.)
because 2
R dt
the
As
will
During
wire
noted
appearthe
has
Circuit
in the resistor
negligible resistance; of Fig. is27-3
it drives at the as th
sa
dt.
,26-7,
such as thisaa#.energy
This same is amount
said toofbecharge dissipated.must enter (Because Potential
the emf iwe assume the wires Method The battery curre
l,gligible
a charge
potential end dqleave
and
resistance, ! ino dt its
at will havepotential
high-potential
thermal movedend. asthrough
The thein high-potential
Section
device battery 26-7, B,terminal
this
Higher andatenergytheof the isin battery.
said So
tothrough
be too is the
dissipated. top end proc
(Becau of
he) tells
work us done
that inby a time
the interval
(ideal) dt anenergy
bat- amount
resistor.
will
of appear
energy
When we
in them.)
Suppose
pass
weDuring
through
start
potential the
the
any point
resistor,
the circuit
however,
of Fig.
The algebraically
battery
the
the
27-3 and
drivesresistor,
potential
mentally
currentchan
fro
ntbattery
of work dW will onhave done
the charge dqon this
to force itcharge, in thisto
according have to
to movehalliday_c27_705-734v2.qxd
way. negligible
Eq.
around 27-1,
the circuit resistance,
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adding energy thewill appea
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a
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!
1.terms i
27-3
Energy dt aswill
thermal
of thisMethod
have moved
energy. As through
noted battery B, and the 2. Potential high potential to low po
the emf device in work: according to + Eq. 26-8ences
same (which
interval,
that we we
i a
encounter.
can rewrite
charge
Then
dq
when
as iVdt
!
we iR).Method
!through
return
will
to ourthestarting
Moreover,
have
resistor,
moved thepoint, from
potenweHAm
throu
gy
the is battery
said to bewill dissipated.
have (Because
done on we assume
this charge, the wires B
according to
alsoEq. have27-1,
R returned is to our starting potential.
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decrease – because we are moving from the higher highBeforepotential
potential
actually doing so, we s
to low
side poten
of circuits
the re
nce, no thermal dW energy will appear in them.) During the awork that formalize the battery
this
The battery
idea in awill statement have thatdone
holds not on this
only forcharge, i
single-loop accord
!$ dW ! !of dq
(definition !). tor.
! !i Thus,
dt.andthe(27-1)
change as in that
potentialof Fig. Lower isdrives
27-3 #iR. current
but alsoHALLIDAY
for any complete
dq ! i dt will dq have moved
nciple of conservation of energy, the through battery B,
work the
done by the
through (ideal)
the
potential bat-
Kirchhoff’s
resistor, from loop REVISEDruleloop in a multiloop circuit, a
or (Kirchhoff’s i
have done on this charge, according We
to Eq. 27-1, is return to point i a
shall by moving
discuss along
in Section 27-7:the bottom dW
voltage wire.
!! Because
law)dq ! !ithis dt.wire also Hig
principle
al
of the
an emf of
thermal
From conservation
device isenergy
the HALLIDAY
the workthat
principle of of energy,
REVISED
appears
conservation
per unit charge ofthe
in work
thatthethe done
resistor: by high
the potential
(ideal)
device we again find no potential change. Back to low
bat- potential. po
negligible resistance, + at point a, the27-5 poten O
equal
arge from dWthe !
energy, dq
itsthermal
low-potential
! the!work dt.done
!ienergy terminalthat
by toappears
the its Fig.
in
high-potential
(ideal) battery 27-3
the A single-loop
resistor:
termi- LOOP RULE: circuitThe in algebraic sum of the changes in potential B R
red toisthe moving charges by the 2 is again From we
Va. aBecause the principle
traversed a iof of conservation
complete aloop,
circuit our
of+ –energy,
initial
zero.B potential, as
the work
encountered in a
modifiid
r emf the
is equal joule per coulomb;
to the thermal !i dt in ! i
Chapter
energy R dt.
appears24 which
we defined
in thebat-resistance
that R is
completeconnected traversal any loop ofHigher must be
– appearsapotential;inthat R
nservation
harge of energy,
transferred the work
from the !i done
mov-
dt ! by
i2for
R the
dt. (ideal)
potential
across an tery
changes
ideal must
along
battery equal
B the
RESISTANCE with way,the
emfRULE: thermal
must
!. bea equal
For energy
potential
move
to our
through a that
final
resistance
a in the direction of the
theis,resi
mal energyresistor:
thatthatappears in the resistor:
r.device
Therefore,
is one this equation
lacks any means
internal resistanceThe to the internal
resulting This
current isisoften
current,
i + change
the
the referred
same to as Kirchhoff’s
in potential is !iR;
i loop
in the rule (or
opposite Kirchhoff’s
direction voltage law),
it is "iR. Loa
8us
ge CHAPTE
from terminal Ris27 CIThe
RCU ITS German –physicist B V " ! # R iR
a Gustav Robert Kirchhoff. ! V .
a !i This dt ! rule 2
i isRequivalent
dt. i to saying po
e moving dt ! ito
!i charges 2 terminal.
R dt. equal to
! potential
the
! iR. difference
throughoutbetween the circuit.
eachEMF RULE:
point aon aFor a move through
mountain has an ideal
only one emf device inabove
elevation i level.
the direction
sea of theIfemfyou
n ideal emf device is equal to the ! emf !ofiR. the device.
The valueFor of V exam-
a cancels
This gives from
arrow, usthepoint thisand
change equation,
in potential itwhich
is "!; Lower
in the becomes
opposite direction theit A
is !!.
from any return to after
potential
walking
Fig.
Fig.around 27-3
27-3 A single-loop
mountain,
single-loop
the algeb
circ c
the energy per unit charge
chargetransferred to
tothe permoving charges by the
The quantity iR is the energy per unit charge
energy sum
unit charge of the changes
transferred in elevation
i the from that you
them. encounter
Solving must be zero.
for i, we find
is the energy! ! per
iR. unit transferred the moving In
charges
Fig. 27-3,
by
let! us# iR
start !
at 0.
point a,whichwhich
whose !a a resistance
! iR.
resistance
potential is Va, R and is is connw
Rmentally
connect
quantity transferred is the from the
energy moving charges to
hearge iR iR
transferred
quantity isfrom
the them.per
energy perunit
Solving unit charge
for i, we find
charge transferred
transferred clockwise from
from
CHECKPOINT
Fig. 27-3 around the
the 1mov- circuit in across an ideal battery B wi
mov-
A single-loop
the circuit until weacross are back anatideal battery
a, keeping trackBof with
potee
per unitthermalcharge transferred
energy within to the
the moving
resistor charges
Solving thisby the
equation for i gives us the same result, ! i ! !/R, as the energy i meth
oss thermal
to thermal energy
energy within
within thetheresistor.
resistor. Therefore,
Therefore, The emf thisThe
this
changes is
!equation
whichfigure
equation a the
as we move.energy
resistance
shows the
means
meansOur iperi !
R isstarting
current connected
in a unit
single-loop
pointThe .ischarge
Thecircuit transferred
resulting
at resulting
the low-potential current
current i isto
terminal ofthe
is
ithe the
the
sa
the energy per unit charge ! transferred (Eq. from the
27-2). mov- with
across
tery. a battery
Because an B
ideal
the and a
battery
battery resistance
B
is with
ideal, R (and
emf
the R !. wires
potential of
difference between its termina
gy per
nergy
nergy unit
per
within unit
thecharge
chargei!
resistor. transferred
transferred
.
Therefore, thisto tothethemoving
equation moving
means battery.
charges
charges The
negligible
(27-2)
The
equal is!. quantity
equal
equal
resistance).
resulting
to When
to
to
current
we
iR
the
(a)the
Shouldisthethe
passi isthrough
the emfenergy
same thethroughout
at B per unit
throughout
battery to the the
arrow the charge
circuit.
circuit.
high-potential
tran
terminal
R If we apply the loop
be drawn rule pointingto a complete
leftward or rightward? counterclockwise
At points walk around
charge transferred to the moving charges is equal to ing
the charges
change
a,throughout
b, to
inc, thermal
potential
the
(b) "!.energy
is magnitude
circuit.
circuit, the rule gives us As we walk along the top wire to the top end of the resistor, there i
and rank the of the within
current, the
(c)
a
resistor. B
b
Therefo
R c
that thetheenergy
potential change
energy of the
electric potential,
chargebecause
per#!
the wire
carriers, greatest
unit
and"(d)iR charge
the! 0 transferred
electric potential
has negligible resistance; it is at the s
first.
to the moving
Potential Method
and we again find thatpotential
i ! as the high-potential
!/R. Thus, you terminal
may mentally of the battery. So too
circle a isloop
the topinend
eito
od direction to apply the
resistor. When we pass through the resistor, however, the potential cha
Suppose we start loopatrule.
according any point
to Eq. in the
26-8 (which we circuit
can rewrite ofasFig.
V ! 27-3 and mentally
iR). Moreover, the pote
at any point in the circuit of Fig. 27-3 and mentally27-5 Toaround
preparethe
Other Single-Loop Circuits
proceed forcircuit
circuitsinmore
must decrease complex
because
either we arethan
direction, moving that
adding fromoftheFig. 27-3,
higher let
potential
algebraically theuspotent
side set dor
of the
Internal Resistance
Figure 27-4a shows a real battery, with internal resistance r, wired to an external
EMF RULE: For Figure
aresistor
move through
of
27-4a resistance
shows anR.
a real ideal emfinternal
The internal
battery, with device in ofthe
resistance
resistance r, direction
the battery
wired of electrical
the emf
is external
to an the
resistance of the conducting materials of the battery and thus is anelectrical
unremovable
arrow, the change inresistor of resistance
potential
resistance
is "!; R. The internal
of the battery.
feature of
in
conducting
the
materials
In Fig.
resistance
opposite
27-4a,of
of the battery
direction
the battery
however, the and
it is is the
!!.
thus isis drawn
battery an unremovable
as if it could be
feature of theinto
separated battery. In Fig.
an ideal 27-4a,with
battery however,
emf !the
andbattery is drawn
a resistor as if it could
of resistance be order
r. The
separated
in whichintothean ideal battery
symbols withseparated
for these emf ! andparts
a resistor of resistance
are drawn does notr. The order
matter.
in which
If the
we symbols
apply the for these
loop separated parts are
rule clockwise drawn does
beginning not matter.
at point a, the changes in
CHECKPOINT potential 1If we apply the
give us loop rule clockwise beginning at point a, the changes in
potential give us
The figure shows the current i in a single-loop
! ! ir ! iR # 0.
! ! circuit
ir ! iR # 0.
i (27-3)
(27-3)
Solving for the current, we find
with a battery B and a resistance
Solving for the current,R we(and
find wires of
!
negligible resistance). (a) Should the emf arrow i
i # at R
# ! B." r . (27-4)
(27-4)
R"r
be drawn pointing leftward or rightward? At points
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27-2 if the a battery is ideal — that b is, if r # 0. c
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27-2 if the battery is ideal — that is, if r #R0.
a, b, and c, rank (b) the Figure
magnitude
Figure 27-4b
27-4b of the
shows
shows current,
graphically
graphically (c)changes
the
the changes in electric
in electric Bpotential
potential around around
the the
the electric potential, circuit. (To
and(To(d)
circuit. better
thelink
better link
Fig.Fig.
electric 27-4b
27-4b withwith
potential the closed
the closed circuit
circuit in 27-4a,
in Fig. Fig. 27-4a,
imagineimagine
curling
curling thethe graph
graph intointo a cylinder
a cylinder withwith
pointpoint at left
a at athe theoverlapping
left overlapping
point point
a at a at
energy of the charge carriers, greatest first.
i i
i i
a a b b a ca
+
b +b
(a) rightward;
Potential (V)
r R
Potential (V)
r R
(b) (b) all tie; (c) b, then a and cr tie;
r (d) b, then a and c tie R i i ir irVb Vb
27-5 Other Single-Loop Circuits

i i R
iR iR
Va Va Va VVac
a a
– –
In this section we extend

Real the
batterysimple
battery
Real i i circuit of Fig. 27-3 in two ways.
Emf device
Emf device ResistorResistor
(a ) (a ) Potential
(b ) (b ) diagram
Fig. 27-4(a)(a)
27-4
Fig. A single-loop circuit
A single-loop containing
circuit a realabattery
containing havinghaving
real battery internal resistance
internal resistance
Internal Resistance r and
in in
emf
r and !. (b)
emf
traversing the
TheThe
!. (b) same
circuit
circuit,
same
clockwise
nownow
circuit,
from
spread
a
out inout
spread
are also
a line.
shown.
in aThe
The
line.potentials encountered
The potentials
potential V is
encountered
arbitrarily
traversing the circuit clockwise from a are also shown. The potential Va is arbitrarily
a
assigned a value
assigned of zero,
a value andand
of zero, other potentials
other in theincircuit
potentials are graphed
the circuit relative
are graphed to Va. to V .
relative a
Figure 27-4a shows a real battery, with internal resistance r, wired to an external
resistor of resistance R. The internal resistance of the battery is the electrical
in which
resistance
CHECKPOINTof the the symbols
conducting for these
1 materials separated
of the battery and parts
thus are
is drawn does not matter.
an unremovable
sists of an ideal
be drawn pointing leftward or rightward? At points
feature of the If battery.
we apply the27-4a,
In Fig. loophowever,
rule clockwise
the batterybeginning
is drawnaas ifatit point
could be a, the
b changes in
c
g wires. (Unless separated
The figure shows thebattery
currentwith i in emf
a single-loop circuitof resistance r. The orderi R
a, b, and c,potential
rank (b)give
into an theus
ideal magnitude of the current, (c)
! and a resistor B
gible resistance. inwithwhicha thebattery
symbols B and a resistance
for these separatedRparts (andare wires
drawn ofdoes not matter.
the electric
negligible potential,
resistance). andrule(d) thethe electric ir !
! potential
!arrow iR # 0. (27-3)
charge carriers If we apply the loop(a) Should
clockwise emfbeginning atatBpoint a, the changes in
energy beof the
Solving
drawn
potential charge
give usfor the
pointing carriers,
current,
leftward greatest
orwe findfirst.At points a
rightward? b c
R
a, b, and c, rank (b) the magnitude ! ! irof ! the
iR # current,
0. (c)
! B (27-3)
the electric
Solving for thepotential,
current, weand find(d) the electric ipotential# . (27-4)
R"r
energy of the charge carriers, greatest ! Other Single-Loop Circuits
i #
first.
. (27-4)
mount of energy Note that this equation reduces R "to r Eq. 27-2 if the battery is ideal — that is, if r # 0.
Internal
nergy.
ssume the
As notedResistance Figure
wires
The internalFigure
(inside27-4b
resistance
27-4b shows
realshows
battery):
of graphically
battery:
graphically the changes in electric potential around the
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27-2 if the battery is ideal — that is, if r # 0.
circuit. (To better thelink Fig. 27-4b
theischanges
with
the electricalthe closed
in electricresistance
circuit in the
of the
potential around
Fig. 27-4a, imagine
conducting materials of the battery and
em.) DuringIn thethis
thus iscircuit.
an curling
section(To
Thebetter
unremovable
tery B, and the curling the
the
we extend
battery
graphthe
graph
link into
the
Fig.current
drives
feature
into
27-4b
a cylinder
a
of simple
the cylinder
with
battery with
thecircuit point
of Fig.
closed circuit a at
in 27-3 the left
in two
Fig. 27-4a, overlapping
ways.
imagine point a at
through resistor, from with point a at the left overlapping point a at
Eq. 27-1,
is The circuit
In thishere contains
section we a real
extend battery,
the
i simple
high potential to low potential.
with internal
circuit of Fig.resistance
27-3 in two r, wired
ways.to an external resistor of resistance R
i
Internal Resistance
i
i a i b a
b + a b a
Internal
b + Resistance Higher
Potential (V)
the (ideal) bat- r R
potential
Potential (V)
r
Figure 27-4a shows + r a real battery, with internal i
resistanceVr, wiredir to an R
Vb external
Figure i r27-4a shows a real battery,
i i with Rinternal resistance ir r, wired
b to an external
resistor
i of resistance
–
B
R. The internal resistance of the battery is the
R R
electrical iR
resistor of resistance
a R. The internal resistance of the
V battery is the electrical
iR
Va
resistance a of the
resistance
– – conducting
aof the conductingLower materials
materials ofofthe
thebattery
Va
battery and
a
and
thus thus
is an is an unremovable
unremovable
Va
potential
feature of the
feature battery.
of the battery.i InIn Fig.
Fig.27-4a, however,
27-4a, however, thethe
Emf battery
battery
device is drawn
is drawn
Emf itas
as if Resistor
device if itbe
could could Resistor
be
Real battery i
separated
separated
g charges by the in which
into
Fig. Real
27-3 an
into ideal
an
battery idealbattery
A(asingle-loop
)
battery
i circuitwith
with
in emfemf!!and and a resistor
a resistor ) of resistance r. The order
of(bresistance r. The order
whichthe symbols
a resistance Rfor (a )
these
is connected separated parts are drawn does not matter. (b ) diagram
Potential
in
from the mov- which
Fig. the
27-4
across
symbols
(a)
an
A
ideal (a)
for
single-loop
battery
these
circuit
B with
separated
containing
emfcircuit
!.
a real parts
battery are
having drawn
internal does
resistance not matter.
If we
Fig.
r and emf apply
27-4
!. (b) The same theA single-loop
loop
circuit, nowrule clockwise
spread containing
out in beginning
a line. a real battery
The potentials having
atencountered
point internal
a, the resistance
changes in
equationmeans If we
If we apply The
potential
in apply
rthe resulting
loop
andgive
traversing emf
the the
!.
us
circuit(b) loop
current
rule i is
clockwise
The same
clockwise rule
the
from same clockwise
abeginning
circuit, now
are also at The
spread
shown. beginning
pointout a,
in athe
potential at
Vachanges
line. isThe point a, the
in potential
potentials
arbitrarily changes
give us
encountered in
s is equal topotential
the assignedthroughout
give valueusof the
inatraversing zero,circuit.
theandcircuit
other clockwise
potentials infrom areare
a iR also shown. The potential Va is arbitrarily
! !the ir !circuit
# graphed
0. relative to Va.
(27-3)
assigned a value of zero, and other potentials in the circuit are graphed relative to Va.
Solving for the current, we find ! ! ir ! iR # 0. (27-3)
Solving for the current, we find !
i# . (27-4)
R "!r
Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 27-2
i# if the
. (27-4)
R" r battery is ideal — that is, if r # 0.
Figure 27-4b shows graphically the changes in electric potential around the
Note circuit.
that this(Toequation reduces
better link to Eq.
Fig. 27-4b with27-2 if the battery
the closed circuit inisFig.
ideal — that
27-4a, is, if r # 0.
imagine
curling 27-4b
Figure the graph into graphically
shows a cylinder with point
the a at the
changes inleft overlapping
electric point around
potential a at the
erent, thethe otherwise indicated,
resistances we assume that wires in circuits have negligible resistance.
27-5a,
Resistancesresistancesare
arenot
Their function,
connected
connected
connected one in
then,beisreplaced
series.
after
merely to another between a and b, and a
provide pathways along which charge carriers
Figure 27-5a showsinthree
series can
resistances with an equivalent
connected resistance
in series to anReq that
ideal has
battery with
potential
the difference
same current ican
andmove.)is maintained
the same total potentialacross a and
difference b by
V as the theresistances.
actual battery. The potential
at charge
emf !. moving
t remember
differences thatthroughhas
This description
thatcanRthen thelittle
and exist
series
to resistances
all acrossdo with howcan
the actual the
themove along are
resistances
series resistances
resistances
only
in the series
a
drawn.
halliday_c27_705-734v2.qxd
haveproduce
the same 23-11-2009 14:35 Page 71
identical
connected in series eqbe replaced with an equivalent resistance R that has
ute.Rather,
If there “in series”
are means
additional that
routes,the resistances
so27-5b
that the are wired
currents one after
in different
eq another
resis-and 710
with the
currents
nt ithat
and a
nonsense
the i in them.
Energy
same total
potential
word
In “ser-i.”
general,
Method
potential
difference
Figure
difference
V is applied V as the
across
shows
actual
the
the equivalent
resistances.
two ends of the
resis-
series. In Fig.
CHAPTER 27 CIRCUITS
You
re might
different, remember
the the that
resistances R and all the actual
are 2not connected series resistances
in series. have the same
that can replace threeeqresistances of Fig. 27-5a.
27-5a,
current the the
i with resistances
nonsense
Equation are
word
26-27 (Pconnected
!“ser-i.” one
Figure
i R) tells after
27-5b
us that another
shows
in a time thebetween
intervalequivalent
dt an amount and
a resis- b, and a
of energy
rive
tance anWhenexpression
potential a
Resistances potential
cangiven
Req that difference in for
Series
by i R
replace 2 Req in V
difference
is Fig.
is
will appear
dtmaintained
the three 27-5b,
applied
inacross
resistances we
across apply
the resistorresistances
of27-5a.
and
ofaFig. Fig. the
b 27-3 loop
connectedrule
as thermal
by the into
energy.
battery. both
series,
TheAspotential
noted
i
the27-5a,
resistances have identical currents Thetosum
i.said of the potential differences across b
or Fig.
member
ancesTo that
derive
differences
connected starting
R
an in and
Section
expression
that then
inisseries
eq atall a and
26-7,the
for
exist
can this
be R going
actual
energy
across in
replaced
eq
clockwise
series
is
Fig.
the 27-5b, wearound
resistances
be dissipated.
resistances
with an apply
equivalent the
have
the circuit,
(Because
loop
in V. resistance the
we
rule we
same
assume
series produceto find
the
both
Req that wires
identical
has

the resistances
“in series”
to haveequal
means: to the
negligible theapplied
resistance, potential
resistances no are
thermaldifference
wired
energy one
will after
appear another
in them.)we find that
and
During the a potential difference VRis1 applied
ethe nonsense
circuits.
current For
currents Fig.
and
iacross word
27-5a,
i inthe
them.
same
same
“ser-i.”
starting
In
!interval,
the two !ends
atFigure
general,
total a and going
potential
iR1 a! iR
charge
of the2!
27-5b
difference
dqiR
shows
clockwise
"will
! 3i dt
series V as theactual
around
the equivalentcircuit,resis-
theresistances.
0, have moved through battery B, and the 710 CHAPTER
The battery 27
drives current CIRCUITS
can replace thework three through the resistor, from
that resistances
! iR1will
the!battery ! haveof
iR2Fig.!done iR27-5a.
3on
"this0, charge, according to Eq. 27-1, is +
high potential to low R2 i
! i potential.
anNote
expression
When for R
thata potential
charge i "in Fig.
moving
difference V27-5b,
through thewe
is applied apply
series
!dWacross .! the loopconnected
resistances rule
can moveto in both
along
series,only a
(27-5)
– the
eq ! dqresistances
! !i dt. b
or
g. single
ht27-5a,
remember route. that
starting
the resistances If there
at
have R
a eq are
and and
identicalRadditional
i1all
going" # Rclockwise
the
currents 2 # i.R
routes,
actual The
3 sum so. that
series
around the currents
resistances
of the the circuit,
potential in
wedifferent
have
differences (27-5)
theacross
find sameresis- i
R mo
R 1 # R 2 # R 3 R 1 3 Higher
tances From thethe
are different, principle of conservation notof energy, thein work done by the (ideal) bat-
with the the nonsense
resistances word
is equal toresistances
“ser-i.”
the applied are
Figure
potential connected
27-5b shows
difference series.
V.the equivalent resis- potential
7-5b,
For Fig. with thewith
27-5b, three
!tery!the iR
must resistances
1 ! iR 2 ! iR3 "
equal resistances
three the thermalreplacedenergy 0, that
replaced withappears
a single
with in theequivalent
a single equivalent resis-
resistor: resis- + + a
i
is in
i
qwethat
tance Rcan
find replace the three resistances !i
eq, we find
ofdtFig. 27-5a.
! i2R dt.
– –
B R R
i 2 wor
derive Resistances
anthat connected
expression for in
!Rseries
! !
iR
!can
in ! "
Fig.beeq
iR 0,
replaced
" 0, with
27-5b, an equivalent
weresistances
apply the can resistance
loop rule Reqtothat has
both
a
(a )
Note charge
This
the same current i andR
i " moving
gives us
the # same
eqthrougheq
total
.
the
potential
series
difference V as the actual
move (27-5) along
resistances.
only a R3 Lower
Series
potentialresistors
Forsingle
Fig. 27-5a,
route.starting
If there are R
at aadditional #
and going R clockwise around the circuit, we find Res
or
1 2
i !" !routes,
3
. ! so that
! iR. the currents in different
(27-6)
resis- a i
and their
tances
, with theare different,
three resistances i "replaced
the resistances . Rare
eqwith not connected
a single in series. resis-
equivalent (27-6) Fig. 27-3 A single-loop i circuit in
equivalent have Figu
The emf!! ! iR
is the energy
! R iReqper !unit iR charge" 0,
transferred to the moving charges by the which a resistance R is connected
You might remember that R 1 and2 all energy the3 actual series resistances have the same (a )
theresistors
same emf
find
Comparison of Eqs. battery.
27-5The 27-6eqshows
andquantity iR is the that per unit charge transferred from the mov- across an ideal battery Series
B with emf !.
on current
of Eqs. withing
i27-5
Resistances
the
and
connected
nonsense
27-6
charges! !toshowsiR
in
word
eq "
thermal
series that 0,“ser-i.”
energy
can
! replaced
be within Figure
the 27-5bTherefore,
resistor.
with an
shows the
equivalent thisequivalent
equation
resistance R
resis-
means
that has The resulting current i is thecurrent
and same (“ser-i”).
their Rat
tance Req thatthat can replace i " R
the "three
eq unit R # R
1 resistances # R .
2transferred .
3 ofto Fig. 27-5a. (27-5)
eq tha
the same current the i andR
energy
the "
per
same
R R 1 #
total
# R
charge
R #
2 #
potentialR R. 3difference the
V moving
as the charges
actual is equal to the
resistances. throughout the circuit. b equivalent have
27-5
To derive
The extension to nan expression
resistances eq !
1for R2 in Fig.
is straightforward 3 and27-5b, is we apply the loop rule to both the same
i" . eq (27-6) pot
sioncircuits.
to with For Fig.three
n resistances 27-5a, starting
is resistances
straightforward at a replaced
and going and isclockwise around the circuit,resis- we find current (“ser-i”).
27-5b, the n Req with a single equivalent diff
! that + b
You
qf,Eqs.
we find might remember R eq " that RR and all the
(n
!jeq! iR1 ! iR2 ! iR3 " 0, actual
resistances series
in series).resistances have
(27-7) the same R eq i cur
27-5 and 27-6 nshows
current i with the nonsense wordeq !
j"1 ! iR " 0,
“ser-i.” Figure 27-5b shows the equivalent resis- –
Req " ! Rj (n resistances ! in series). (27-7)
tance
or
Note R
thatwhen that R
can
whenresistances
eq resistances
eq
j"1
replace
" R # the R three
i #
" R .
resistances of . Fig. 27-5a.
1are in2series,3 their equivalent resistance is greater (27-5)
+
R eq i W
are in series, !R1their# R2equivalent
# R3 resistance is greater than any –
than Toof derive an expression i for
" Reqand in
. Fig. 27-5b, we apply the loop rule to both
(27-6) th
to nany of the individual
resistances
the individual resistances.
is straightforward
resistances. R is a
th
circuits.
when
For Fig. For Fig.with
resistances
27-5b, 27-5a,
arethein starting
series,
three at their
resistancesand equivalent
a eq going
replacedclockwise aaround
resistance
with single isthe circuit, we
greater
equivalent find
resis- (b )
of tance
the Req, we find
individual27-5nresistances.
a
ison of Eqs. and 27-6 shows ! ! that ! 1!!iRiR
iR ! iR " 0, Fig. 27-5 (a) Three resistors are con-
eq2" 0, 3
Req " ! Rj (n resistances in series). (27-7) (b )
nected in series between points a and b.
Not
or j"1 Req " R1i # " R2 # R !!3. .

Fig. 27-5 (a) Three resistors are con-
(27-5) (b) An equivalent circuit, with the three
sing
or iR"# R . # R (27-6) nected in series between points a and b.
resistors replaced with their equivalent
tan
1 R 2 3
eq (b) An equivalent circuit, with the three
, this energy is said to be dissipated. (Because weor
assume the wires i"
Req
.
ble resistance, no thermal energy will appear in them.) During the The battery drives curren
a charge dq ! i dt will have moved through batteryComparison
B, and of Eqs.
the 27-5 and 27-6 shows that
710 through the resistor, from
CHAPTER 27 CIRCUITS
attery will have done on this charge, according to Eq. 27-1, is Req potential
high " R1 # Rto2 # 3.
lowRpote
i
CHECKPOINT
dW ! ! dq2! !i dt. The extensionb to n resistances is straightforward and
the right.) Note howi
i
mountain back to you
In Fig. 27-5a, if R1 $ R2 $ R3, rank the R1 H
In this book, whe
ciple of three
conservation of energy, the work done by the (ideal) bat- n
p
l the thermal
resistances according to (a) the
energy that appears in the
current through them and (b) the po- resistor:
+
–
RR
2
eq "
i Rj
j"1 +
! is indicated, you can
(n resistanc
world batteries are al
i
B R
tential difference across
2 them, greatest R –
!i dt ! i R dt. 3
first. Note that when

a resistances are ina series,
Resistances
their in Ser
equi
L
than any of the individual
i resistances. Figure 27-5a showspt
(a ) i
! ! iR. Series resistors emf !. This descrip
(a)All tie;
and their Fig. 27-3 Rather, “in series”cir
A single-loop m
he energy (b)R
per1, unit
R2, R3charge
transferred to the moving charges by the equivalentwhich that a potential diffe
have a resistance R is conne
27-5a, the resistance
antity iR is the energy per unit charge transferred from the mov- the same
across an ideal battery
potential B with
difference
current (“ser-i”).
thermal energy within the resistor. Therefore, this equation means
b
The resulting current ithat
differences is the
thens
y per unit charge transferred to the moving charges is equal to the currents
throughout the i in them. In
circuit.
+ When a potential di
R eq i
– the resistances have i
the resistances is equa
a
(b ) Note that charge mo
Fig. 27-5 (a) Three resistors are con- single route. If there
nected in series between points a and b. tances are different, t
(b) An equivalent circuit, with the three
resistors replaced with their equivalent
Resistances connecte
resistance Req.
the same current i and
b
the battery’s internal resistance r, we movebin(at
ugh the battery’s emf, the potential increases by !.Whenwe 27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points
thepotential
wei pass
pass
#
can move.)
direction
through
through
! Vof
example,
.
b) the
the
while
in Fig.
battery’s
keeping
current 27-6, and
emf,
track of
whatthus
the
is the
r =
the
potential
2.0 Ω
the potential changes we encounter.
potential difference Vb ! Vlaacbetween
increases (27-9)by !.When iwe
maehC–
pass
R = When
points
4.0 Ω PA R T 3
through
i
Thea and rotom re
b?
internal ot
Va " !27-6
r POTE , NTIAL DIpoint
FFEbetween Ra (at
E NCE BRETWE E NinmoveTWO dPOI
erots ygNTS
potential decreases by ir.We are then at the potential of point
To!the ir #
find b
out, and
Vblet’s we have
start at potential Va)Ωand = 12
through V 711 eerht llad
= 4.0 rene the battery the topotential
point
internal resistance r, we move in the direction ofWe theoften currentthewant and toR
battery’s thus "internal
find the potential
resistance differencer, we move in the two points
direction of a–thecircuit.
current For and thus the
reases by ir.We are then at the or potential of point ba" and
Vexample, ! we inhave
ir
!potential#VbV27-6,
Fig. Energy
!, Vbawhat
b decreases
Method
(at
# potential
! is!the by ir.We
Vb) while keeping
ir. potential
are difference
then = 12 VVtrack
at the
27-6
potential
! V
ofPOTE
(27-8)the potential
between
of point
NTIAL
a
points
b
Fig.changes
and a
DI
27-6
and
we
i FFE
A n i
b?
have
we Rencounter.
Points E NCE a and the Bb,When
ETWE
which are
terminals. .yE
PA gr N
SubstitutingTothis equation into Eq. 27-8 27-6
gives we pass
27-6 POTENTIAL
us through the battery’s
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
–DIFFERENCE emf, the b potential
a
BETWEEN
BETWEEN increases at the byTWO
TWO terminals
!.When
POINTSPOINTS of apass
)b(we
real battery,
through 711 711
dif-
or 27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points
Va " ! ! ir # Vb,
evaluate this expression,
To find out,
Vb ! Va # ! ! Equation welet’s need
start the
at
ir. the 26-27 pointcurrent
battery’s
a (at2
(P ! i internali. Note
potential
R) tells us that
athat
V
inaa "
resistance
V
) the
and
(27-8) i circuit
move
time!interval
r,!we
is
through
dt#anVamount
move
irchanges
the
Fig.
The
in the
b, the
the
27-6 battery
internal
of energy
direction
Points to
ferresistance
in of point
a
potential.and
the current
b,
reduces which are
and thus bthe +
To 27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points

WeevaluateVb !
often want
same as in Fig. 27-4a,
this
V a# toexpression,
! ir.
!find the potential we we
for potential
b (at
needVpass
which Eq.
! the
difference
or V
throughcurrent
#
27-4
Vgiven)
between
!
the
while
by
(27-8)
!
gives
2
battery’s
keeping
R dt will
i. iNote
b potential
two
the
that
points
emf,
current
!decreases
appear track
r
in the27-6
the
Fig.
the in a
as
of
circuit
the
resistor
by ir.We
circuit.
potential V
a potential
ofPoints
Fig.
isare
For
27-3
the
V
increases
a as
then andthermal
!
atb,the
by
at
ir.
the
fer
we
energy.As
which in are
terminals
encounter.
potential
potential notedof point
potential.
we pass
of
difference a
When
;A! " Bb! ,and
real battery,
tiucricbetween
ewe
fo noitcerid eht senimrete(27-8)
through
ht nIhave
dif-
)a( 2-72 .giF The inte
Fig
27-6 Potential
! # !
Difference Between TwoTwoPoints
!.When
27-6 Potential
same
this expression, we
5-734v2.qxd
Difference
Potential as inin
example, Between
Difference
Fig.
Fig.27-4a,
need the current
23-11-2009
Points Two Points
Between
27-6, for which
what
14:35We
is the
i. Note
Eq.
often
Page
27-4
potential
the that
b
want
711
gives
To to
the
a
difference
battery’s internal
circuit
in
thei #
find
evaluate
Section
current
to have
Visthe
b
R
!
the
26-7,
!
this
R
V
resistance asthis
"
between
potential
negligible
"
a
r
.
energy
r
r,
expression,
at
we
resistance,
fer
is
thesaid
points
move
difference
to be
terminals
a
in
dissipated.
b
and
we energy
no potential.
in thermal the
need
of
b?
a
between
a(Because
the
will
V
direction
real
appear
a "
we
battery,
of
! (27-9)
intwo
current
!
thedif-
assume
the ir #
them.)points
terminals.
the
currentThe
TheV
Note
i.During
wires
b , internal
internal
and
inthat
the thus
a circuit.
ni sr ef
thes na
The
resistance
resistance
the
r t y gr e
circuit
battery
For is the
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-
the
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atis
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fer
=2
eth
l
To find out, let’s start at point a (at potential potentialdecreases V ) and move through the battery to point the potential difference
the potential difference b?resistor,between
.tiucrbetween = 1
inby ir.We are then at the potential of point and
bbetween we have -aredisn
g. 27-4a, for which Eq. potential
27-4 gives the example,
current as Vindifference
Fig. !a27-6, what or is27-4a,
the potential difference V
V bb ! V V aa # !B,! b ir. points i and
athrough ic eh(27-8)
t
We To often We
know want
b (at often
to want
the
potential to
findSubstituting
Vthe ) find
while the
potential
difference
keeping
thispotential
difference
track
equation i # of-V same
the
into between
between .assame
potential
Eq. between
27-8
!
interval,
Fig. two
points
changes
gives
atwo
us
charge
pointswe
for
a dq(at
points which
!in
encounter. in
awill
i dtpotential
a have
Eq. circuit.
circuit. moved
27-4
(27-9)
When For
V through
gives
For ) !and the battery
current
point and +the
as the from a
b
To find out,
b
R
let’s
a
" r
start#work at point
that
To the
evaluate a R.
battery(at potential
willV have
this " done
! ! on
expression,V )
this
ir # and
charge,
HALLIDAY
V we,move
a
according
need through
to Eq.
REVISED
the (27-10)
27-1, the
currentthe
the
is terminals.
terminals.
battery
i. Note tothat point the circuit is
la–edi na
the
example,
b (at in example,
weFig.
pass27-6, in Fig.
Vwhat 27-6,
! what
theisbattery’s is emf,
the potential to bdifference R VV !ra the Va between points a
aiaand andb? b?
!we encounterr = 2.0 Ω high potential to low potential. sselnU(b.
through .the potential thea difference
potential Vtrack
increases !" bby between we points
pass through
a b
potential i# b), we move b
from
(at potential V
and ) while b(27-9)
same keeping as
!.When
in
potential
!Fig.track 27-4a, of the
for
changes
potential
which # Eq. . giveswe
changes
27-4 theencounter.
current(27-8) as When R = 4.0(27-9) ΩFig. 27-6 Poin
To find out, Substituting
Tothe find
battery’s
let’s start this
out, let’s equation
start
Rpoint
internal
at " r resistance(atinto
ata point a r,Eq.
(at
potential we 27-8
orpotential
move V gives
) V
in V!
bthe
and
b
aus)move
and
Va #move
direction !ofthrough
!through the current Vrb the
the !dW V battery
a#
and
battery ! ! dq !!!
thus to to
!i ir.
dt.point
the
point R " r + i i .ecnatsis
we pass through a the battery’s R
emf, " r
the potential increases by we b pass + through i at the terminals o
Now substituting
(at potential ) while thekeepingdata given
track in Fig.
ofSubstituting
the 27-6,
potential we bhave
changes we encounter. When !.When b = 2A
If bwe Vbkeeping
potential decreases by are then at the potential of point and we have ! the circuit is the = 12 V Higher sreirrac
b (at
this potential
equation into V
Eq.
move b) 27-8
while gives
clockwise usir.We track
(passing
the
Toof
battery’s
evaluate
the
through potential
internal
this
the !From expression,
changes
battery):
the
resistance this
principle equation
r,ofwe
we need
encounter.
conservation
we move into theEq.
of
in
current
energy,
the 27-8 When
the gives
work
direction
i. Note
done
i #us by
of
that
the
the (ideal)
.
currentbat- and thus the fer in (27-9)
potential.
potential
we pass through the battery’sVemf, b !same Vthea # !in!Fig. 27-4a,
potential
as! R increases
tery rmust
rfor!which
equal by the !.When
R. Eq.energy
thermal 27-4 wethat pass
givesappears through
the in current
the asR " r
(27-10)
resistor:
a – i
Ω
we pass through through the thebattery’s
battery’s emf,
! emf, the
potential
thepotential
V a "
potential
!
decreases ir #12
increases V
increases
" V
b , #
bydirection
ir.We by
R by !.When
are r , then
through we
at the pass
the through
potential
battery’s of point
internal ! b and we haver =r 2.0 = +2.0
B Ω
R = 4.0
R Ri = 4.0 Ω
Ω
the battery’s
V ! V #internal
! ! resistance
V r ! Vr, we # move in the Substituting" of
4.0 the
$ thiscurrent
# 8.0
equation
V !and
V.
! V thus
into # Eq.
! the
! 27-8 gives
Fig. (27-11)
r
27-6 us Points a and – b, which are P
the battery’s or internal
b
resistance
potential
a resistance r,bwe move
r,Now
decreases R
(wesubstituting
move
by " r inare the V ab ! in V
at4.0
a
i direction)àthe
then
the
# !! direction
!
$in"R.
the potential
ir.
2.0 of
of$point
potential the current
bdecreases i # and
!i b
dt !
by # i2thus
(27-8)
R
ir
a
dt.
. the R " r (27-9)
= 12battery,aV
a
ir.We the data # given Fig. 27-6, we have Vand a " ! !
we have R ir"(27-10)r Vb, at the terminals of a real V dif- Lower 711
potential decreases by ir.We are
To evaluate this !expression, we need the
same àSuppose,
the potential of forpoint
then
b: Eq.
at the potential
R "current 27-6of
r This gives point POTENTIAL
i. Noteus b and we have
that the circuit is the
orascounterclockwise,
DIFFERENCE V b ! V # BETWEEN
! !
! a fer in potential.
!
a
r – TWO = 12
i
POINTS Fig. 27-6
potential
as in Fig. # 27-4a,instead, R. which orwe move
Va27-4
Substituting
" !givesfrom
! irthis #aV
the 12bto,V b
equation
(27-10)
current intoVEq. b !27-8 Va # gives !! us# ir. passing R. through R"r a – (27-8) i (27-10)
i ygrene f
! ! iR. at the
Now substituting
resistor
R the" rdata given
R rather than through V " in
!V Fig.
! ! V
27-6,
ir # # Vwe , have 4.0 $ # 8.0 V. R " (27-11)
r detterm
on s
Vbthe ! Vbattery. Because we move opposite the current, the
b a
or To a evaluate this
# bexpression,
4.0
! ! $ ir.
" 2.0 $ we need the current !(27-8) i. Note that
! Fig. the
27-6 circuit Points is a and
theA b,
single-loop which circuit are
in
27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points a! Fig. 27-3 fer in pote
. Thefor emf !which is the the V
energy ! V
per27-4
unit # !
charge ! transferred r # R. Points a and b, which (27-10)
dif- sare eriw eh
or the data
uting given in Fig.
potential 27-6, we by
increases have Vsameb#!
iR.Thus, asaiin
V 12
#Fig.
# VNow
!R ! ir.substituting
27-4a,
r
bdata
Eq. agiven
gives in (27-9)
Fig.
Rthe "27-6,
(27-8) rto thewe
current moving Rcharges
have
as " Fig.
atThe
rthe by27-6
the
terminals
internal ofa resistance
resistance
which a real battery,
R is reduces
connected
To evaluate this Suppose,
Vb ! V
expression, a
instead,we we
need move
the" from
4.0
current $ a #i.to 8.0
Noteb counterclockwise,
V. that the circuit(27-11)
battery. The quantity iR is the energy per unit charge transferred from passing
is the through
at
fer theinmov-
the terminals
potential. of
tnedifference
across rruan ea
c sidealvirdrealyrettabbattery,
battery T emf !. dif-
Bebetween
hwith e ht gnir
4.0 $ " 2.0
V $ the potential
We Tooften
evaluate
Vb ! same
want this
as find
Substituting
V to Fig.resistor
12this
V27-4a,
inexpression,
the equationRfor
potential rather
4.0
we which
into than
need Eq.
8.0 Eq.
difference through
the
V.27-827-4 the
current
gives
gives a us
between " ingiR
battery.
the #
Note
i.charges
Now
current
two
(27-11)
V
Because b that
thermal
points asVwe
tosubstituting move
the
energy
! in
i athe
Vwithin
#
opposite
circuit
data
the
circuit.
# .
12 the
isFor
given
R.
V
the
!!resistor.Therefore, current,
in Fig.this the wemeans
27-6,
4.0equation
$fer #
have
in8.0 potential.
V. The
(27-10)moresulting
,rotsisecurrent
rf(27-9) t hgiuisorthe
r eh(27-11) ht same eht dna
a # potential $
increases # byfrom
iR.Thus, b # a the terminals. si ,
same asininFig. Suppose,
Fig. 4.0 $
27-4a, "instead,
for2.0 which
$ we move
Eq. 27-4 gives a to the counterclockwise,
b current
that!theVenergy asper unit charge passing RR" 4.0
transferred "through
rtor the
$ "moving2.0 $ charges
12 V is equal to the .laitthroughout
netop wol othe t laicircuit.
tnetop hgih
example, or 27-6, what is the potential difference V ! V ! between points a and b? (27-12)
resistor R rather than through V theb ! Vai #
battery. !b !V.V
#!Because
b awe " a r#iR a
move iR.Vopposite
# b the b ! Va #
Vcurrent, the
(27-9) 4.0 $ # 8.0 V. (27-11)
To findout,
, instead, we let’s
move
Ifpotential
we start
move from at point
a to ba (at
counterclockwise potential
Substituting
counterclockwise, Now V
(passing substituting
) and
this
passing Suppose,
move
equation
R
through " the
through
r data
through
R) instead,
into given the
Eq. we
in battery
27-8 move
Fig. 27-6,
gives tofrom
we point
us havea 4.0to $ b " counterclockwise,
2.0 $ passing through
increases by iR.Thus, i # a! R " r b + rehgiH the i i
orfor .
resistor VbR!rather Vthe
a #than iR. through the battery. (27-9) Because (27-12) we move opposite current,
her than
b (at potential Substituting
through the battery.
Vb) while Because
keeping i from we move
track Eq.
intoof
27-9,
opposite
the
R we
r
the
potential again
current,
! V usthe changes find Suppose, Eq.
we 27-10.
encounter.
instead, 12 V weWhenHence, move substitution
from a to b counterclockwise, of laitnetop passingthethrough -tab )lae
reases

by through
Substituting
iR.Thus,
Because wethis equation
move opposite Eq. Vthe 27-8
"" iR gives
current,
a # potential # bR. increasesV potential
! V V by # increases
iR.Thus,
V by
(27-10)
! iR
4.0 $ r# 8.0 V. (27-11)
we pass the data the in Fig. 27-6
Substituting
battery’s emf,yields the same
for potential
the i from "result,
Eq.increases
R27-9, r we again by Vb!.When
resistorb! find RaV ! 4.0
brather
Eq.
a# we a8.0
27-10.
$ #
than "!
pass V. !through
In$Rgeneral,
through
Hence,
2.0 " the battery.
substitution
r Because
of we move opposite
r =i 2.0R Ω
the current,
+ the
Substituting or this equation Va "the # into
iR data Vbin Fig. Eq. 27-8 V gives
! V us
# iR. ! potential V
(27-12) " iR # V B
Ω
27-6 yields thea same result, à V b !increasesVa # 8.0and byV.iR.Thus,
Inthusgeneral, R = 4.0
ormove a b –
the battery’sNow internal resistance
substituting the data r, wegiven Vb in !Fig.in
b
athe
VSuppose,
#
27-6, !direction
! have ofrwe
weinstead, the movecurrent from a to !
the
b counterclockwise, passing through a
or R " r V ! V VaiR.
# " iR # Vb rew= oL 12 V (27-12)
Substituting
potential decreases Vbyb ! forVai #
ir.We fromiR. then
are Eq. 27-9, at the wepotential
resistor again find
R rather !ofEq. (27-12)
point
than 27-10.
throughb and Hence,webattery.
the havesubstitution
# Because b R.weof move opposite the current,
a
laitnetop (27-10)the
To find
the data in Fig. 27-6 the potential
yields
To find V theV
b !
the V
between same
potential a # ! any
12!
result,
potential
between
V twoVany
increases points
!two Va$ r or
by
points in
8.0
iR.Thus, a
inV. circuit,
aV.In general,
circuit, start
start R at
"
at one r
one point point V
andfind and
! V # iR. aHence,
– i (27-12)
Vb Eq.! a # R b!
Substituting
" 4.0
r ## for 8.0 i from Eq. 27-9, (27-11)
we again b Eq.
a 27-10. substitution
i of
for i from Eq. 27-9, we again
traverse the circuit find
traverse to Vthe 27-10.
"other Hence,
$irpoint, substitution
V , the R. any of (27-10)the the
!4.0 #2.0 bfollowing anypath, and add algebraically
the acircuit !the
to "#
other $
point, following path, Vand " addiR algebraically
# Vresult, ngeneral,
i tiucric pool-elgnis A 3-72 .giF
ig. 27-6 yields changes
the same in result, V ! V #Now 8.0 substituting
V. In the
general, R data
" r data
in Fig.given
Substituting 27-6 infor
yields Fig. athe
i 27-6,
from same Eq.we havewe
b27-9, Vb ! again Va # find 8.0Eq. V. In 27-10. Hence, substitution of eht yb se
or Suppose, changes
potential
instead, b in
we V
apotential
you move
! V
you
encounter.
from
# ! !
encounter.
a! toir. b counterclockwise,
the data in Fig. passing
27-6 yieldsthrough
(27-8)
the same result, Fig.
V 27-6V 8.0
detcennoc sa
PointsV. In
i R and
ecnatsisb,
general,
er a which
hcihw are
To find the potential between any# or
a two points in R.wea circuit, start at one point V12 b !V Va # (27-10)
and iR. ! # .! f(27-12) -vom eh
Now
resistorsubstituting
R rather than datab given
thethrough the in R
battery. Fig." 27-6,
Because
r Vwehave !move V opposite
# the current, the
4.0 $ # 8.0 atV.
b
the
a
terminals me htiw B yrettab laedi na ssorca
of
(27-11)a real battery, dif-
traverse the circuit to the other point, followingTo any
To evaluate
potential this
potential
between any expression,
increases
two points by
in a we
iR.Thus,
circuit,need start the
Substituting
at one current
point for
and i.path,
find bthe and
i Note
frompotential
a add algebraically
that
Eq. 27-9, the
4.0 $circuit
between
we "again anythe
2.0 is the
two
find
$ points
Eq. 27-10. in a circuit,Hence,
fer in start at one
substitution
potential.
empoint
as eht of si i tand
nerruc gnitluser ehT snaem n
changes in potential you encounter. 12 in Vtraverse the circuit to the other point, following twoany path, inand add algebraically .tiucrpoint
ic ethe
ht tuoand hguorht eht ot la
Nowas
same
circuit tosubstituting
in Fig.
the point,the
other27-4a, forPotential
data
followingwhich given !Difference
Eq.
Vb path,
any Vin27-4Fig.
aand
the
add
#Suppose, 27-6,
gives
V Across
data we
the
aalgebraically
" iR
4.0 $ " instead,
# a
have
Fig.
current
V Real
27-6
the
$ inwe
4.0 $Battery
To
yields
as # find
move
the
8.0 thesame
V. potential
from
result,
a the
between
Vb !
to other
Vany
(27-11)
b counterclockwise,
points
a # 8.0 V. In general,
a circuit,
passing
start at one
through
Potential Difference Across a Real Battery
b
otential you encounter. 2.0
changes potential
traverse theyou encounter.
circuit to point, following any path, and add algebraically the
or In Fig. 27-6, points resistor 12aVR Vb!
and rather
! bVaare #than iR.
located through at thethe
changes battery.of
in potential
terminals Because
you the(27-12)
encounter.
battery. we move Thus, the opposite the current, the
Suppose,Vpotentialinstead,
! V # we i
move# from
To find .
a theto4.0 b
potential
$ counterclockwise,
# 8.0
between V. any two passing
points (27-9)
in through
(27-11)
a circuit, start at one point and
Potential Difference b
Across
a difference potential
4.0 $aR "Real
V" !rV
b2.0 Battery
increases
$a is the by terminal-to-terminal
iR.Thus, potential difference V
same as in Fig. 27-4a, for which Eq. 27-4 gives the current as
!
7-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points i#
R"r
. (27-9)
The internal resistance reduces
Substituting this equation into Eq. 27-8 gives us the potential difference between
We often want to find the potential difference between two points in a circuit. For
! the terminals.
ample, in Fig. 27-6, what is the potential difference Vb ! VaV#b ! !! Va between r points a and b?
o find
out,Potential Difference
let’s start at point a (atAcross
potential aV Real Battery R " r
a) and move through the battery to point b + i = 2A
(at potential
IfVtheb) while keeping
705-734v2.qxd 23-11-2009 14:35 Page 712
internal track
resistance of the
r of thebattery
potentialwas changes
! à we
zero
#HALLIDAY
encounter. When (27-10)
R. V = , à V = 12 V
e pass through Rby r
If rthe ≠ 0battery’s
(r = 2.0)emf, the< potential
, V = 8.0increases we pass through
REVISED
" !.When
àV V r = 2.0 Ω
R = 4.0 Ω
e battery’s internal Now resistance r, wethe
substituting movedataingiven
the direction
in Fig. 27-6,of
wethehavecurrent and thus the
V depends
otential decreases on the
by ir.We arevalue
thenof at ithe
through the battery
potential of point b and we have = 12 V
à If the same battery wasVbin!a Vdifferent 12 V
circuit of different i passing through(27-11)
circuits
a # 4.0 $ # 8.0 V. a – i
12 CHAPTER 27 CIRCUITS
à different V V " ! ! ir # 4.0
V ,$ " 2.0 $
a b
2009 14:35 Page 712 Suppose, V instead,
b! Viwe move from a to b counterclockwise, passing
a # ! ! ir. (27-8) through Fig. 27-6 Points a and b, which are
009
Grounding
14:35
a Circuit b +
Page 712resistor R rather than through the battery. Because we move opposite the current, the at the terminals of a real battery, dif-
o evaluate this expression, we need
potential increases the current
byriR.Thus,
= 2.0 Ω
b + i i. NoteREVISED
HALLIDAY that the circuit is the fer in potential.
Grounding a circuit:
me as in Fig. 27-4a, for which Eq. 27-4= 12givesmeans RHALLIDAY
connecting
=
the
4.0
V
Ω the
current
" iR
REVISED
circuit
# as
V to a conducting path to Earth’s surface
V a b r = 2.0 Ω R = 4.0 Ω
The potential or is defined a to
– bei zero
! at the grounding
Vb ! Va # iR. point in
= 12 V
the circuit (27-12)
The grounding symbol i
is # . a – i (27-9)
g. 27-7 (a) Point a is directlySubstituting
con- for i fromR Eq. r we again find Eq. 27-10. Hence, substitution of
"27-9,
(a) Ground is taken (b)
ected to ground. (b) Point b is directly
CIRCUITS this
ubstituting If point
equation into the data
in Fig. 27-6
a is connected
Eq. to yields
ground,
27-8 theàV
gives tosame
be azero
us 0 à Vb ! Va # 8.0 V. In
=result,
potential. àgeneral,
Vb = 8.0 V
CIRCUITS
onnected to ground.
If point b is connected to ground, àVb = 0 à Va = -8.0 V
Grounding
To find the potentiala between
!
Circuit any two points in a circuit, start at one point and
V b ! Va # ! ! r
traverse
b +b +the
i
i circuit
Figure toshows
27-7a the other R
the same "
point, rfollowing
circuit anyexcept
as Fig. 27-6 path,that
andhere
addpoint
algebraically
a is directlythe
changes inconnected
potentialtoyou encounter.
ground, as indicated by the common bsymbol
+ i . Grounding a cir-
! + i
cuit usually means connecting the circuit to abconducting path to Earth’s surface
r = r2.0 Ω Ω #
= 2.0 R =
4.0 Ω 4.0
R =electricallyΩ R. (27-10)
(actually to the conducting moist dirt and rock below ground). Here,
R " r r =Ω2.0to Ω be zero
=such
=V
12 12a V
connection means only that the potentialr is defined
= 2.0 RΩ=at4.0
theΩ
ow substituting Potential Difference Across a Real Battery

the data
a –agiven
– bei Viin Fig. 27-6, we have
R = 4.0
grounding point in the circuit. Thus in Fig. 27-7a, the potential at a is defined to
a ! 0. Equation 27-11 then tells us that the potential = 12atV=b12 is Vb ! 8.0 V.
In Fig. 27-6, points a and
Figure 27-7b b are
is the samelocated at the
circuit except a terminals
that point
– a b
–i is now
i the battery. Thus, the
of directly connected
potential
12
to ground. Thus, Vthe potential there is defined to be Vb ! 0. Equation 27-11 now
difference Vb ! Va is 4.0 the $ terminal-to-terminal potential difference V
ctly
ectlycon-
con- V b ! Va # tells us that the potential
Ground is at a
taken is V ! # 8.0
"8.0 V. V. (27-11)
bsisdirectly
directly 4.0
across the battery.(a) (a)
$From"Ground
2.0 $is taken
Eq. 27-8,
a
we see that (b) (b)
to be zerozero
to be potential.
potential.
Suppose, instead, we move Power,from
Potential,
a toandbEmf counterclockwise,
V # ! ! ir. passing through (27-13)
sistor R rather than through the battery.
When
If the internala battery orBecause
some other we
resistance type move
r i,ofthethe battery opposite
of emf device
in the
does work
Fig. 27-6 oncurrent,
were the
the charge carri-
zero,ofEq. 27-13 tells
Grounding
otential increasesGrounding a
byusiR.Thus, Circuit
a
ers
that V wouldCircuit
to establish
(such as be
a
the equal
current
chemicaltosource
the emf
device transfers
! of the
in a battery)
energy
battery
to the
from
charge —
its source
namely,
carriers.
energy
12 V.
Because However,
a real
emf device has an
Figure 27-7b isPower,
internal the same energy
Potential,
resistance (such r,as
circuitvia except
resistive
and
itthe Emf
alsochemical
that pointsource
transfers
dissipation b energy
is now
(Section
in directly
atobattery)
internal
26-7).
tothermal
connected
Let us
the charge carriers. Beca
relate these transfers.
ers to establish a current
where V is the potential across the terminals i, the device transfers
emf of energy
the emf
device has from
device.
an its
internal source
Fromresistance of energy
Eq. 27-13,r, it also transfers energy to intern
energy tovia ground.
resistive Thus,dissipation
the potential there
(Section is defined
26-7). Let to type
be
us relate
Vtransfer
b! 0.these
Equation transfers.27-11 now
7-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points
we can substitute VGrounding
(such as the
The
chemical
tellsnet us that the
source
! ! " ir into
potential
a
When
in Circuit
a a
battery)battery
Eq. 27-14energy The
attransfer
a is VaEq.
net
to orthe some
rate P
charge other
of
V.i, emf
energy
carriers.
to findvia resistive dissipation (Section of emf
Because device
from a realdoes
the
The
emf work
internal
26-7).
device
Let
on the
to
resistance
us
charge
the
relate
charge
reduces
these
carri-
carrier
transfe
has an rate P of energy from the device to the charge carriers is
ers togiven establish ! "8.0
atransfers
current the device transfers energy from its source of energy
emf device internal resistance r, it by alsoThe 26-26: energy to
2net rate P of energy transfer the
internal thermal from potential
the emf difference
device between
to the charge
We often energy want to
given findby the
Eq. Figure
potential
26-26: 27-7aP
difference
via resistive dissipation (Section 26-7). ! shows
i(!
(such "as the
ir)
the
between same
! i!
chemical
twocircuit
"
Let i r.
points as
source
us relate Fig.
in a in27-6 a
circuit. except
battery)
For
these transfers. that
(27-15)
Pto ! here
the iV, point
charge a is directly
carriers. Because a real (27-
given by Eq. 26-26: the terminals.
what isconnected Emftotransfer as indicated by the common symbol
ground,from is. Grounding a cir-
ample, inPower,
Fig. 27-6, emf device has an internal resistance r, it also transfers energy to internal thermal
From The
Eq. Power,
Potential,
net
26-27, ratewe Pthe and
of potential
Potential,
energy
recognize
difference
theand term Emf i
V
r
! Va between
2 b theP
in Eq. emf
! device
iV,
27-15
points
as to
the thea and b?
rate charge
P of carriers
energy (27-14)
o find out,let’s start atratepoint a (at
P cuit potential
usually energy
means ) and
Vafrom via moveresistive
connecting
where V through the
isdevice
the dissipation
the
circuit
potential batteryto(Section
atoconducting
across point r
the 26-7). Let
path
isterminals Pusto !of iV,
relate
Earth’s
bthe + these
emfsurface transfers.
i device. From Eq. 27-
givenThe
transfer by to Eq.
netthermal 26-26: of energy
energy transfer
within the emf the emf
device: to the charge carriers given by
(at potential Vb) while keeping trackto ofthe The
theelectrically
potential net rate
changesPofofemf energy
we Vencounter. transfer When from the emf device to the Here, charge carriers is
whereWhen V is (actually
a battery
the potential or some across other
we can
PEq. the
!where
type
iV,
conducting
substitute
terminals is thewe
moist
device
!of ! "does
the
potential
dirt
ir into
emf and
work
across
Eq. rock
device.on27-14
the
below
the From
(27-14)
charge
to
terminals
ground).
find Eq. carri-
27-13,
of the
e pass through the battery’s ers to emf, athe
such
establish P ! a i 2 givenincreases
potential
connection
current
r by means
i,
(internal the 26-26:
by
only
device
dissipation
V that
!.When rate).thepass
transfers energy through
potential from is defined
its
(27-16)source to of beenergy zero
r = 2.0 atΩemfthe device. From
e battery’s where we can
internal V is substitute
the potential
resistance r, we V
r ! !the
across
move in"the
terminals intowe
irdirection Eq.
of can
the
of 27-14
substitute
emf
the to find
device:
current V 27-7a,
and !thus !
P! "
P the i(! into
ir iV, " ir) Eq. !27-14i!at"a to iis2ar.find R = 4.0 Ω
(27-14)(27-
(such grounding
as the chemical point in
source the
where V is the potential across the terminals of the emf device. From Eq. 27-13, circuit.
in a Thus
battery) in
to Fig.
the charge the
! potential
carriers. Because defined
real to
otentialThen decreasesthe term byemf ir.We i!be
device
in VEq.
are then
has
! 27-15
at
0.an the
Equation must be
potential
internal 27-11 ofthe
resistancepoint rate
then Pemfwe
and
br,tells
it us
also
atthatwhich
have the
transfers 2
the emf device
potential
energy at
to b is
internal V ! 8.0
thermal
= 12 V
V.
we can substitute
transfers energy both V! to!the
a ir into
" charge where Eq. PV27-14
From
carriers !
is the i(!
Eq.
and " toir)
topotential
find
26-27, ! wei!
internal "
recognize
across ithe
thermal r. terminals
thePterm
energy. !Thus,i(! 2 "inir)
ofi rthe bEq.
emf ! i! (27-15)
–27-15
a device. " iias 2
r.
Fromthe rate Pr of ene
Eq. 27-13,
energy via Figure Va " !27-7b
resistive ! ir # is Vthe
dissipation
we cantransfer , same
substitute
b (Section circuit
to thermal 26-7).
V !2! "energy
except Let that
us
ir intowithin
point
relate
Eq. 27-14
b
these
the to
is
emf
now directly
transfers.
finddevice:2
connected
From Eq. 26-27,Vbwe The to ground.
net rate
!V P P
Thus,
of!
recognize i(!
the
energy " ir)
From
potential !
transfer i! Eq.
there
"
the term i r in Eq. 27-15
from i r.
226-27,
is
the we
defined
emf recognize
to
device be toV
(27-8)as bthe rate the
the! (27-15)
0.term
chargeEquation
Fig. ir rof
Pcarriers
27-6 inPointsEq.
27-11
energyis 27-15
anowand b,aswhich
the arerate Pr
a # ! ! ir.
transfer given to tells
by Eq.
thermal us that
P26-26:
emf ! the
energy i! potentialwithin
(power transfer
at
the
2of emf Vto
isdevice).
a emf a! thermal
"8.0P V.
device: !Penergy
r
i(!
! i 2" r within
ir)(27-17)
! i!the
(internal " iemf
at the r. device:
2 terminals
dissipation rate).of a real battery, dif- (27-
(27-15)
o evaluate From thisEq. 26-27, wewe
expression, recognize
need thethe currentterm i.i rNote in Eq. that 27-15 as the is
the circuit ratethePr of energy fer in potential.
me as intransfer
Fig. 27-4a, for which
to thermal energy within Eq. 27-4 gives
Fromthe the
Eq. current
emf device: as P ! iV, 22 (27-14)
Then 2 26-27,the we recognize
term i! in Eq. the 27-15 term
Pr ! musti irrinbeEq. the 27-15
(internal rate as the rate
dissipation
emf at which
P(27-16) Pr ofthe
rate). energy
emf dev
The rate at Power,
P ! i r (internal dissipation rate).
If a battery
where
is
V
being
which the emf
is the Potential,
recharged, transfer
device
potential
r with
2 ! transfers
and
transfers
across
a
to thermalEmf
“wrong
energy
the energy
terminals
way”
energy both current
within
toThe
of
the
therate
the
through
ofemf
charge
emf energy
device.
it,
device:
carriers the
transfer and
From Eq. to 27-13,
to thermal internal
energy thermal energy. Th
energy transfer both to the is charge P
then carriersi
fromr# ! i r
thetocharge
and internalThen
. (internal carriers
thermal the
dissipation
energytoterm the i!
rate). in Eq.
battery
within (27-9)
—emf
the 27-15
both device (27-16)
tomustthe be the rate Pemf at which the e
Then the term in R
Eq. r
27-15 must be the rate at which
i! r.the emf device
we can substitute V " ! ir into Eq. 27-14 to find 2 P
battery’s chemical When energyaand battery !
to the orenergy
" sometransfersother
dissipated typeenergy of
Prthe
in emf
!both rdevice
iinternal to
emf does
(internal
the charge
resistance workcarriers
dissipation on rate).
the charge
and to carri- (27-16) ene
internal thermal
CHECKPOINT
Then the
transfers 3
termenergy i!ers inthe Eq.
both 27-15to amust
the chargebe isthe rate
carriers PEq. and at which
to internal the emfthermaldevice energy. ofThus,
ubstitutingThe ratethis equation
of change intoof toEq. establish
27-8
chemical gives
Then
current
us
energy
the P term
!
the
i,given
i(! i! "
device
in by
ir) Eq.
emf
!
transfers
i!27-17,
27-15 "P i
emf 2 the
!
r.
must
energy
i!rate
be of
the
from
dissi-
(power
rate
itsof
P
source
emf device).
(27-15)
at which
energy
the emf device (27-17
A battery transfers
has an energy
emf
pation is given by (such
CHECKPOINT of 12 both
3 V and
Eq. 27-16,to anthe in-
as theand charge
chemical
the rate carriers
source
! energy
and
at which to
in athe internal
battery)
carriers thermal
to supply
the charge energy.
energy Thus,
carriers. emf
is internal Because a real
ternal given
resistance #. Isemf
of 227-14. V V
theb terminal-
! # transfers
! ! r both to the charge carriers
Pemf ! i! and to (power of emf thermal
device). energy. Thus,
by Eq. From Eq. device
26-27, a has an internal resistance 2 r, it also transfers energy to internal thermal
Abattery
to-terminal has an
If apotential
battery emf of 12
isdifference
recharging V àwe
and
greater anrecognize
energy
P !
" r the
in-Rtransfer
i!If a fromterm
battery
(power
r in Eq.
theiischarge
ofbeing
emf
27-15 to
carriers
device).
recharged,
asthe thebattery
with
rate Pr of energy
a “wrong (27-17)
way” current through it,
ternal resistance transfer
of 2 energy
toIs P
thevia
thermal resistive
terminal- i! emf dissipation (Section 26-7). Let us relate these
energy within the emf device: (27-17) transfers.
n in-
ECKPOINT
than, lessthan, Theor3 rateequal
#.
to 12The Vtheifnet
emfthe ! ! (power of emf device).
n- to-terminal potential
of change of
difference # rate Penergy
chemical
greater
energy
ofR. energy istransfer
given
If transfer
a
by is
battery
Pemf then
from ! i!
is
from
the
being emfthe
(27-10) device
(power
recharged,
charge to the
of emf carriers
device).
with charge
a “wrong
the battery
tocarriers
way”
— both to
(27-17)
is current throu
inal-
tery
currenthas an
in emf
the of 12
battery V and an in-
is (a) fromis the R " rP
l- than, less The rate of given
dissipation by Eq.
given 26-26:by battery’s
! i 2
r chemical
(internal energy
dissipation and to
rate). the energy dissipated (27-16) in the internal resistanc
resistancetoofthe
eater
negative 2than,
#.If or equal
Isathe
positive terminal-
battery
to 12 (b)
terminal, is
V if the
being
r
recharged, energy with transfer
away”“wrong is then way” from currentthe charge through carriers it, theto the battery — bo
er
ow current
substituting If
in a battery
the
the data
battery is
given being
is in
(a) recharged,
Fig.
from 27-6, the we The with
have rate a of
“wrongchange of the
currentchemical through energy it, is
the given by Eq. 27-17, the rate of di
minal potential The rate
differenceat which the carriers
greatertermi- supply If a energy
battery is
battery’s given
is by
chemical
being Precharged,
! iV, energy withand ato the
“wrong energy way” dissipated
current (27-14) in the internal
it, the re
fhe the the
from
less
positive
energy
negative
than, or
energy
to
equal
to Then
transfer
the to
the negative
the
transfer term
is ifthen
positive
12 V
is fromi! inthe
then
terminal,
the
Eq.pation
from
(b)
27-15
charge must
theiscarriers
charge
given beby tothe
carriers
Eq.
the rate
27-16,
batteryPto
emf the
and at both
— which
thebatteryrate
to the at—emf
the both
which devicethe thethrough
to carriers supply energy
henal, and (c)
the battery’s zero? transfers energy 12 bothVenergy to the transfer
The
charge is
rate then
carriersof from
changeand the
of the
tointernal charge
internal chemical carriers
thermal energy to
energy. theis battery
given
Thus, by — both
Eq. to
27-17, the
the rat
nt infrom the battery’s
the battery chemical
positiveisV b(a)! chemical
to where
Vthe
a #
from theVenergy
energy
negative is
and the to
termi- and
potential
the given to
energy
4.0 $ the
by across
# energy
dissipated
Eq.
8.0 the
27-14.
V. dissipated
terminals
in the of in
(27-11)the theemf internal
resistance device. r. resistance
From Eq. r.
27-13,
b) (b)to 4.0 $ "battery’s 2.0 $ chemical
pation is energy
givenand by to Eq. the27-16,
energy and dissipated
the rateinatthe whichinternal the resistance
carriers supplyr.
ive TheThe
nal,the
and rate rate
(c) of change
zero?
positive terminal, we
of change can
(b) substitute
of the of the
chemicalThe chemicalV
rate energy
! !
ofgiven "
change ir into
isenergy
given of Eq.
by
the 27-14
is27-14.
given
Eq. to
27-17,
chemical find
byenergy
Eq.rate
the 27-17,
isof thebyrate
dissi-
given Eq. of dissi-
27-17, the rate of dissi-
i-
rmi-
theSuppose,
positive to the
instead, negative
we movetermi- from a to b counterclockwise, by Eq. passing through
pation pationis given is givenby Eq.by 27-16,
Eq. pationand
27-16, Pthe rate
isandgiven
! atby
i!the which
rate
Eq.
(power theofwhich
at
27-16, carriers
emf and the
the
device). supply
carriers
rate
2
energy
at whichsupply isthe(27-17)energy
carriers is
supply energy is
nd (c)
sistor
V andRanzero?
rather
in- than through the battery. Because emf
we move P ! i(!
opposite " ir)
the ! i!
current, " i
the r. (27-15)
given by Eq.
given by27-14.Eq. 27-14. given by Eq. 27-14.
otential increases by iR.Thus,
the terminal-
the (a) What is the currentof
direction i in thei, circuit?so the direction with decisions
is clockwise. about the iplus and minus signs.) Let us
following We values:
can get an expression involving the current i in this1single- Check
Battery that
Resistor this equationBattery also 2 results if 2we apply the loop –1
if we apply
ecisions the about
loop circuit!by! loop applying
where
the loop Single-loop
rule.
to start circuit with
and two realwhich
then batteries
apply the way loop1
(a) rule you by igoing counterclockwise —PA R T 3
4.4 V, ! ! 2.1 V, rule clockwise
Battery 1 or start at some point other r2 than
Battery a.2 Also,
2 –2
Potential (V)
rbitrary but, K E Y
once2 made, you mustI D E A be consistent
t other than a. Also, against the current r1 —ra1BETWEEN and bstarting atcpoint a. We find
1
The emfs and resistances

1
in
27-6 POTENTIALtake the DIFFERENCE
a
time to compare i
this equation
R
TWO r2 POINTS
term by term with a713
cisions
on term by
We
about
canr1get
term ! an
Calculations: 2.3
with ", Although
expression r2 the
the circuit
1.8
!involving ",plus
knowing ofRcurrent
the Fig.
! the 27-8a
5.5 and". have
idirection
in this the
single-
minus
of i is not signs.)
(b)
Let
R
us –3
plyfollowing
the loop
values: rule by going Fig. 27-8b, which#!
counterclockwise shows1 $i ir ibthe iR —
1 $potential $ irc 2 $changes !2 ! 0. graphically Fig. 27
changes loop circuit by we
necessary,
graphically applying
can easilythe loop rule.
determine it from the emfs of the 1
Vra1 find 2 Va be –4
he (a) What
current is the current — and i in the Fig. circuit?27-8 (a) Aat
starting single-loop
point
Sample (with
circuit
a.
Problem
a the
We
1
0
potential
containing atR point
two real
bequationc also results Battery a arbitrarily
r2batteries 3
2
1taken
awe apply 7 to and
e a re
trarily taken two batteries.
!
to be 1 ! 4.4 V,
Because ! 2 !! 1 2.1
is V,
greater than ! 2 , battery 1 Check
Battery 1 that this if 2 the loop
Calculations: Althoughand
ir1 $ knowing
iR
a resistor.
the direction The
ir2 $ of batteries
i is not
!2 ! 0.
zero).
oppose each other; r1 that is,
i at (a) they r 2tend to –5send cur
#! controls
r1 ! 1 2.3 $the",direction rK2 ! 1.8 of
", i, soR !the
$direction
5.5 ". is clockwise. rule clockwise –1 or start some point other than a. Also,
necessary, we can easily send
determine
EY IDEA current
it from in
the
Single-loopopposite
emfs of the directions
circuit with0take two
Va through
Solving realtime the the
above
batteries resistor.
loop
R equation(b) A for Va the 2 current
= 2.1 V i, we graph of
(These
two equation decisions
batteries. about
Because !graph where to start and which way you the to bcompare this
c equation term by term with
for (a)
hat the
this current i, we 1 is alsogreaterof the than
results !2, battery 1counterclockwise
potentials, if we obtain apply from the pointloop a, with the potential a
What is are
the current i inbut,the oncecircuit? –2 which
Potential (V)
We can go
get arbitrary
an expression involving made,
the you must be consistent Fig. 27-8b, =shows
4.4 V the apotential Vc changes graphically
ckwise controls
The or
emfs the
start
and direction
resistances of
at i, so
tential
in the the
some atcurrent
direction
circuit a arbitrarily
of Fig. isin27-8a
ipoint this single-
clockwise. haveother
taken theto be –1 zero. than (To better 1 a.link Also, thei2 circuit= 2.1 V with the2
Fig.
time with
(These
to decisions
decisions
compare about
about where the this plus
tothe and
startgraph,and minus
which
equation signs.)
way you cutterm Let us (with by the potential
!term # ! 2 at with
(a) point 4.4 V
a arbitrarily
# 2.1 V takenir to be sideand a
of th
T loop
N circuit
followingby
E applying
values: T K
theE Y
loop
O with
I D
rule.
E A P mentally 6 - the
7 circuit2 i! –3
at a 1
and then ! unfold i the iR left 2
2
# 2.1 V gothen apply the but,loop rule byyou going must counterclockwise — zero).a1 = 4.4
–2 1 r V r
Potential (V)
side ofbir5.5
c b " $ 2.3 " $
R to- 1.8
which are arbitrary
shows once the made, be consistent changes V$ r1 $ 1r2 V R send
b, of!potential graphically "
1 2
side the circuit toward the left and Battery the right the circuit c 2
Fig. a
27-8 ward the(
against the current ! 4.4
— point V,
and starting 2.1
ata V,
pointarbitrarily We –4 1 Battery 2
.3 We$
with
e "Calculations:
potential
1.8P
can get"an
decisionsAlthough
expression
about
at ! the
1 knowing
involving ward
plus
the
andthe
2 ! minus
current
the direction
right.)
signs.)
i in this
a.ofLet i isfind
single-
us not –3 Solving
taken
! 0.2396 the above Ar1 ! to 240 loop
iR mA.
1 equation
be 2 for
i
ir
r2 the and current
(Answer) i, we
a resistor graph
rthen apply rthe e loop rule l by pgoing counterclockwise
m — aS obtain –5 V i tentia
necessary,
loop circuit we
by can
applying ! 2.3
1 easily the
#! ",
determine
loop
$ irrrule.
2$ ! iR 1.8$ ",from
it ir R!
$ !the 5.5
! ". of the
emfs
0.
b
R
send current which g
ing h the t (Answer)
againstabove
i
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o difference
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etween thethe
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(Answer)
twoR take
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the
r1 time
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or once r! compare
start
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other ,be
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battery
$ by 2.3
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Potential (V)
go are arbitrary
Fig. 27-8b, but,
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potential must changes consistent
! #(0.2396
graphically A)(2.3 ")1 = 4.4 $ V 4.4 V Vc whic
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mA. the term is by
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i
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withsingle- We (b)
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need What
27-8 to is
sum the
(a) A potential
(Answer)
the single-loop
potential. " difference
circuit
differences containing 5
betweenbetween .
two the 5
real terminals
batteries
points a !
decisions
(with the about potential the plus attoloop and minus
point signs.)taken
arbitrarily
a changes Let us to be Vof
–1 (b)
i 2 = 2.1 V ir 2 which i
(Theseloop decisions
Fig. 27-8b,
circuit about
which
by where
shows
applying the start
potential rule.and whichgraphically
way ! you$3.84 Fig. and
27-8 !
and –3
a3.8
battery
b.(a) A resistor.V,
1 inThe
single-loop Fig. batteries
27-8a?
circuit oppose
containing (Answer)
two each iR
real other;
batteries that
which is, they tend to gives
t isthenthe apply
zero). the
potential loop rule by going
difference counterclockwise between — sendThe the
current
1terminals
inVopposite r V b
1 directions R through r 2
result b
go are (with the potential onceatmade, point you a arbitrarily
must be taken to be –2 c the tend2resistor. (b) Aa
Potential (V)
ces arbitrary but, a consistent b Vcthat
1between points and a resistor. a1 = 4.4
batteries oppose each other; is, they to
y in Fig.
against the 27-8a?
current — and which
starting at is
point less a. than
We find the emf of the –4battery. You can
ir verify this a, with the po- circuit Va
zero). Solving
Calculations:
with decisions about the
Although
the aboveplusloop and equation
knowing minus for theLet
thesigns.)
direction current
ofusi is not we current
i,send graph of the potentials,
in opposite directions through counterclockwise
1 the resistor. from
(b) A point
ir
Calculations:
–3 Let us startKat EY point I D EbA(effectively the nega-
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obtain
Solving
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easily-
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eequation
determine
going lby for
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from
counterclockwise n current
the at
i i, —
emfs we
spoint
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the s bofin ithe Fig.
tential
h –5 at a27-8a
potentials, t arbitrarily
counterclockwise
n and
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i to
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i (Towith
t the
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at We
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to
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taken the
mentally
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b
potential
zero. cut
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circuit
better link at
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circuit between
then unfold
Vabat-
points
the a
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against two batteries.
thethecurrent —Because
and
!1 #starting!2circuit
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greater4.4 a. VWethan
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graph,
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mentally
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aBattery
the circuit
toward 1 at athe
the left positive
andResistor
thenthe
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toCheck
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t here.
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5.5
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s the
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side
fo
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n
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resul
ockwise through i#!! 1bat- $ ir $ $ 1iR$
e !$ 2 ir h $ ! " ! t $0. " f $ o " s f–5ward m –1
the right.) e h t = 2.1
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(These decisions orR start
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us
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(Answer)
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battery
nega-
1 i (b) 1 is Batteryn inaVc the 2o circuit itc counhere.
u o y y a w which
tive gives
terminal h of battery
c i 1) h and travel w clockwise d
here. through n bat- a
(1) circu Th
Fig.
ruleof with
27-8b,(b)
clockwise decisions
What
which or is the
shows
start about potential
at the
some the plus
difference
potential
“proper”point and minus
changes
other between
than signs.)
thegraphically
direction, the
a. Also, Let which
terminals
the us Fig. gives us –3 ir2
inal (b) battery
What is the potential 1) t and
difference
n e travel
between t s clockwise
terminals i sterminal-to-terminal
n 27-8
teryo 1 tothrough
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point
c A single-loop
a (effectively
e potential
bat-
circuit
b the containing
positive
iR t dif- two
terminal),
s real
u batteries
keeping
m
then apply V#ir Vkeeping circuit is ind
in1the loop rule abyarbitrarily
going counterclockwise be — to prth
of battery in Fig. 27-8a? Vb i Additional
, (with
take the
point the
a
of time potential
to1compare
(effectively
battery Fig. at
27-8a? point
this
s equation
ference u the term
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t term
e with to
L terminal),
andtracka) Vresistor.
a #of Vbpotential
. s
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batteries
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s
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u
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Fig. 27-8b,
zero).
potential whichchanges. shows the potential
We changes
find graphically
that Fig. send
27-8current (a)f A! in opposite
single-loop
#(0.2396 directions
!circuit
#(0.2396
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through
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d n i e W
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Solving the above at point
loop a
K Eequation
YK arbitrarily
IED YE A I D for
E A the taken current to bei, we and graph
a resistor.of the
The potentials,
batteries counterclockwise
oppose !1 !that
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onal examples, V #!
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$ !21!! 0.availableVa, at WileyPLUS
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$3.84 V, V ! 3.8 V, (Answer)
.0 ference (Answer)
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zero). We
obtain We need
need to sum
to sum the the potential
potential differences
differences between between
points apoints send
a tential
currentatinaoppositearbitrarily taken tothrough
directions be zero. the (To better(b)
resistor. link A the circuit
which is less than the emf of the 1battery. You can
Check
Solving
andand thatabove
b. the
b. this equation
loopp equationalso o results
for the o ifcurrent
wel
Additional
apply i, we the loop
e h
graphwithof which
t
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thepotentials,
examples, graph, less than Battery
l p
counterclockwise
mentally cut emf
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video,
the
Resistor
from a
at a verify
battery.
point
Additional and a,You this
Battery
with
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and
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w the this
video,
left
practi
f
and
obtainrule ! # ! , o 4.4 Vs # l2.1 V
A . result
a by starting
result n by at point
a
starting b in
ath Fig.
point 27-8a tb inand Fig. traversing
r 27-8a e and the h
traversing t theo
i !clockwise 1 or2 start at some point other than a. Also,
!h t i w m tential
side
r
circuit
at ofa arbitrarily
e the circuit
counterclockwise t toward
taken to be
y
to
theb
point
zero.
left(To
a. We
andbetter the
learn m
link side
right
two
the circuit
points rof thee circuitt to-
Rtime
Calculations: $ r1 to Let rLet
us
2 start 5.5 atthis
point b2.3(effectively 1.8 the
"bynega- with circuit
the graph, counterclockwise
mentally cut the circuit toat aepointand then a. We unfold learn two
the left points
iFtake the
Calculations: $ compare y
us start " l at$equation
l a"b$ term c i term h with p ward the
a right.) rg s g n ah
tive terminal
!1 #of !battery
2 1)
e and
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travel
b
2.1
#clockwise V(effectively
through
o bat-
t
the nega-
here.
side of
n
(1) The
thehere. e
potential
circuit (1) The
toward
k
difference between
potential
the aleft and difference
t the
(b)
right two points
sidebetween
y of the in
l
a
two
circuiti points
to-
ra in a r
aFig. 27-8b,
itive
! which shows
! the potential changes(Answer) graphically
! 0.2396
terminal
R point
$ r1 $ A of !
r2 240
battery mA.
5.5 " 1) and travel
2.3 " $ clockwise
1.8 " keeping through bat-
circuit is independent
Fig. 27-8 (a) of A thesingle-loop
path we circuit
choose containing
to go from two
one real batteries
es tery 1 to a (effectively the$positive terminal), ward thecircuit
right.) is independent of the path we choose to go from one
rg(with tery the
1 to potential
point a eat point
(effectively w the arbitrarily
a positive , i taken keeping
terminal), to to
t be
n which
the other.
and
e agives
(2)
resistor.
r usr
When The thebatteries
u current c in the battery
oppose each e other;is hinthattheis,t they tendr to o
e(b)t track
What !isof potential
the
0.2396 A !changes.
potential We find that
240difference
mA. between the terminals
(Answer) to the other. (2) When the current in the battery is in the
Figure 27-9 shows a circuit containing more
everywhere
Current than one
i1inhas the loop.
branch bcd,value
same For
and714 simplicity,
is the
i3everywhere current
CHAPTER in we
incoming 27
through
branch bad, branch
CIRCUITS
i2.yghas bd.
rene lathe
The
cimehsame
direet
c s’yret.tyagbrva
assume the batteries are bcd,
ideal.andThere
centralare two junctions in
no variation this incircuit,
the at
charge b atandthed, junction, theA ntotal current must equal
i A ni
right-hand branch branch
assume the batteries d are ideal. There are oftwo
the currents
everywhere
junctions are
in assumed
branch
inthe arbitrarily.
and i3 is the
bcd,circuit,
this at current b and )b( through
d, branch
)b( bd. The directi
and there areThe
bd. circuit
three also consists
branches of three
connecting loops:
these the
junctions.total outgoing
The branches current:
are left
A multiloop d loopconsisting
circuit ofConsider
the currents are assumed
junction d for i1arbitrarily.
"a imoment:
3fo# i. Charge
; ! " ! ,tiucric eht nI )a;( ! 2 "-72
comes
! ,.tg cric eht nI )a( 2t-i7u
iuiF
into 2that c.griiFC pojunctio
(27-18) oL-elgt
and(bad),
there
left-hand
Fig. 27-9 are
loopthree
badb, branches
right-hand connecting
bcdb, these junctions. The branches are the left
A B A B
noitc2erid eht senimretefo
branch the right branch (bcd), and the central branch
consisting incoming
(bd).
Consider What
currents are
junction the
and id3, for and ait moment:
ni srefsnart ygrenCharge
leaves viato outgoing
dn Boyitrceetrtiadbeohst senimreted B yrettab os
reefrsrnucomes
current into
lg)nbi(s.tenleprthat junction
i1 applying iuicc2rn.icoBecause th
e ehT )bn(i.stn acre thygt rene e-heT mruics eehhtt n i tn-elrgrn uicseehl t
and big loop
of three Fig. badcb. A multiloop
27-9 left-hand
branches: circuitbad,
branch
branch
in the(bad), the right branch (bcd), You
and can easily
the check
central that
branch (bd). this condition
What are junction
the .tiucric eht b leads -aredisn.to exactly -acreyd grisenno
2
to e
ithatvresno
currents three
of threebranches?
branches: left-hand branch bad, incoming
no variation currents
in i
the charge and iat, and it leaves via outgoing
3 the junction, the total incoming 2current must current l ae d i n ai f .
o Because
s ts i sn o c tiula ce
rdicther
i n
e a
h Tf
right-hand branch bcd, and central branch the same equation. Equation
1
27-18 thus suggestsThe current
a general into the
principle: junction ssoeclnoU w(t .ds
We arbitrarily
currents
bd. The label
inright-hand
the
circuit the
three currents,
branch
also branches?
bcd,ofand
consists using
central
three a different
loops: branch
thesubscript
no variation
total outgoingfor each
in thebranch.
charge at the junction, the total incoming
current:
sselnU( .seriw gnitcenn
.ecnatsicurrentser elbigilgenmust .evcanhatsstieq
e isue
The circuit
bd.same alsoeverywhere
consists of three loops: the total outgoing current: must equal the current out
Current i1 left-hand
everywhere
has the
We arbitrarily
andinbig left-hand
branch
loop
value
loop badb,label
loop
right-hand
badb, the loop
right-hand
in branch Multi loop Circuits
bad,
bcdb, using a different
currents,
loop bcdb,
bcd, and i3 is the current through branch bd. The directions
JUNCTION
i 2 has
RULE:
the same
subscript
The sum
value
of the
for each
currents
i1 " i3 # i2.
i1 " ibranch.
(charge
entering 3 #is i2.conserved).
any junction must
s r e ir r
be
a c e g
equal
ra h c h ci
to
hw s gre
niorlraacsye
(27-F
(2
bigbadcb. ea
2
Current
of the currents arei has
and
1 assumed the same
loop badcb. value everywhere
arbitrarily. theYou
sumYouin
can
of thebranch
easily
cancurrents
easily bad,
check
checkthat
leaving 2 has
ithat
that applyingthe same
junction.
applying this
this condition value to
condition to junction
junctionbbleads leadstotoexa
Multi loop circuit:
everywhere ina circuit
branch containing
bcd, and more
i is than
the thethe
one
current same
loop equation.
through
same equation. Equation
branch
Equation bd.27-18 The
27-18 thus
thus suggests
directions
suggests 1 aa general
general principle: tedgehrtleoasnvnarese3Aft-oa
rene fo tnuoma na y
2 ygprinciple:
ing Consider junction d for a moment: Charge
3 comes into that junction via a b
deton sA .ygrene lamrd
+ seriw cehtlaw).
This rule is often called Kirchhoff’s junction rule (or + Kirchhoff’s
– – current It is ceeBh(t.b
emussa ew esseuraiw
, of the currents
incoming
For currents
simplicity, i we
1 are3 assumed arbitrarily.
and i ,
assumeand it
theleaves
batteries via outgoing
are ideal current
simply a statement
i2 . Because there is
of the conservation of charge
t n e r r uc s e
morf ,rotsisfor
vi r d y
er ehta
r e t t a b
hgsteady
e
uorm
t
h n
T e r ru c
htorf ,rotsflow
s e vi r deyhret tgtanbiru
isereehhtt of
e hDT ).meht ni reahetpgpnairllui
dgnuaocharge
h ht yrettab —
,rB hgeuhotrh dtnade,c
ch no
variation in the charge at
Consider junction d for a moment:the junction, the total incomingJUNCTION current
JUNCTION must
RULE:
RULE: equal
TheThe sum
sumofofthe .laitncurrents
the top wol ot laitentering
ecurrents entering laihtngeihtop any any junction
ol otjunction 2must
1-ih7must .qE otbe gnbe droequ
iequal
there is Charge comes into that junction via itnetopsih,g ccsai ,1
isting There are two junctions in this circuit, at b and d neither a buildup nor a depletion of charge at neto.p
a junction.
w la
Thus, our basic
ps: the total outgoing current: the the
sumsum of the
of the currents
currents leavingthat
leaving thatjunction.
irjunction. R 1 i R 3rehgiH i 3 iR 2 i2 .
ad,
db, incoming
There are threecurrentsbranches; i1 and i13,"and
the ileft i3 # it
branch i2.leavestools
(bad), the viaright
for outgoing
solving branchcurrent
complex (27-18)i2. Because
circuits
(bcd), are the loop1
ehgiH
laitnetop rule therelaitnis
(based etopon the conservation
-tab )laedi( eht yb eno of -tdabkr)o lawe
C
energy) and the junction rule (based on the conservation ofi charge). + + :rotsiser eht
no variation in the charge at the junction, the total incoming current must equal
i
ranch Youand the central branch (bd) law).e
R B R B
This This rule

rule27-18
is is often called Kirchhoff’s junction rule (or
(or Kirchhoff’s current – –
can easily check that applying this condition toEquation junction b often
is a called
leads to Kirchhoff’s
exactly
single equation involvingjunction threerule unknowns. Kirchhoff’s
To solve the current
rewoL cir- law a
rewoL
a
the total
oops: the same outgoing current: simply a statement of the conservation ofi charge for a i steady flow of chargo laitnetop laitnetop
equation. Equation 27-18 thus suggests acuit simply

completely
general a statement of the
(that is, to find
principle: conservation
all three currents),of wechargeneed dtwo for morea issteadyequations flowin- of cha

bcdb,
What are the currents
Parallel in the three
resistors and branches? i1 " i3 #there
their i . is neither a buildup nor a depletion (27-18)
ni tiucric pool-elgof nis Acharge
ni tiucric po atol-ealgnjunction.
A Thus, our eb
3-72 .giF 3-72 .giF
there
volving 2is same
those neither a buildup
unknowns.We nor
obtaina
Fig.
tools for solving complex circuits.! fare
depletion
them
27-9detceby
me htithe
si Rof
nnocapplying
A
w B yreloop
ecnacharge
tsiserdthe
multiloop
!rule
ttab lae.d
ethcceinhn
a woat
c si Ra
loopcircuit
aesshotri(based
i fnm caB yrettab-v
w
junction.
erule
e
cn h t y
atsise
lon
aoem
twice.
di n
r a hcihw In
consisting
b s
ethe
e g
htssm
a
r a h c g
Thus,
n ivthe
o
orocconservation
m eh eh
raf derrefsnart egrt
- v o m
our
t tyb
otsd
e h
equivalent have the same circuit of
tools Fig. 27-9,
for solving we have
complex three loops
circuits fromemas ewhich
arebranches:
thethe loop to
c gnchoose:
rule (based t si i the left-hand
on seoriteahuTqe loop
the conservat oi
of(based
three ht si i tnerru
left-hand
itelumsears ehT
branch
tnerruscn aneim
g tlun
bad, siht ,esrnoafem rehnT
You can RULE:
JUNCTION easily check
The
potential sum of
difference that
the applying
currents
(“par-V”). this
entering condition
any
(badb),
energy)
junction andto
must
the right-hand
the
bejunction
junction
equal
loop (bcdb),to b
rule
andleads
the big
ontoloop exactly
.tiucriconservation
c eht tuohguorht .tiucriof
(badcb). Which
ceehhtcharge).
oftwo
toutolhaguuqoerhsti segrahceh
loops we
gtniovtolm
au
thethe
sum same
of the currents leaving that junction.
energy) and the 27-18
Equation junction is a rule
single(based
right-hand
equation onbranch
the
involvingconservation
bcd, three and central
unknowns. charge).branch To solve then
equation.
i Equation
i2 + i3 27-18 thus suggests
choose does not
Equation
cuit
a general
matter —
27-18
completely
let’sprinciple:
choose
is ais,single
(that
the left-hand
equation
bd.
to find Thethree
all circuit loop
involving and
also consists
currents),
the
three
we need
right-hand
unknowns.
of three
two more
loop.
loops: Toequations
solve th t
a If we traverse the left-hand loop in a counterclockwise direction from point
Parallel resistors and their cuitvolving
completely (that unknowns.We
those same is, to findleft-hand
all three
obtain loop badb,
currents),
them right-hand
we need
by applying loop
thetwo bcdb,
loopmore equatio
rule twice. In
Kirchhoff’s
This junction
rule is often rule
called
Parallel
(or
Kirchhoff’sKirchhoff’s
junction
resistors and their
equivalent have the samecurrent
rule b,
(orlaw):
the loop rule
Kirchhoff’s gives us
current law). It is
+ volving those
circuit same
of Fig. unknowns.We
27-9, we!have and big
obtain
three
1 ! i1R1 "
loopthem
iloops
3R3 #
badcb.
0. by
from applying
which the loop
to choose: the rule twice.lY
left-hand
(27-19)
It statesaJUNCTION
simply that the charge
statement of
R is
RULE:
the
equivalent
conserved
The
i 1conservation
potential
R
have
for
i 2 R sum
difference
the same of
i a
ofsteady
the
charge
(“par-V”). flow
currents
for a of charge
entering
steady
(badb), flow any
of
the 27-9, junction
charge
right-hand — must
loopthree
(bcdb), be equal
and the to
bigwhich
loop (badcb). Which
– 1 2 3 3
circuit of Fig.
If we
we have
traverse the
loops
right-hand
from loop
to choose:
in choose
the two
a counterclockwise
loops
left-hand direction from point b, loop.t
there istheneither
sum of a buildup
the currents
potential nor a depletion
leaving of charge
that junction.at(badb),
a junction.
choose doesThus, our loop
not matter basic
— let’s thethe left-hand loop(badcb).
and the right-hand
i difference i2 + i3(“par-V”). the right-hand (bcdb), and big loop Which two loo
For solving
tools circuits,
for solving therecircuits
complex are a 2 basic are the rules:
looploop the loop rule
rule (based
rule (based on gives
Ifthe
we us
onconservation
the conservation
traverse the!i of
left-hand
R ! iofR energy)
loop
! ! in # a counterclockwise
0. direction
(27-20)fromloo
po
i i b i2i + i3 junction choose
rule does not
(based on matter—let’s
the
3 3 choose
conservation
2 2
of the 2 left-hand loop and the right-hand
charge)
energy) and the junctiona rule i 2 + (based on the conservation of
3 charge).
b, the
Ifrule
loop rule gives us
wethree
traverse the left-hand
This rule is often +called
(a ) Kirchhoff’s We now have
junction (or equations
Kirchhoff’s (Eqs. 27-18, !1loop
current ! 27-19,
i1Rin a counterclockwise
and
1 " i3RIt
law). 3# is0.in the threedirection
27-20) unknownfrom (27-
Equation 27-18 is a singleR 1equation i1 R
2
involving
i2 R
3
i three
3 unknowns.
b, the
currents, andloopthey To
rule solve
cangives the cir-
us by a variety of techniques.
be solved
–
simply the
Appling
cuit completely a (that
statement
+ is,
loop to find
irule to of theallthe three
left-handconservation
currents),
loop in we Ifofwe
need Ifcharge
we
hadtraverse
two
a counterclockwise more for
applied athesteady
the
equations
from right-hand
loopin-
point b:flow
rule loop
!to1! theof
iin
1R
charge
a1 "
big —0.would have
counterclockwise
i3R3 we
loop, # direction from poin
obtained (2
R1 ia1 R i2 R i the loop rule gives us
there
volving
Appling thoseisthe
neither
sameloop– rule a to
unknowns.We buildup
the
b
nor3 a loop
2 obtain them
right-hand depletion
by in
3
applying
(moving of
the charge
loop ruleattwice.
counterclockwise
a counterclockwise
If we traverse the
aright-hand
from junction.
In
from
pointthe the!i
b) b: Thus,
equation
loop 3 R3in !aour R2 !basic!2 # 0.
i2counterclockwise direction from(27-poT
circuit of Fig. 27-9, we have i three2 loops
i + i from are which to loop
choose: the (based
left-handon loop
tools for solving complex
If we applied the +loop rule Rto the circuits
3
the theWe
big loop, (counterclockwise loop rule
now rule gives
from
have b):us!equations
three the conservation
1 ! i1R1 !(Eqs. i2R2 ! 27-18,
! #27-19, of
0. and 27-20) in the three unkno s
(badb), the right-hand– loop (bcdb), eq (a and
) i the big loop (badcb). Which two loops we !i3 R ! i2R2 2 ! !2 # 0. (2
energy) and the i
choose does not matter—let’s
b junction + i3 rule
i2 choose (based on
the left-hand loop
the
However, conservation
currents,
and the
and
thisright-hand
they
is merely the of
can
loop.sumcharge).
be solved by3
a variety
of Eqs. 27-19 and 27-20.
of techniques. t
We now have If we had
three applied the
equations (Eqs. loop rule to
27-18,the the big
27-19, loop, we would have obtai
If we Equation
traverse the27-18 left-hand is(a a) loop
i
single
a in aequation
counterclockwiseinvolving
(moving
three
direction unknowns.
from
counterclockwise point from Tob)solve the equation
cir-and 27-20) in the three unkt
b currents, and they can be solved by a variety of techniques.
b, thecuit
loopcompletely
rule gives us i
(that is, to find
(b ) ! ! i R " i R # 0.
all three Resistances
currents),
If we
inhad
Parallel
we need two more equations in-
applied the loop rule to the big loop, we would have obt
e
i + a1 (27-19) ! ! i R ! i R ! ! # 0.
volving those same unknowns.We –
1 R1
eq obtain
3i 3
them
Figure 27-10a
(moving byshows
applying the loop
three resistances
counterclockwise from
1
rule
connected
b) thetwice.
1 1 2 2
In the
in parallel
equation
2
to an ideal battery of emf
Fig.three
27-10b, the resistances
three parallel resistances , i2resistances
have
!withbeen , connected
and
replaced with an, equivalent 27-7 M U LTI LOOP CI RCU ITS
Viis1 can i3 !
has the same potential difference V and the same total current i as the actual resistances.
!
10b, the When parallel
a potential difference have been
applied beR replaced
across an equivalent
resistanceinRparallel, the
resistance Resistances
R . connected in parallel replaced
1
with an R
equivalent
2 eq thatR
3
ce Req. resistances all have
has the sameeq thatdifference
potential same potential V and the difference
same total current V. i as the actual resistances.
where V isYou the might potential remember difference that Req and all the
between a and actual b. Ifparallel
we apply resistances
the junction have therule
When a
In Resistances
Fig. potential
27-10a, thesame difference
appliedpotential V is
Reqdifference
in potential applied
difference across
with
Vactual isthe resistances
nonsense
maintained connected
word “par-V.” in parallel, the
You
tances connected
at pointmight connected
remember
in parallel
a in can
Fig. be that parallel
replaced
27-10a and
with
and can anall be the replaced
equivalent
then Vresistance
substitute with
parallel anthese eq thatby
equivalent
resistances
R the
values, have battery.
resistance
the
we Ineq that
R
find
resistances all have that
To same
derive potential
an expression difference for R V. in Fig. 27-10b, we first write the current in
Fig. 27-10b,
hassame
same potential
To R
the
potential
thedifference
same
derive
three
each
and parallel
Vdifference
potential the V with
difference
same
actual resistance
an expression
resistances
total Vthe and
current
for Req in in
theihave
nonsense
Fig.
same
as
Fig.
word
the
27-10b,
been
27-10a
total
actual eq
we as
replaced
“par-V.”
current
resistances. with
i as thean
first write the current in
equivalent
actual resistances. 27-7ParallelMULTILOOP
resistors and
CIRCUITS
their
" #
resistance eq. 1 1 1
actual
each Resistances
resistance in inFig. Parallel
i potential
27-10a
!actuali1 as "paralleli2 difference
" Vi3 resistances
! V V Vis have " the " by . battery. In (27-21) equivalent have the same
ght In Fig.
remember 27-10a,
that
You might remember that R the
eq applied
and all the R and all the actual R maintained
parallel R resistances RV the have the
otential Resistances
difference Vconnected
with inparallel
the nonsense V can
parallel eq Vi1 ! with
be replaced , an i2 ! V 1, and
equivalent resistance2 i3 ! 3,
eq thatan equivalent
Rwith potential difference (“par-V”).
Fig.
same 27-10b,
potential the three
difference i1 ! V with , wordiresistances
2 ! the “par-V.”
nonsense
, and R have
i3 !word been R replaced
, 2“par-V.” R
derive When
an a potential
hasexpression
the same potential
for R difference
difference
in Fig. R1 V Vand is applied
27-10b, theRwe same across
1
total
first current
write resistances
R
the3i ascurrent
the actual connected
in resistances. in parallel, the
3
If
resistance we
To derive
resistances Rreplaced
all .
eq have an eqthe
expression
that same
parallel for Req in
potential
combination
2
Fig. 27-10b,
difference V.
with the
we afirst equivalent
write the resistance
current in Req (Fig.
i i2 + i3
ual resistance
where inVFig.
is the where
27-10a
potential V is the potential difference
as difference between a and b. If we apply the junction rule between and b. If we apply the junction rule a
each 27-10b),
actual we
resistance
at would
point inaandhave
Fig.
in Fig. 27-10a
27-10a allasand then substitute these values, we find
Youatmight
point aremember
in Fig. 27-10athat
V V eq
R
then and
substitute the these
V
actual values, weVfind resistances
parallel have the
Resistancesi1 ! connected inVparallel thecan be V replaced i !with an. equivalent 1 resistance Req that (27-22)
Insame potential difference
, iapplied
2 ! ,with Vand inonsense 1R , 1
3 !difference word “par-V.” 1V +
Fig. 27-10a, the potential
#" 1 is maintained
# by
V 1the battery. In
" R
R R i1 R i2 R i3
has theTo same
derivepotential
an
1 expression !i1 i!
i difference
1 " ifor
2 2 ",R iV !
3 eq i2iin
and V!!Fig.i1 "
the ",i2 "
3same
27-10b, and i"3 we
total iVfirst
eq
!current3 .! write i" as, the actual
the(27-21)
current
" .in
resistances. (27-21)– R 1 2 3
Fig. 27-10b, the threeinparallel R1 resistances RR1 2 have R2 been
R3 replaced
R1R R2 with R3an equivalent
V is theeach actualdifference
potential
Comparing resistance
Eqs. betweenFig. 27-10a
27-21 aandand asb. If we
27-22 apply
leads the
to junction 3rule
a inresistance
Fig.
where27-10a V
Rthe
If we replaced
and
is
. potential
eqthen Ifthewe parallel
replaced
substitute V
combination
these
difference thevalues, parallel with
between
V
the
wecombination
find equivalent resistance
a and b.V with
If we the
apply
R eq (Fig.
equivalent
the junction resistance rule Req (Fig.
You might
27-10b), we remember
would have i1 !we that R
, i2 ! and all
V, andthese
the actual
i3 !values, parallel
, we find resistances have the i b
i2 + i3
at point a in Fig.27-10b), 27-10a and would
then eq have
substitute 1 1 1 1
same potential
i ! i1 "connected
Resistances
difference
i2 " i3 ! V
RV
" 11 withi1the
in parallel
R
" can be
R
!R2 nonsense
R
" # 1
.
! . with
Reqreplaced
R R
"word R3 V“par-V.”(27-22)
i !an equivalent
R R
".
(27-21)
R
. resistance R that (27-22) (27-23) (a )
" #
eq
has
To
where
the
derive
same potential
an expression
V is the potential difference
difference
1 for
V and
2 eqin3aFig.
R
between eq
the same and 1 1b. 27-10b,
total If we 1 apply
current
we
2 eq
i
1 first
as
writeresistances.
the3junction
the actual
the current in
rule
atthe
Comparing
point
Eqs. 27-21
a inresistance
Fig. 27-10a andi ! and i 27-22
" i leads
1 then2substitute" i 3
to! V these "
values, we R " find . (27-21) i
each
placed actual
parallel combination
Extending this result toComparing in Fig.
with
Eqs. 27-10a
the
27-21
the case as
equivalent
and 27-22
of R
n resistance
1 leads
resistances, R to
2 eqR (Fig.
we3 have a
1 1 1 1
we would have
" #
! " 1 " 1. 1 1 (27-23)
If we replaced the i paralleli ViRcombination
V i à R V R V 1
with R the 1 equivalent . V 1
resistance(27-21)Rhave eq (Fig.
You might remember ! i i!1that
" 2 .Req3 and
"
eq
,
!
i
1
n!all
2 the
"
,
3 actual
!and
"
i
" parallel
(27-22) " , resistances
. the(27-23) +
1 Req1
! R1 R R !
27-10b), we would have
!
2 1R 2 R 33 R R R eq i
same Extending
potentialthisdifference result to the V Rwith
case 1of! n the nonsense
resistances, R2Vwe eq have word 1
(n“par-V.”2 R
resistances 3 3
in parallel). (27-24) –
ring Eqs.If we
27-21
To
replaced
and 27-22
derive
the leads
an
parallel
expression
Extending to this Rn eqresult
combination
for R to
j!1 i the
! Rjcase
with
in Fig.
the. equivalent resistance Req (Fig. (27-22)
of27-10b,
n resistances, we first wewritehave the current in CHECKPOINT 4
where V is the
27-10b), we would have ! !potential 1 difference 1 between
eq R eq a and
(n resistances in parallel).
b. If we apply
(27-24) the junction rule
each
at actual
point a in resistance
Fig. 1 27-10a inand
R1eq Fig. j!1 27-10a
1then
Rj isubstitute1! asV . n these values, we find (27-22) CHECKPOINT 4 Ab battery, with potent
For theEqs.
Comparing case27-21 of two
! and "resistances,
27-22 " leads 1. Rto the
eq !
equivalent
1 resistance
(27-23) is their product (27-24)divided i
For the case
Req
of two
R1
resistances,
R2
V the
R3 !
R
equivalent V R
resistance is their
(n resistances in parallel).
V
product divided
A battery, with potential V across it,(b connected
is) to a combin
by their sum; that is,
" #
eq j!1 1 j 1 1 connected to a combination of two CHECKPOINT
iden- 4
ng thisComparing
by their
result to Eqs.
sum;
the case 27-21
that of i1 !
is,ni and i 27-22
resistances,
! " 1leads
i ," we i2ihave
to
!! 1 V , 1 and " R 11iR
3 ! " , . (27-21) ticalresistors
resistors and th
For the case of two1 resistances, RR 2 ! 3 R1R RR" " R. 2
R (27-23)
tical Fig. 27-10
resistors and then has current (a) Three
i
For the case 1ofR1two !
eq 1 R 1" 1R
eq R
resistances,
22
eq . RR!the1
21R " R
equivalent
3 R2
. R 3 3 (27-25)is their product divided
resistance through it. What
(27-25)
connected
are the in
potential
A battery,
parallel
differ-through with potential V acro
across it. What
points a are th
n . 1 2 (27-23) connected to a combination of tw
where 1 is the 1
by their sum;
potential difference
!
that is,R between "1 2"
aR3and If1Rwe apply the junction ence across andand
rule the b.
current through ence circuit,
ei- across and has
the cu
cu
If
Extending VNote
we replaced
Req
!this
that! the
result
when parallel
twoto orthe R(n
more eqcombination
case
Rj when two or more resistances of
resistances
resistances
R
1n resistances,
inare 2 with
parallel).
connected the
wein
b.
equivalent
R
have(27-24)
parallel, 2the equivalent resistance ther R (Fig.
resistor
eq if the
(b) An
resistors are
equivalent
tical
(a) in
resistors
se-
and with
then
atExtending
point Note
inthis
Fig. that
27-10a and ofthen
Req !values, are connected . find inCHECKPOINT parallel, the equivalent
(27-25)
the
4 three resistors ther
replaced resistor
with if the resis
awe nsubstitute these we
j!1 through it. What are the potential
27-10b),resistance would
is smaller
result have
than
to the anycase theofcombiningresistances, resistances.Table
we have R27-1
1 " R
summarizes
2 the ries and (b) in parallel?
their Vequivalent
resistance
equivalence is smaller
relations than
1 resistors
for n andany ofithe
1 capacitors in V
combining
seriesproduct resistances.Table
and in parallel. A battery,27-1with summarizes
potential the ence
across it, resistance
ries and
is across Req
and . in
(b)
the parallel?
current thro
. (27-22)
case of two resistances, theNote equivalent
! resistance is their divided
" #
! 1resistances 1 are 1 (27-24)
sum; thatequivalence 1R! ithat
relations
i
!n when
for 1 resistors
i
two or more
i V and R (n resistances
capacitors in
connected
in parallel).
series . and
in parallel,
connected
in to the
parallel.
(27-21)
equivalentof two iden-
a combination ther resistor if the resistors are (a
is, resistance
R
eq!is 1R !smaller
" j!1
1RR 2
2 R
" jthan !
3 any (nof
R
eq "
the combining
resistances "
in parallel).
R resistances.Table
R (27-24) 27-1 summarizes
tical resistors and then the CHECKPOINT
has currentries iand (b) in 4 parallel?
R !
eq j!1 j . 1 Table 2 (27-25)
27-1 3
through CHECKPOINT
it. What are the potential 4
differ-
Comparing Eqs.equivalence 27-21 eq
and 27-22
R1 relations
" R2 leads for resistors to and capacitors in series and in parallel. A battery, with potential V across it, i
3) Req
Comparing Eqs. 27-21 and 27-22 leads to cu
1 1 1 1 Parallel resistors and their vo
! " " . (27-23) equivalent have the same
Req R1 R2 R3 cir
potential difference (“par-V”). (b
Extending this result to the case of n resistances, we have
CHECKPOINT 4 i i2 + i3 ch
n a
1 1
A battery, with potential ! !V across it, is (n resistances in parallel). (27-24)
d Req j!1 Rj CHECKPOINT 4 b,
connected to a combination of two iden- +
A battery, with i 1 R V across
R 1potential i 2 R it, is i 3
For resistors
tical the case of and
two resistances,
then hasthecurrent
equivalenti resistance(a) V/2, i; product divided
is their – 2 3
connected to a combination of two iden- If
5) by their sum; that is,
through it. What are the potential differ- R1R2 (b) V, i/2 tical resistors and then has current i th
Req ! . (27-25) through it. What are the potential differ-
ence across and the current through R1ei-
" R2 b
ence acrossi and the icurrent
2 + i3 through ei-
nt ther resistor ifwhen
Note that the resistors
two or moreare (a) in se-
resistances are connected in parallel, the equivalent ther resistor if the resistors
(a ) are (a) in se- W
e riesresistance
and (b)isin parallel?
smaller than any of the combining resistances.Table 27-1 summarizes the ries and (b) in parallel? cu
equivalence relations for resistors and capacitors in series and in parallel. i
a
(m
Table 27-1
+
R eq i
Series and Parallel Resistors and Capacitors –
Ho
Series Parallel Series Parallel
b
n
Resistors
Parallel n n
Capacitors i
(b
n )
Re
1 1 1 1
Req ! ! Rj Eq. 27-7
Req
! !
j!1 Rj
Eq. 27-24
Ceq
! !
j!1 Cj
Eq. 25-20 Ceq ! ! Cj
Eq. 25-19
Fig
j!1 Fig. 27-10 (a) Three
j!1 resistors
Capacitors
Same current through Same potential difference Same charge on all !.
connected inSame potential
parallel difference
across points a
all resistors n across all resistors capacitors across all capacitors sid
and b. (b) An equivalent circuit, with
Eq. 25-20 Ceq ! ! Cj
j!1
Eq. 25-19 the three resistors replaced with ap
their equivalent resistance Req. po
all Same potential difference
across all capacitors
What is the current through the battery?
!! " iR1 " iR2 " iR4 # 0 (incorrect).
!! " i1R1 " i1R23 " i1R4 # 0.
Resistors in parallel and in series
Working backward: We know that the current through R23
However, this equation is incorrect because it assumes Substituting thecan
given data,
26-8we
(R find
CHAPTE
K E Y RI D27E ACI RCU ITS
Battery 1
716 is i1 # 0.30 A. Thus, we use Eq. # V/i) and Fig.
Figurethat
27-11a
R1, Rshows
2, and Ra multiloop
4 all have the circuit containing
same current one ideal 27-11We
i. Resistances can the
e to find now redraw
potential the circuit
difference as inRFig.
across
Vi23(12 27-11c; notePA
23. Setting
that
RT 3
R and R do have the same current, because the current 12 V " i1 (20 $) " 1 $) " i1 (8.0 $) # 0,
attery
g that 1and four 4 resistances with the following values:
the current through the battery must also be R23 =the 12 $current
from (a), through
we write Eq. R23 must
26-8 as be i1 because charge that
passing through R4 must pass through the battery and then Sample Problem
which gives 27-7 MULTILOOP CIRCUITS 717
urrent through
through RR 1 1# 20Rno
with 1, change
$, we R2 see
#in20that
value. we# might
!
$, However,12 V, find the
that current
moves V23 # i1Rus
through R1 and R4 must also move through R23. For
23 # (0.30 A)(12 $) # 3.6 V.
nt bysplits
applying thepoint
loopb rule
— onlytopart
a loop
passesthat includes this simple one-loop circuit, the loop rule (applied clockwise
R2, the R1in parallel
at junction throughResistors The potential and in series
difference across R 12 V
2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig.
R3 #R30 $, R # 8.0 $. from point a as in Fig.
i # 27-11 d # 0.30 A.
) yields (Answer)
".
rest through . 4
use the current would be included in the potential 27-11f), so the current i2 in R2 must
3 1
40 $be, by Eq. 26-8 and
a) What Figure
is the 27-11a
current showsthrough a multiloop
the battery? circuit containing one ideal
Fig. 27-11 We , can now !! " i1R1 "circuit
redraw the i1R23 "asi1in R4Fig.# 0.27-11c; note that
ence across
Dead-end .
R1method: To distinguish the several currents in
g
battery and four resistances with the following values: (b) theWhat isVthethrough
current current
3.6 V
Ri232 through
must be Ri12?because charge that
the circuit, we must label them individually as in Fig. 27-11b. 2
rectThen,method: Either
R1 #K20
circling clockwise Ethe
from left-hand
R 20 $, loop # or 12 the
V, rulebig
moves
Substituting i2 #!through
"#the
R2
=#given20 R +and
20 1$
12
# 0.18
data, R+4we 8A.find
must = 40+ℎ-W
also (Answer)
move through RA 23. For
$,
Y ID a,E 2weA can
# write !the loop
for the HALLIDAY REVISED this simple one-loop circuit, KofE Ythe Dloop
I$) E"Airule
S(8.0(applied clockwise
should do.left-hand
Noting loopthat as the emf arrow of the battery (c) What is the 12 VThe
current " i (20
equivalent
i 1through $) "
R i
? (12
parallel $) # 0,
Noting that the current R3 # 30 $, R4 the
through # 8.0 $.
battery must also be from point a as in Fig. 27-11
resistors
3
is smaller.
3 1
12 d) yields 1
s upward, so the !! current" i1R1 the " i2Rbattery2 " i1R4 #supplies 0. is clock- which . = = = 0.3A
he current (a) What through is theR 1, we through
current see thatthewe might find
battery? the (1) Wegives must usnow K E! Ywork
!! ID"
"# i 1
EiA backward
40
R S"i R " from
i1R4 # the0. equivalent circuit
we might applythis
Unfortunately, the loop contains
equation rule totwothe left-hand
unknowns, i and iloop,
1i ; i3 1 1 1 23
urrent by applying the loop rule b to a loop that includes 1 2 R
1bWe can of answer
Fig. 27-11d,by using where
either of R23two
12 Vhas replaced
techniques:b 2 and R3. (2) Because
(1)RApply
wise from
we would point
need at a. With
least onei morebeing the
equation current
to find them. through thePA R T 3 Substituting the i given
# data, # we find
0.30 A. (Answer)
ecause the current would R 1 be K Eincluded
Y I D E A in the potential Eq. 26-8
R3 R1 and
RR32 as are(2)
R3 did.
we just inUse 1parallel,
Rthe40 Ωtheyrule,
junction
= 20 $ bothwhich havetells the
us same potential
ry, we
ifferencewould acrossget 27-7
R1.the current MULTILOOP CIRCUITS 717 that at point b in Fig. 12 V
27-11b, " i 1
(20
the $) "
incoming i (12 $)
current " i i (8.0
and $)
the # 0,
Successful
Noting method:
that A muchthrough easier option is to simplify
the battery must alsooutgoing be(b)difference
What isi2 the
across them iasthrough
current
1 R23. R ? 1
1 1
+ + currents and+ i3 are related 2 by 2 i1
thethe circuit of Fig. 27-11b by#finding R equivalent resistances. which gives us
" iR 1 " iRthrough 2–" iR4 R 1,0we2 see
!! current that we
(incorrect). might Rfind i2
the
ncorrect method: R Either – 2 – R 23 = 12 Ω
Note carefully R2the left-hand loop orcannot
the big i1 # i2 ! i3.
current bythat applying 1 andthe are not
loop rule in series and
to a loop thus
that includes R1Working backward: We
K8.012
EY Vknow
ID A S A.the current(Answer)
E0.30that through R23
oop should
However,be replaced
thisdo. Noting
with
equation that
an equivalent
isR the
incorrect
because the current would be included in the potential emf
resistance. arrow
because of
However, the
it R2battery
and
assumes
R iR1 #= Ω #
oints 3 are in parallel,
Rupward, so the so current
we can use
4
the either
batteryEq. 27-24 or Eq.is
supplies 27-25
4
clock-
is i1 # 0.30
Calculation: A. Thus,
Rearranging this4
wejunction-rule
40can $ use Eq. result 26-8 (R # V/i) and Fig.
yields
R1, Rto 2, find
and R
difference all have
across R the. same current i. Resistances (1) We must now work backward from
wise, we might
4 a c
their equivalent resistance R23. From the latter,
apply the
1
loop rule to the left-hand
a
loop,
c the result
27-11 displayed
(b)e to What in
findistheaFig. 27-11g:
potential
the current c
difference
i2 through R2? V23 across Rcircuit
the equivalent 23. Setting
d R4 do have the same current, because the current i 1 A of Fig. 27-11d, i
Incorrect method:
Ra.2R Either
(20 the left-hand loop or the the bigR23 = 12 i$ i1 where
3 #from " i2(a), # 0.30Rwe 23 Ahas
1
write replaced
" 0.18 Eq.
A 26-8 R2 andas R3. (2) Because
lockwise
ng through from pointThe With
3
equivalent i being
of
$)(30 the
parallel
$)current through
R 4 must pass through the battery and then
R (a ) 12 (b )
$ emf arrow of the batteryR2 and R3 # are inA. parallel, Kthey E Y both have the same potential
23 # # # $. (c ) IDEA S(Answer)
attery, we loop should
would Rdo.
get 2 ! Noting
resistors R3is smaller. that 50 the 0.12
gh R1 with pointsno change
upward, so in thevalue.
currentHowever, the batterythat current
supplies is clock-difference across V #
23 them i R
1 as #
23 R23. (0.30 A)(12 $) # 3.6 V.
i3 i 1 Additional examples, video, and practice (1) We must now work backward from the equivalent circuit
at bjunction !! "
wise, point
we iRmight
1" b— 2only
iRapply " iR part
the4 #loop 0passes brule through
to the left-hand
(incorrect). R2, theloop, available at WileyPLUS
The potential
of Fig. 27-11d, difference
where R23 has across
replaced Rthe iscurrent
thusR3also
2 and 3.6 V (Fig.
. (2) Because
in this single-
Working backward: We know that 2R through R23
hroughRclockwise
R . from point a. With Ω
i being the current through the
R and R are in parallel, they both have the same potential
However,
3 3
battery,this equation R = 20
get isApplying
1 incorrect because it assumes 27-11
is ),Applying
#2f0.30 soA. 3the current i 2 in R 2 must be, by Eq. 26-8 and
Thus, weyields
can
i1 difference as Ruse Eq. 26-8 (R # V/i) and Fig.
we would the loop rule V =them iR
hat Ri 1, R2, and R4 all + have the same current i. Resistances Fig. 27-11 g , across 23.
d-end yields the# i
current. 27-11e tothe findpotential
the potential difference. difference V23 across R23. Setting
R12 and method: To–the
"distinguish the 4 several Ωcurrents in
R 1
2
R4 do have !! iRsame
1 " iRcurrent,2 " iR 0R 23 = 12(incorrect).
because the current
rcuit, R23 =Working
12 $ from i 1 (a),
= 0.30we
backward: VA2 write
We3.6 Eq.V26-8
know thatasthe current through R23
assingwe must
through However,
label
R4 must them
this passR 4 individually
equation through
= 8.0 Ω is
i 1 = 0.30 as
incorrect
inbecause
theAbattery Fig.and 27-11b.
it then
assumes i # # # 0.18 A. # V/i) and (Answer)
circling clockwise from a, we can write the
b
loop rule is i1 # 0.30 A. Thus, 2
R we can b
20 use Eq. 26-8 (R Fig.
hrough
c R
that with
R , Rno, andchange
a R allin value.
have the However,
csame current that i.current
Resistances V 23 # i 1R 23 2# (0.30 A)(12
$ $) # 3.6 V.
1 1 2 4
R = 20 Ω 27-11 e to find the
R 1 = 20 Ω potential difference V 23 across R 23. Setting
eplits
left-hand loop as
at R junction
1 and
passing
est(bthrough
)
R4point
do have
R3.through R4 must
b — the onlyi 1 samepart 1current,
+(c ) pass through the battery
passes through
andA then
i 1 = 0.30
because R
The potential
23
+
the 2, thecurrent(c) R
difference across 3 What
i 1 = 0.30
= 12is$the from
R2 isA3thus also 3.6 V (Fig.current
(a), we iwrite through Eq. 26-8 R as ? 1
1R=1 12
R1iwith Vi2change # 0. However,R 23that
R–2 " i1inR4value.
a
!! "
through "no = 12current
Ω 27-11
= 12 V f),– so theV23current
#23i1=R3.6
V iV2 in
23 #
R
(0.30 must
R 223A)(12 be,#by3.6Eq.
= 12 Ω $) V. 26-8 and
Fig. 27-11g, K E Y I D E A S
Dead-end splits at junction
method: Topoint b — onlythe
distinguish part passescurrents
several through R 2, the
rtunately, this equation contains two unknowns,
R 4 = 8.0 Ω i1 and iin 2; The potential R 4 = difference
8.0 Ω across R2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig.
rest through R3.
he circuit, weleast
mustone
label them individually asthem.
in cFig. 27-11b. We can answer by V
27-11f), so the currentusing either
3.6 V R2ofmust
i in twobe,techniques:
by Eq. 26-8(1)and
Apply
ould need at more equation
a to find a i # 2 # c2 # 0.18 A. (Answer)
Applying V = iR yields Eq. 26-8 as we2 just did. (2) Use the junction rule, which tells us
h R2, the
and then
t current
h R2, the
rrents in
R23 = 12 $ from (a), we write Eq. 26-8 as
The potential difference across R2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig. a
V23current
27-11f), so the
Fig. 27-11g,
# i1R23i# (0.30 A)(12 $) # 3.6 V.
2 in R 2 must be, by Eq. 26-8 and
The potential difference across R2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig.

R 4 = 8.0 Ω
i 1 = 0.30 A
(d )
Battery 1 c a
R 4 = 8.0 Ω
i 1 = 0.30 A
(e )
c
. 27-11b. V
27-11f), so the current 3.6
i2 V
in R2 must be, by Eq. 26-8 and
i2 # 2 # # 0.18 A. (Answer)
oop rule Fig. 27-11g, R2 20 $ Parallel resistors and
rrents in their equivalent have Applying i = V/R
g. 27-11b. (c) What is the current
V i3 through
3.6 VR3? the same V (“par-V”). yields the current.
i2 # 2 # # 0.18 A. (Answer)
oop rule R2 20 $ i 1 = 0.30 A i3 i 1 = 0.30 A i3 =
KEY IDEAS b b
i1 and i2; (c) What is the current i3 through R3?
We can answer by using either of two techniques: (1) Apply R 1 = 20 Ω R 3 = 30 Ω R 1 = 20 Ω R3
. V 3 = 3.6 V V3
Eq. 26-8 as we just did. (2) KUse
EY theI Djunction
E A S rule, =which
12 V – tells us
+
V 2 = 3.6 V
i2
R 2 = 20 Ω = 12 V –
+
V 2 = 3.6 V
i 2 = 0.1
R 2 = 20
i1 and i2; that at point b in Fig. 27-11b, the incoming current i1 and Rthe
simplify We can currents
answer iby using either of two techniques: (1) 4 = 8.0 Ω
Apply
R 4 = 8.0 Ω
m.istances. outgoing 2 and i3 are related by c c

Eq. 26-8 as we just did. (2) Use the junction rule, which i 1 =tells
0.30 A us i 1 = 0.30 A
s cannot i1 # i2 ! i3.
that at point b in Fig. 27-11b, the incoming current i1 and the( f ) (g)
,simplify
R2 and 27-11 (a) A circuit with an ideal battery. (b) Label the currents. (c) Replacing the parallel resis
outgoing currents
Calculation: i2 and i3 are
Rearranging thisrelated by Fig.
junction-rule result(d)yields
sistances.
Eq. 27-25 equivalent. – (g) Working backward to find the currents through the parallel resistors.
us
, cannot the result displayed in Fig. 27-11g:
i1 # i2 ! i3.
r, R2 and i # i1 " i2 # 0.30 A " 0.18 A
Eq. 27-25 Calculation: 3 Rearranging this junction-rule result yields
# 0.12 A.
the result displayed in Fig. 27-11g: (Answer)
r,
i3 # i1 "at
les, video, and practice available # 0.30 A " 0.18 A
i2 WileyPLUS
# 0.12 A. (Answer)
ples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

! #0.25 A.
The positive answer we obtained for
choice of direction for that current is c
negative answers for i1 and i3 indicate
The Ammeter and the Voltmeter Additio
Ammeter: an instrument used to measure currents

i
Ammeter A is connected in series in the circuit to measure current i
The resistance RA of the ammeter should be very much smaller than +
other resistances in the circuit – R2
r
Voltmeter: a meter that is used to measure potential differences c
Voltmeter V is connected in parallel to R1 to measure the voltage across R1
a
The resistance RV of a voltmeter be very much larger than the resistance
A R1 V
of any circuit element across which the voltmeter is connected
b
i
d
An ohmmeter or multimeter : a single meter that has a switch to serve as an
ammeter or a voltmeter, and also designed to measure the resistance of any Fig. 27-14 A single-loop circuit, show-
element connected between its terminals ing how to connect an ammeter (A) and a
voltmeter (V).
6. As shown in the figure, calculate the equivalent resistance.
Problems: Solution
1. Calculate the equivalent resistance in the figure R1 =10 Ω
The resistors 2 and 3 are in series, à R23 = 8 + 2 = 10 Ω. R2 =8 Ω R3 =2 Ω
R4 =4 Ω
R23 parallel with R1 à R123 = 5 Ω R5 =6 Ω
R123 in series with the rest à R12345The

=5+resistors
4 + 6 =15 Ω 3 are in series, their equivalent resistance R is 10 . The
2 and 23
are in parallel with resistor 1, so the equivalent resistance R123 is 5 . The
in series with the rest. Therefore the total resistance is
2. Calculate the equivalent resistance between 7.the point A and B in calculate
the figure
As shown in the figure, R the equivalent resistance between the p
12345 =5+4+6=15
Solution
The equivalent resistance of the upper side is Rup =35+82=117 Ω
Thus the total resistance is Req =117× 45/(117+ 45)= 32.5 Ω
The equivalent resistance of the upper side is

Rup =35+82=117
Thus the total resistance is
Req =117×45/(117+45)=32.5
8. The current in the 13.8 resistor is 0.750 A. Find the current passing th
3. The current in the 13.8 Ωresistor.
resistor is 0.750 A. Find the current passing through the 17.2 Ω
resistor.
Solution
The 13.8 Ω & 17.2 Ω resistors are in parallel
à V across each is similar
V= iR = 0.75 ×13.8 = 10.35 V
Hence i through the 17.2 Ω resistor: i = V/R = 10.35/17.2 = 0.602 A
The 13.8 and 17.2resistors are in parallel. Therefore the potential acr
V=iR =0.75×13.8=10.35 V
Hence the current passing through the 17.2 resistor is
i=V/R=10.35/17.2=0.602 A
RC Circuits
Charging a Capacitor
a S
b R
The capacitor C in Fig. is uncharged
+
– C
If switch S is closed on point a
à the circuit of C, battery emf , & R is completed (RC series circuit )
à charge begins to flow between a capacitor plate & battery terminal Fig. 27-15 When switch S is closed on
a S
a, the capacitor is charged through the re-
à this current increases q on the plates & VC (= q/C) across the capacitor sistor. When theb switch is afterward
R closed
à when VC = , the current is zero on b, the capacitor discharges through the
+
resistor.– C
à the equilibrium (final) charge on the fully charged capacitor is equal to C
We want to examine the charging process: to know

Fig. 27-15 When switch S is closed on
the charge q(t) on the capacitor plates a, the capacitor is charged through the re-
sistor. When the switch is afterward closed
the potential difference VC(t) across the capacitor on b, the capacitor discharges through the
the current i(t) in the circuit vary with time during the charging process resistor.
i and q. However, q is those variables
dq qdq ! Cq!(1 are not
" eindependent
qHowever, "t/RC
) but are related
(charging a capacitor). by (27-33)
itor. The term negative i and
because q. the capacitor’s those
top variables
plate, which are
is not
connected independent
to (27-32) but are related by
! " iR "
the battery’s
Substituting
C positive terminal,
this
! 0. R R # # !!!! (27-30)
dt dt
for i in
isCatdq
Eq.
C
27-30
a higher
and rearranging,
(charging equation).
(charging equation).
dqq potential than the lower plate. Thus,
we find (27-32) 27-9
(Here e is the exponential base, 2.718 . . . , and not the elementary (27-31)charge.)
dq Note
there is a drop in potential as we Rmove i !down# dt .through ! ! the capacitor.
(charging equation).i ! . (27-32) (27-31)
the leftThis
side represents
This that
differential the 27-33
differential
Eq. potential
equation equation
does difference
indeed describes
describes across
satisfy
dt the the
the Cour capac-
time
time requiredvariation
variation initial ofofthe charge
condition,
the charge
dt q onq the
because on atthe
t!0 The capacitor’s charge
We cannot immediately solve
clockwise Eq. 27-30
from because
the negative it contains terminal two variables,
of the battery.We find
negative because the
capacitor
the capacitor’s
in Fig. top
27-15. plate,
To which
solve is
it, connected
we need toto find the function q(t) that satisfies
inq.term e for is unity; soit, the equation gives q! 0. Note also that as t goes to
"t/RC
capacitorSubstituting
i and Fig. this
This
However, 27-15. i in
differential
those ToEq. solve27-30
variablesequation and
are we rearranging,
need
describes
not independent to we
thefind time find
but the
variation
are function
related bytheq(t)
of charge that q on satisfies
the grows as the resistor's
itive terminal, this equation
is infinity
atloop
a higher (that and
potential
capacitor also
is, ina Fig. Substituting
satisfies
than27-15.
long the
time lower the
Tolater),
solve this
plate.condition
it,the for
Thus,
we i
term
need in Eq.
that
e+ve 27-30
"t/RC the goes and
capacitor rearranging,
to zero; be
q(t)qthat initially
so the we find
equation
Applying
this equation rule
and travelling
also satisfies
dq clockwise
q the from–ve
condition totothat find :the
the !
function
"capacitor
iR " be
!
satisfies
0. initially current
a S dies out.
(27-30)
potential as we uncharged;
move
givesdown the that
this is, q R
through
proper
equation !the 0andat
value t
capacitor.
!also 0.
for the
satisfies dq full the (equilibrium)
condition that charge
the capacitor on thebe capacitor
initially —
uncharged; that is, q ! 0 at t ! # 0. !i ! ! (charging . dq
equation). q (27-31) C
(27-32)
mmediately solve WeEq.
namely, shall
27-30 q soon
uncharged;
! because
C show
!. that
A dt
itthat
plotis, q
containsof
! C
the 0 solution
q(t)at t
two for
! 0.
dt to
variables,
the Eq.
charging 27-32
R is #
process !
is !
given in Fig. 27-16a.
(charging equation). (27-32)
b R
The term
We shall – soonq /C represents
show
We shall that
soon Thethe
theshow potential
solution
lastthat term the on difference
to Eq.
solution the to27-32
left Eq. dtside across C
isrepresents
27-32 the
isthe capacitor: capacitor
the potential difference across the + 12 capac-
, those variablesThis The
aredifferential
not
Substituting derivative
independent
this equation
for i in but ofdescribes
Eq. q(t)
are
27-30 isand
related the the by current
time
rearranging, i(t)
variation
we charging
find of the charge q on the C C
The –sign because the capacitor’s top plate has higher potential (connected +ve terminal)
q (µC)
–
q! CThisitor.differential
!(1 " The term "t/RC
e "t/RC
) is equation
negative because
(charging a capacitor).
describes thethe capacitor’s
time (27-33) top plate,
variation of which
the is connected
charge q 8 on theto
capacitor indqFig. 27-15. Todq solve q! it, Cwe!(1 need " eto find ) the(charging function q(t) that satisfies(27-33)
a capacitor).
! "
q ! C !(1 the dq
capacitor" q e
battery’s
"t/RC ! ) positive (charging terminal, a is
capacitor). at a higher (27-33)
potential than the lower plate. Thus,
this
(Here i e!is the. and
equation à alsoRi satisfies
exponential ! #
base, the
! !
2.718 !in Fig.
condition
. e 27-15.
(27-31)
(charging
.
"t/RC
. , and that To
equation).
not the solve
the
(charging capacitorit,
elementary
we be
a capacitor).
need
(27-32) to find the
initially
charge.) Note
function q(t) that satisfies
(27-34) 4
dt(Here e is the exponential dt there dt C is abase, drop
R 2.718 in potential as thewe elementary
move down through Notethe thecapacitor.
uncharged;
that Eq. 27-33that is, doesq !indeed 0 atthis 0.equation
t !satisfy our
and
required
. also
. . , and
initial
satisfies
not
condition,
the condition
because
charge.)
at t
that
! 0
capacitor be initially
Fig. 27-15 When switch S is closed o
(Here e This isWe the exponential
that Eq. 27-33 base,
does
uncharged; 2.718
indeed
We cannot . to
satisfy
that . .Eq. , and
our
is, !not
qrequired
immediately 0isatofthe ! elementary
tinitial solvecondition,
0.charge Eq. charge.)
because
27-30 at t !Note
because 0 it contains The The
two capacitor’s
variables,
capacitor’s charge
charge
for i in Eq.Solving
27-30 and
theAterm
theshall equation
differential
rearranging,
eof soon
"t/RC
the
equation
show
isfor
term we
unity;
e
knowing
"t/RCthat
find so
is
describes
the conditions
solution
the equation
unity; so
the
the
time gives
equation
variation
27-32 qgives
! in the
0.q Note 0. Notealsoalso qthaton the
as as
that goes
tthat
t goes toto a, the
grows
capacitor
0
as the
is2 charged
4
resistor's
6through
8 the
10 re
that Eq.capacitor plot
27-33 does i(t) indeed the charging
satisfy
and We our process
shall
However, required
soon is given
show
those initial
that Fig.
!
variables the 27-16b.
condition,
solution
are not Note
because
to Eq. 27-32
independent the
at tis!current
but0 are related grows
sistor.by as the resistor's
ai long it,q. The capacitor’s
in Fig. When the switch (ms)charge
is afterward clos
infinity
has (that
the is, a27-15.
infinity
initial long
(that
value
To time
is, solve later),
and
we
time need
the
thatlater), to the
term
it
find
decreases
the
eterm
"t/RC function
egoes
"t/RC
to toq(t)
goes
zero
that
zero;
toas zero;satisfies
so
the the
so theequation
capacitor equation becomes current
current dies
dies out.out.
Time
dqCharge
the term qthiseequation: is unity; so !/R
the "equation gives the0. Note also that as t goes on b, the capacitor discharges through th
qa capacitor). — to
"t/RC
R #gives ! equation
the
! gives
proper and
(charging the also
qvalue
!properC !(1
equation).
satisfies
for valuethe the
e"t/RC for
full)condition
the (charging that
full (equilibrium)
(equilibrium)
(27-32)
! capacitor
charge charge on be on initially
the (27-33)
the capacitor
capacitor — grows as the
(a) resistor's
infinity
dt namely, fully charged.
(that
Cuncharged; is, a
thatlong is, qq ! !time 0 at tAlater),
!plot0. of the term qe "t/RC
! C goes
!(1 " toe zero;
"t/RC
) sodq the
(charging equation
a capacitor).
resistor.
(27-33)
(Here
at t = We 0 q: shall namely,
! Cterm
the !. Aeplot of C
-t/RC !.
= q(t)
1 à for q q(t) for
the=charging 0 the charging process is
process is given in Fig. 27-16a. giveni ! in Fig. .27-16a. current dies out.
(27-31)
gives the The e is
proper the
derivative
soon
exponential
value
The show
derivative
of-t/RC
thatbase,
forofisthe
q(t)
the
of solution
2.718
q(t) min . . to
.
full (equilibrium)
the charge is
current the , Eq.
and
current
i(t)
27-32
not i(t)
charging
is
the elementary
chargingthe charge the
capacitor: charge.) dt Note
on the capacitor —
capacitor: 12
12 C
equation describes the time variation the q on the C
µC)
that
as t à∞
Eq. A capacitor
27-33
: the does
term that
indeed
e is (Here
being
satisfy
= 0 à e
charged
our
q is the
required
= Cexponential
initially acts
initial
(Fig. like base,
condition,
a) ordinary 2.718
because . . .at, and
connecting t 0not relative
wire the elementary 8 charge.) 6 Note/R
q (qµ(C)
! The capacitor’s charge
27-15.namely, q we ! need !. A
C "t/RC plotthe offunction
q(t) fordq thethat charging process is given in Fig. 27-16a.
max
Substituting this for i in Eq. 27-30 and rearranging, we find
! " ! "
To solve it, to find q(t) ! satisfies 8
i (mA)
the term to the e charging is unity; qcurrent.
! so C
dq that
!(1
the iA " Eq.e ! 27-33
long"t/RC
!equation ! ) gives
time does
later,
(charging qit!
e "t/RC indeed
acts
a0. likesatisfy
Note
capacitor).
(charging aalso
broken ourwire.
that
a capacitor). as required
(27-33)
t goes to(27-34) initial condition, growsbecause
4 as the12
at t!0
resistor's T
nd also The
satisfies derivative
the condition of q(t)
that
i is
the thethe current
capacitor dt e be
"t/RC
termthe termise unity; Ri(t) charging
initially sodq the capacitor: (27-34)
4 C
Current ! ! (charging tothe
a equation
capacitor). gives q ! 0. Note also that diesasout. t goes to
"t/RC 4
infinityequation:
(that is, a long time later), "t/RC
goes zero; qso the equation g
q (µC)
(Here e is the exponential dt base, R . . . , and not the
2.718 elementary charge.) Note current
s, q ! 0 at t !gives
0. the proper infinity (that is, a long Rtime later),
# the
!Note !term ethe
"t/RC
(charging goes to zero; so the equation
equation). 0 2 84 2(27-32)
6 8 10
value for the full (equilibrium) charge on the capacitor — the c
! "
at t
that= 0 By
Eq. : theA
27-33 plot
combining
termdoes of e i(t)
dq -t/RC
indeed forEq.
= the1
satisfy charging
25-1
à
! i
our (q !
= process
required CV/R ) isand
given
initial Eq. indtFig.
condition, 27-33, 27-16b.
C
becausewe find
at t that
!that
0 current potential Time (ms)
n show that the solution
namely, q! to Eq.
C for iV
!.A 27-32plot is gives
ofvalue
q(t)the for the
the max
eand proper
charging
"t/RC value
process for
is27-16b.
given the inasfull
Fig. (equilibrium)
the27-16a. (27-34) charge The capacitor’s
on the0 charge
2 4
capacitor 6 —8 10
A theplotterm of i(t)
has the! theinitial charging! process
!/R is
that givenit
q !in0.b)
decreases
(chargingFig. toa zero
capacitor).Note t that
goes the
capacitor
tois current
becomes 0
4(a)
as difference ethe C(t)
is unity; across so the capacitor
equation gives during the
Note charging
also that asprocess Time (ms)
"t/RC
has à
tThe
the ∞ :
initialfully
derivative term
charged.
value of dt
e
q(t)
-t/RC
!/R is =
namely,
the
This
and 0àRcurrent
that i q
min !
differential
it = C
i(t) 0 !. (Fig.
A
charging
decreases plot
equationto theofzero q(t)
capacitor: for
describes
as the the charging
the
capacitor time process
variation
becomes is grows
12
given
of
as
thein
C
the
charge
resistor's
Fig. 27-16a.
q on
2
the
4 6 8 10
infinity
"t/RC (that is, a long time later), the term e
"t/RC
goes to zero; so the equation current dies out. (a) Time (ms) 12
q (µC)
q ! C !(1 " e
fully )
charged. (charging a capacitor). The
qcapacitor derivative
in Fig.(27-33) of q(t) is the current i(t) charging the capacitor:
"t/RC27-15. To solve it, capacitor
we need—to find the function q(t) that0 satisfies
gives the 8 2 4 (b)6 8 10
forproper value for the fullcharged
(equilibrium) charge on the
q (µC)
A plot of i(t)equation: the charging process is given in Fig. 27-16b. Note that
wire the current
! "
Potential A capacitor VCdq !that is ! ! !(1
being " e initially ) acts (charging
like ordinary a capacitor).
connecting relative (27-35) 6
namely, q !toCthe !.A !plot
icharging of! Cthisforequation
q(t) the
e "t/RC charging andprocess
(charging also a is satisfies
given
capacitor). the
in Fig.wire.27-16a. condition
(27-34) that the 4capacitor be /R
initiallyTime (ms) 8
i (mA)i (mA)
! "
ponential base,
hasthe 2.718 . . . , and not the current.
elementary A long
charge.)time later,
Note it acts dq like a broken
at initial value dtand 1that Vit decreases to zero connecting
as the capacitor becomes
!
tA=capacitor
The
0 : the derivativethat!/R
term iseofbeing
q(t)
-t/RC =ischarged
the Ràcurrent
uncharged; initially i(t) 0acts
= charging
that ilike
is, q
!! theordinary
0 !t ! 0. e "t/RCwire relative
capacitor:
at
12
(charging a capacitor). C
46
Fig. 27-16 (a) A
/R(27-34) (a) plot of Eq. 27-3
4
oes indeed
fullysatisfy
charged. our required initial condition, because
Cmin
atacts t !that 0 adt R
q (µC)
toThis tells uscurrent.
the charging that -t/RC V A long
! 0 at
time t later,
! 0 and
it like V broken ! ! when
wire. The capacitor’s
the capacitor charge becomes which
2
2 44 6 8 10
shows the buildup of charge o
s unity; sotheA t àof∞i(t)
plot By
for term
the combining
charging
C
Eq.
processWe 25-1 shall
isas(q
given soon
CV )
in Fig. show
and Eq.that
C
to 27-16b. Note grows27-33,the solution
we find
that the that to Eq.
the 27-32
potential is 8 0
asequation :gives
the q! 0.te: Note
dq $.=also 0à ! that VCmax =
!t goes ascurrent
! "
fully charged as the resistor's capacitor of Fig. 27-15. (b) A plot of
difference i ! V (t) across
! thee "t/RC
capacitor during
(charging a the charging
capacitor). process (27-34)is 0Time (ms) 0
has the initial value C and A plot
that of
it i(t)
decreases for the to charging
zero as the process
capacitor is given
becomes in Fig. 4
27-16b. Note that
27-34, 2the 4 current
which 6 shows
8 10the decline of th
a long timeAlater),
capacitor the term e
that is being
"t/RC !/R
goes dt to zero; so the equation
R initially acts like ordinary connecting current dieswire out. relative 2 (a)
fullyfullBy
charged.combining Eq.charged 25-1
has on (q
the CV ) and
!initial value Eq. q
!/R 27-33,
! C and!(1 we "
that finde that
"t/RC
it )
decreases the (charging
potential
to zeroa capacitor).
as the chargingTime
capacitor
6 (ms)
(27-33)
current
becomes /Rin the circuit of Fig
r value to forthe
the (equilibrium) charge q the capacitor —
i (mA)
charging current. A long time later, it acts like a broken wire. 0
A plot of q(t) forAThe Time Constant 0 2 4 6 8 10 (b)
difference VC(t) across the capacitor during
" e in the charging
) 27-16b. process
that theiscurrent (27-35) 15. The 2 curves
4 4 6 are8 plotted for R ! 2
isVfully
"t/RC
C ! !(1
plotcharging
the of i(t) for the charging
process given C in!Fig.
charged.
process is 27-16a.
given Fig. (chargingNote a capacitor).
Time (ms)
10
has the i(t)
A capacitor
ve of q(t) is the current initial that value
charging is being !/R
the and (Here
charged
capacitor: thatinitially is the
ite decreases acts exponential
like toordinary
zero as connecting
the base, 12 2.718
capacitor wire
C
.relative
. . , and not the elementary
becomes Fig.
6 27-16(a)
C! charge.)
1 mF,
(a) Time
A plot Note
andof(ms)
!Eq. 10 V; the small tr
!27-33,
Thecharged.
product RCusq that appears in Eqs. 27-33, V27-34, and our 27-35 has the dimensions /R
which shows gles the 2 (b) ofsuccessive
represent
buildup
at t !charge0 on theintervals o
!that Eq. 27-33 does indeed satisfy required initial condition, because
q (µC)
Bytofully Thiscurrent.A
tells that Vtime 0 eat"t/RC tit! 0 and athat when the capacitor becomes
i (mA)
the charging VEq. long !(1 C! later, )that
acts likeEq. broken ! !
wire. (27-35) T
combining
of time fully (both C ! 25-1
because (qtheA ! " CV
capacitor
argument ) and is (charging
being 27-33,Ccharged
we
a capacitor).8 find
initially thatacts the
like potential
ordinary connecting wire relative 6
"t/RCof an exponential must be dimensionless and
charged C as t the $.term capacitor
4 of Fig.constant
time 27-15. (b) t.A plot of Eq.
e is unity; so the equation gives q 0. Note also that as t goes oftoEq.
! "
:
dq
(mA)
! to the charging current. A long time later, it acts like a !broken wire. 0
i ! difference
! VC(t) across
eA"t/RC (charging
the a
capacitor during
capacitor). (27-34) the charging process 4
is 27-34,
Fig.
2
which
27-16 (a)
shows Atheplot
decline
2 4of the6 8 104 g
27-33,
capacitor that is being charged initially acts like ordinary
infinity (that is, a long time later), the term e connecting wire relative "t/RC
goes to zero; so the equation
6 charging current
which shows the buildup of charge on the in the circuit of Fig. 27-
itor.
this The term is negative
equation and also because the capacitor’s
satisfies top plate,
the condition thatwhich
the iscapacitor
connectedbe
to initially
the battery’s
uncharged;
705-734v2.qxd positive
that is, qterminal,
23-11-2009 at t is!at0.aPage
! 0 14:35 higher722
potential than the lower plate. Thus,
22
thereWeis a shall
drop in potential
soon show as wethe
that move down through
solution the capacitor.
to Eq. 27-32 is
We cannot immediately solve Eq. 27-30
HALLIDAY REVISED
because it contains two variables, HALLIDAY REVISED
i and q. However, those q variables
! C !(1 are " enot independent
"t/RC
) but aare
(charging related by
capacitor). (27-33)
The eTime dq
(Here is theConstant
exponential base, i2.718 ! . .. . , and not the elementary(27-31) charge.) Note
dt
that Eq. 27-33 does indeed satisfy our required initial condition, because at t ! 0 The capacitor’s charge
the term
Theeproduct
Substituting this for
"t/RC RC
in Eq.has
is iunity; so
27-30theand
the dimensions
equation
rearranging, gives of
weqtime ! 0.because:
find Note also that as t goes to grows as the resistor's
22 CHAPTE
infinity1. (that R 27
the is, CI RCU
a long time
argument ITSlater), the term e "t/RC
goes to zero; so the equation current dies out.
dqof anqexponential must be dimensionless
gives the proper value R for
# the ! !full (charging
(equilibrium)equation). charge on the capacitor —
(27-32)
2. 1.0 Ω ×1.0 Fdt= 1.0 Cs
namely, q ! C !. A plot of q(t) for the charging process is given in Fig. 27-16a.
because, in fact, 1.0 ! " 1.0 F # 1.0 s). The product 12 RC is called the capaci
cause, inThis
fact,The 1.0derivative
differential 1.0of
! "equation F q(t) is the
1.0
#describes s). current
The product
the time charging
i(t)variation RC ofisthe capacitor:
called
the charge the q oncapacitive
the C
time constant of the circuit and is represented with the symbol t :
q (µC)
The
capacitor product RC is called the capacitive time constant of the circuit and
me constant of theincircuit
Fig. 27-15.and Toissolve it, we need with
represented to findthe thesymbol
function tq(t): that satisfies 8
is represented
this equation and also
uncharged; that is, q ! 0 atdt
with
i ! satisfies
t # RC
!! "
dq the the
t ! 0. R
! condition
symbol
e "t/RC
3 that the capacitor be initially
(time constant).
t #(27-34)
(27-36)
RC 4
(time constant). (27-3
We shall soon show that the solution to Eq. 27-32 is
A plot of i(t) for the charging process From is givenEq. in Fig. 27-33, we Note
27-16b. can now that the that at time t # t0 (# 2RC),
seecurrent 4 6 8 10
the charge on the
Time (ms)
om Eq. 27-33,
has thewe can
initial now
value see that at time t #
tially t (#
unchargedRC), the charge
ascapacitor on the
of Fig. ini-
27-15 has increased from(a) zero to
From Eq. C !(1and
q ! !/R that) it ,decreases
" e"t/RC (charging
at time to 3zero
at capacitor).
= ( RC), the capacitor
(27-33) becomes
ly uncharged capacitor of Fig. 27-15 has increased from zero to
fully charged.
(Here q on
e is the the initially
exponential uncharged
base, 2.718$1. . . capacitor
, and not the increased
elementary 0 to qNote
fromcharge.) # C !(1 $ e$1) # 0.63C !. (27-
q # C !(1 $ e ) # 0.63C !. (27-37)
thatAEq. 27-33 does
(During
capacitor the indeed
thatfirst time
is being satisfy
constant
charged 3 ,In
ourinitially
requiredtheactsinitial
charge
like condition,
has
ordinary because
increased
words, during the first time
connectingfrom at t0
wire!à 0 constant
63% of its tfinal
relative The value
the 6 C has
charge
capacitor’s /R increased from zero
charge
thetoterm
words, during thee firstis unity;
time so the
constant equation thegives q
charge 0. Note
has also
increasedthat as t
fromgoes to
zero to
i (mA)
"t/RC
the charging current. A long
The charging times for RC circuits time t later,63%it acts! like
of its
are a broken
final
often wire.
value
stated C !.ofIn3 Fig. 27-16, the
in terms grows as 4thetriangles
small resistor's along the time a
infinity (that is, a long time
% of its final value C !. In Fig. 27-16, the mark later), the term e"t/RC
goes
small successive to
triangles alongzero; so the equation
the of time axes currentduring
dies out.the charging of the cap
intervals one time constant
gives the proper
rk successiveByintervals value
of Eq. for
one25-1 the full
time(qconstant (equilibrium)
during charge
the on
chargingthe capacitor
of the —
capaci-
2
combining ! CV tor.
) and The Eq. charging
namely, q ! C !.A plot of q(t) for the charging process is given in Fig. 27-16a. 27-33, we times
find for
that RC
the circuits
potential are often stated in terms of t .
. The charging
differencetimes foracross
VC(t) RC circuits are often stated in termsprocessof t . is 0
The derivative of q(t) the
is the capacitor
current i(t) during
chargingthethe charging
capacitor: 12
C 2 4 6 8 10
q (µC)
Time (ms)
q Discharging a Capacitor 8
! "
dq ! (b)
scharging a Capacitor VCi !
!
C
dt
! !(1 "
!
R
e e "t/RC
"t/RC ) (charging
a capacitor). (27-34) (27-35)
Assume now that the capacitor of Fig. 27-15
4
is fully(a)charged to 27-33,
a potential
Fig. 27-16 A plot of Eq.
sume now Thisthat the capacitor of Fig.
t ! 027-15 is fully
equal Vto charged
the
! emf ! to
of a
thepotential V0 a new
battery. At time
0 which 4t #6 0,the
2 shows 8switch
buildup
10 S of
is charge
thrown on from
the
A plottells
of i(t)usforthat
the V C ! 0 at
charging process isand that
given in Fig. ! when
C 27-16b. Notethe
thatcapacitor
the currentbecomes
ual to thefully
emfcharged
! of theasbattery.
t :!/R At a new time
$. and b so
t #that the capacitor
0, switch S is thrown canfrom a to through
discharge resistance
capacitor
Time of(ms) How
R.(b)
Fig. 27-15. doof the
A plot Eq. cha
has the initial value that it decreases to zero as the capacitor becomes 27-34, which
(a)theshows the decline of the
o that the capacitor can discharge through q(t) on the capacitor
resistance R. How and
do thecharge
the current i(t) through discharge loop of capac
fully charged. charging current in the circuit of Fig. 27-
) on the capacitor and the current i(t) through and resistance
the dischargenowloopvaryofwith time?
capacitor 15. The curves are plotted for R ! 2000 %,
Discharging a Capacitor
mark successive intervals of one time constant during the charging of the capaci-
tor. The Assumecharging nowtimes that thefor RC capacitor
circuits ofareFig.often27-15stated
is fully incharged
terms oftot .a potential V0
27-
Discharging a Capacitor
equal to the emf ! of the battery. At a new time t # 0, switch S is thrown from a to In p
Assume so that
b now that thethe capacitor
capacitor can Fig. 27-15through
of discharge is fully resistance
charged toR.a How do the
potential V0 charge vary
Discharging
equal toq(t) theon emf a Capacitor
the! capacitor
of the battery. and the At acurrentnew time i(t)t through
# 0, switch theSdischarge
is thrownloop fromof capacitor
a to
so that
bAssume
Discharging andthe resistance
now that now
a capacitor
Capacitor thecan vary with time?
discharge
capacitor ofthrough
Fig. 27-15 resistance
is fully How do to
R.charged theacharge
potential V0 Cha
q(t)
equalon the The
to the differential
capacitor
emf ! and of the equation
thebattery.
currentAt describing
i(t)athrough
new time q(t) is like
thet discharge
# 0, switch Eq. 27-32
loop except
S isofthrown
capacitor that now,
from a to The
and with no now
resistance battery vary inwith
the discharge
time? loop, ! # 0. Thus, clos
so that Sthe
Ifb switch is capacitor
thrown from can discharge
a to b: through resistance R. How do the charge
The
on differential equation describing is like Eq. cap
à q(t)capacitorthe capacitor
discharges and through
R
thedqcurrent
% #
q(t)through
i(t)
qresistance
0 R the27-32
(discharging
exceptloop
discharge
equation).
that ofnow,
capacitor
(27-38) a S
with no battery in the discharge
and resistance now vary withdttime?C loop, ! # 0.Thus,
b R cha
The differential dq equation q describing q(t) is like Eq. 27-32 except that now,
The differential
The solutionequation
with no battery in the
to
R this % describing
differential
discharge #loop,0 equation q(t) as
is in
# 0. Thus,
(discharging
!
charging case except
equation). (27-38) that, + term
C plat
with no battery in the discharge$t/RC dt C loop, = 0. Thus, –
dqq # qq0e (discharging a capacitor), (27-39) pote
The solution to this differential R %equation # 0is (discharging equation). (27-38) here
dt C libr
where q0 (# CV0) is the initial charge on the capacitor. You can verify by substitu- Fig. 27-15 When switch S is closed on
Charge
The solution
tionequation:
thatto Eq. this q # q e
differential
27-39
$t/RC
is 0indeed equation (discharging
a solution is a capacitor),
of Eq. 27-38. (27-39) a, the capacitor is charged through the re-
Equation 27-39 tells us that decreases
qthe exponentially with time, at a rate that sistor. When the switch is afterward closed kno
q (=
where0 qis0 (# CV ) is the initial
0 ) is the initial charge charge $t/RCon
on capacitor
the(discharging
capacitor.You (q )
maxcan verify by substitu-
set CVby0 the capacitive q # q0etime constant t # RC. At time t # t, the capacitor’s
a capacitor),
on b, the capacitor discharges through the
(27-39) acro
qthat
tion Eq. 27-39 is indeed a solution 3 =RC resistor. cha
decreases
charge hasexponentially
been reduced with
to q0time eof
$1 Eq. 27-38.
at about
, or a rate 37% of the initial value. Note that a
where Equation
At q0 (#
greater
time t 27-39
=tCVmeans )tells
3,0the a us
is the that qdischarge
initial
greater
capacitor’s decreases
charge
chargeon exponentially to q0ewith
the capacitor.
time.
reduced ortime,
-1,You canatverify
about a rateof
37% that
by substitu-
the initial value
istion
set that
by the Eq. capacitive
27-39 is indeed
Differentiating time constant
a solution
Eq. 27-39 gives ust # RC.
ofthe At
Eq.current time
27-38. i(t): t # t, the capacitor’s
Greater
charge has 3
been à greater
reduced discharge
to q e $1
, or
Equation 27-39 tells us0 that q decreases exponentiallytime
about 37% of the initial value. Note at
with time, that a that
a rate
greater
is set tby
Current
charge
meansthe acapacitive
equation:
Differentiating
has
greater discharge
been reduced
i#
Eq. 27-39
#$
gives
dt to ! "
dqtime constant
q0eusRC
time.
$1
q0
,the
or current
t # RC.
e $t/RC
about 37%
At timea capacitor).
(discharging t # t, the capacitor’s
i(t): of the initial value. Note that a
(27-40)
greater
i0 (= qt0means
/RC) isa initial
greatercurrentdischarge of the time.
capacitor, the minus sign means the current is decreasing (imax)
! "
This tells us that dq the current q also decreases exponentially with time, at a rate set
Differentiating Eq. 27-39 0 gives us the current i(t): (27-40)
by t. Thei exponentially eequal
$t/RC
i decreases #initial # $ with
current i is time to
at q
a(discharging
/RC.3 Note a capacitor).
that you can find i0 by simply
dt RC 0 0rate =RC
Toapplying the applying
loopdqrule to theqrulecircuit at t # 0; justatthen
t = the
0 capacitor’s initial poten-
Thisà
find i0 , we
tialusVthat
tells
capacitor’s
(q0initial
/C)/R #
i #current
0 is connected
the #! " loop
$ decreases
across
also
dt potential
initial
q0 /RC.
0 to$t/RC
RCV0 is connected
the circuit
e exponentially
the resistance R, so thewith
acrosscurrent
(discharging
thetime, must
at a be
a capacitor).
resistance #(27-40)
Ri0 set
rate V0 /R #
by t.à The current current
must be ii0 The
is
= V
minus
equal /R to
=
sign
q0 /RC.
(q
in Eq.
/C)/R Note =
27-40
qthat
/RC
can
you be canignored;
find i0 by it merely
simply means
applying that
This tells thethe
usloopcapacitor’s
that rule
0 charge
thetocurrent
the
0
circuit q at
also is decreasing.
0
t # 0; just then
decreases
0
the capacitor’s
exponentially withinitial
time,poten-
at a rate set
tial is connected
byVt.0 The initial current across the i0 isresistance
equal to R, so theNote
q0 /RC. currentthatmustyou be # V0i/R
cani0 find #
0 by simply
(qapplying
0 /C)/R Derivation
#theq0 /RC.
loopThe ofrule
Eq. to27-33
minus thesign in Eq.
circuit at 27-40
t # 0; can justbe thenignored; it merely means
the capacitor’s initial poten-
that the capacitor’s charge q is decreasing.
tial V0 is connected across the resistance R, so the current must be i0 # V0 /R #
To solve Eq. 27-32, we first rewrite it as
(q /C)/R # q /RC. The minus sign in Eq. 27-40 can be ignored; it merely means
d; that is, q ! 0 at t ! 0. 0 ! C ! " K, ing how to connect an ammeter (A) and a (I
voltmeter (V).
all soon
orshow
K ! that
#C !. theFinally,
solution to Eq.
with 27-32 isof qp, a, and K inserted, Eq. 27-42 becomes
the values th
q ! C ! # C !e #t/RC
, O
q ! C !(1 " e"t/RC ) (charging a capacitor). (27-33) po
which, with a slight modification, is Eq. 27-33.
the exponential base, 2.718 . . . , and not the elementary charge.) Note to
7-33 doesCHECKPOINT
indeed satisfy our5required initial condition, because at t ! 0 The capacitor’s charge de
e"t/RC
is The
unity; so the equation gives q ! 0. Note also that as t goes to grows1 as the resistor's
2 3 4 na
table gives four sets of values for the circuit elements in Fig.
hat is, a 27-15.
long time
Ranklater), the term e to (a)
"t/RC
goes
the to zero; so the(asequation current
the sets according initial current the ! (V) 12 dies out. 12 10 10
proper switch
value isfor theonfull
closed (equilibrium)
a) and charge on
(b) the time required thecurrent
for the capacitor
to — R ($)
! C !. Adecrease
plot of to
q(t) foritsthe
half charging
initial processfirst.
value, greatest is given in Fig. 27-16a.
C (mF)
2
3
3
2
10
0.5
5
2
2
erivative of q(t) is the current i(t) charging the capacitor: 12
C In
q (µC)
RC 8 6 6 5 10 va
i!
dq
dt
! ! "
! "t/RC
R
e (charging a capacitor). (27-34)
Sample Problem
/R 4 6 4 1 2
C
0 2 4 6 8 10
(t) for the charging process is givenDischarging
in Fig. 27-16b.an circuit
RCthat
Note to avoid a fire in a race car
the current pit stop
Time (ms)
T
itial value !/R and that it decreases to zero as the capacitor becomes cl
a) 1, 2, 4, then 3 (a)
ged. As a car rolls along pavement, electrons move from the a S
ca
b) Greater
pavement first3onto
à greater charge/discharge
the tires and then onto the timecar body. The
THRU
4, 1&this
car stores 2 tie ,thencharge
excess 3 and the associated electric po- b DRIVE R ch
citor that is being charged initially acts like ordinary connecting wire relative 6
/R te
tential energy as if the car body were one plate of a capacitor + WNFR ULTRA
i (mA)
arging current. A long time later, it acts like a broken wire. 6
RPM True Vales
MDOG 3N C pl
4 Bomman –
Schtuff
and the pavement were the other plate (Fig. 27-17a).When the ST P 4
MOTEL
XP3I
Tire po
car stops, it discharges its excess charge and energy through 2
Effective resistance he
mbiningtheEq. 25-1
tires, just(q
as ! CV ) andcan
a capacitor Eq.discharge
27-33, wethrough
find that the potential
a resistor. If
0 capacitance
Fig. 27-15 When switch S is closed on lib
VC(t) across the capacitor
a conducting duringwithin
object comes the charging process is of the car
a few centimeters (a) 2 4 6 8 10
Time (ms)a, the capacitor is charged through the re-
before the car is discharged, the remaining energy can be sistor. When the switch is afterward closed kn
q (b) on b, the capacitor discharges through the
suddenly
VC ! transferred
! !(1 " e "t/RCto a spark between the car and the
) (charging a capacitor). (27-35) ac
C
object. Suppose the conducting object is a fuel dispenser. The resistor. ch
Fig.
R tire27-16 R (a) A plot
C of Eq. 27-33, R tire
R tire C R
spark will not ignite the fuel and cause a fire if the spark which shows the
tire
buildup of charge on the
us that VC ! 0 at t ! 0 and that VC ! ! when the capacitor becomes (b) (c)
energy is less than the critical value Ufire ! 50 mJ. capacitor of Fig. 27-15. (b) A plot of Eq.
ged as t : $.
When the car of Fig. 27-17a stops at time t ! 0, the car – 27-34, which shows the decline of the
ground potential difference is V0 ! 30 kV. The car – ground charging current in the circuit of Fig. 27-
U
e Constant
capacitance is C ! 500 pF, and the resistance of each tire is 15. The curves are plotted for R ! 2000 %,
Rtire ! 100 G$. How much time does the car take to discharge C ! 1 mF, and ! ! 10 V; the small trian-
uct RC that appears in Eqs. 27-33, 27-34, and 27-35 has the dimensions gles represent successive intervals 100 GΩof one
Problems:
A capacitor of 4 4F initially uncharged is connected with a battery of 12 V and a 10 MΩ resistor.
Calculate the maximum charge on the capacitor and also the maximum current. What is the
capacitive time constant?
The maximum charge is q0 = CV = 4 × 12 = 484C
The maximum current is i0 = V/R= 12/10 = 1.2 4 A
The capacitive time constant 5 = RC = 10 ×106 × 4 × 10-6 = 40s

CH 27

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CH 27

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Physics 202

 The basic science of electrical engineering is physics

 Such device is called emf device

 Examples for emf devices:

 An emf device does not have to be an instrument

Work, Energy, and Emf

 The emf device has two terminals: i

 When an emf device is connected to a circuit

real batteries in Section Thus,

27-5 Other Single-Loop Circuits

In this section we extend

or j"1 Req " R1i # " R2 # R !!3. .

first. Note that when

To 27-6 Potential Difference Between Two Points

ow substituting Potential Difference Across a Real Battery

The emfs and resistances

This This rule

equation. Equation 27-18 thus suggests acuit simply

The potential difference across R2 is thus also 3.6 V (Fig.

m.istances. outgoing 2 and i3 are related by c c

ples, video, and practice available at WileyPLUS

The Ammeter and the Voltmeter Additio

 Ammeter: an instrument used to measure currents

The resistors 2 and 3 are in series, à R23 = 8 + 2 = 10 Ω. R2 =8 Ω R3 =2 Ω

R123 in series with the rest à R12345The

Thus the total resistance is Req =117× 45/(117+ 45)= 32.5 Ω

The equivalent resistance of the upper side is

Hence i through the 17.2 Ω resistor: i = V/R = 10.35/17.2 = 0.602 A

 We want to examine the charging process: to know

The maximum charge is q0 = CV = 4 × 12 = 484C

The maximum current is i0 = V/R= 12/10 = 1.2 4 A

The capacitive time constant 5 = RC = 10 ×106 × 4 × 10-6 = 40s

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The basic science of electrical engineering is physics

Such device is called emf device

Examples for emf devices:

An emf device does not have to be an instrument

The emf device has two terminals: i

When an emf device is connected to a circuit

Ammeter: an instrument used to measure currents

We want to examine the charging process: to know