MODULAR

INSTRUCTION
FOR ELECTRIC
CIRCUITS 1
(PEE1-M)
 MODULE 1
ELECTRIC CIRCUIT 1(PEE1-M)
Contents:
• Overview of Electric Circuit 1(PEE1-M)
• TOPICS
Topic 1 – Important Electrical Circuit Terms and Concepts
Topic 2 – Resistance
Topic 3 – Series and Parallel DC Circuits
Topic 4 – DC Circuit Analysis
Topic 5 – DC Equivalent Circuits, Network Theorems, and Bridge Circuits
Topic 6 – DC Transients
• REFERENCES

OVERVIEW OF ELECTRIC CIRCUIT 1 (PEE1-M)

This course begins with an introduction to Important Electric Circuit Terms and
Concepts and then followed by topics on Basic Circuit Analysis such as Mesh, Loop,
and Nodal analysis of DC circuits. Intermediary to the course are topics about Network
Theorems to include topics about: Equivalent Circuits, Thevenin’s and Norton Theorems,
Millman’s Theorem, SuperposItion Theorem, Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, -to-Y
and Y-to- Transformation, and Bridge Circuits. Lastly the course deals with topics about
DC Transients to include RL, RC, and RLC DC Transients.
 TOPIC 1: IMPORTANT
ELECTRIC
CIRCUIT TERMS AND
CONCEPTS

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 Week – 1 – Topic 1-Important Electric Circuit Terms and Concepts

Digit Grouping is the process of separating digits into groups of three.

Example:
207 305.071 897

Note: No separation is necessary, however for four digits.

Power-of-ten Notation is the use of the number 10 as base for writing numbers with
leading or trailing zeros.

Note:
1. The power-of-ten notation with values greater than 1 has an exponent equal to the
number of zeros.
2. The power-of-ten notation with values less than 1 has an exponent equal to the negative
number of zeros including the zero to the left of the decimal point.

Scientific Notation is the power-of-ten notation with one non-zero digit to the left of the
decimal point.
Example:

International System (SI) is the international measurement language.

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 SI has nine base units:

METRIC PREFIXES

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 Example: Given that a cubic meter of copper wire has 8.5 x 1028 free electrons. Find the number
of free electrons in 1000 ft. of # 12 AWG(American Wire Gauge) copper wire. The wire has a
diameter of ( A mil i s one t hou sandth of an inch.)

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 Electric Current results from the movement of electric charges.

The SI unit of current is the ampere (A).

The quantity symbol is I for a constant current and i for a time-varying current.

2 TYPES OF CURRENT

1. DC Current is contant current that flows in one direction all the time.

I(A) Its jump is to its final value

DC current has the

ability to “jump” t(s)

Note: The term “jump” is a change from one value to another in zero time.

2. AC Current varies sinusoidally with time.

ima i(
A)
x

-
ima
x

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 In general

Where
I is the current in amperes (A)

Q is the charge in coulombs(C)

t is the time in seconds (s)

So that, from the above formula, we have the conversion factor

Current source is an electrical device that cause a specified amount of current

to flow from it.

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

Voltage (also called potential difference) between two points is the work in
joules required to move 1 C of charge from one point to another.

In general

So that

1 V = 1 J/C

The SI unit of voltage is the volt (V).

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 Example: Find th) current flow through a light bulb from a steady movement of
22
(a) 60 C in 4s. (b) 15 C in 2 min, and (c) 10 electrons in 1 h.

Given:

Required: I = ?
Solution:

(a) I = ?

Since

(b) I = ?

(c) I = ?

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 Note:

1. Current has an “associated direction”. The direction of the current flow is in the
direction of the positive charge movement and against the direction of the negative
charge movement.
2. The arrow specifies the direction of the current flow but not necessarily the
actual flow. If after calculation, I is found positive, the actual current flow is in the
direction of the arrow. It is negative it is in the opposite direction.

Energy is the capacity to do work and one of its form is the potential energy which is
the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position.

Example: How much chemical energy must a 12 V car battery spend in moving
20
8.93 x 10 e from its positive to its negative terminal.

Given:

Required: CE = ?

Example: Find the potential energy in joules gained by a 180 lb man in climbing a 6 ft
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 Given:

Required: PE = ?
Solution:

Hence

Power (P) is the rate at which something either absorbs or produces energy. It is also
the time rate of doing work:

So that

1 W = 1J/s

The SI unit of power is the watt (W).

The quantity symbol is P for a constant power and p for a time-varying power.

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 Note:
1. A source of energy delivers or produces power while a load absorbs it.

2. The power absorbed by an electrical component is simply the product

of the voltage and the current:

3. If the calculate power is positive, using the formula, the component

actually absorbed power. If it is negative, the component delivers power.

4. The power output rating of motor is usually expressed in power unit

called the “horsepower” though it is not an SI unit of power. The relation
between horsepower and watt is given by

Efficiency ()

For the sytem

The efficiency of motors and other systems is given by

Note: Efficiency can be based as work output over work input. In

calculation efficiency is usually expressed in decimal fraction, that is,
percentage divided by 100.

Efficiency of Cascaded Systems

For the cascaded system, that is

The efficiency of cascaded system is simply the product of the individual efficiencies:

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 Example: Find the current drawn from a 145 V line by a DC motor that delivers 1 hp.
Assume 100% efficiency of operation.

Given:

Required: Iin = ?

Since

Example: What horsepower must an electric motor develop to pump water up 40 ft

at the rate of 2000 gallons per hour (gal / hr) if the pumping system operates at
80 % efficiency. (1 gal of water weighs 8.33 lb, and that 1 hp = 550 ft-lb / s)
Given:

Since

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 Electric Energy (E) is the product of the electric power input or output and the time over
which this input and output power occurs:

Example: If electric energy cost 6 cents per kilowatthour, calculate the utility bill for one
month for operating eight 100-W light bulbs for 50 h each, ten 60-W light bulbs 70 h
each, one 2-kW air conditioner for 80 h, one 3 kW range for 45 h, one 420-W color TV
set for 180 h, and one 300-W refrigerator for 75 h.
Given:

Required: C = ?
Solution:

Since

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 TOPIC 2: RESISTANCE

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 Week – 2 & 3 – Topic 2-Resistance

Resistance is that property of a material that opposes or resists the flow of electrons and
makes it necessary to apply a voltage to cause current to flow.

Resistor is a circuit component that is used because of its resistance.

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

The SI unit of resistance is the ohm ().

The quantity symbol for resistance is R.

OHM’S LAW

In metallic and other types of conductors, the current is proportional to the applied voltage:

I  V or V  I

To establish the equality relationship out of the proportionality relationship, we have

V = IR OHM’S LAW

(Resistance Concept)

where R is the constant of proportionality

Resistivity ()

For a conductor of uniform cross section(see Figure 1), we have

l
R
A
To establish the equality relationship, we have
l
R=
A

Where

R is the resistance of the conductor in ohm()

 is the constant of proportionality of resistance in ohm-meter ( m)

l is the length of the conductor in meters (m)

and

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 A is the cross sectional area of the conductor in meters squared (m2)

Table 1 (Table of Resistivity) MATERIALS

MATERIALS Resitivity( m) at 20

Silver 1.64 x 10-8

Copper(annealed) 1.72 x 10-8

Aluminum 2.83 x 10-8 Good Conductor

Iron 12. 3 x 10-8

Constantan 49.0 x 10-8

Nichrome 100 x 10-8

Silicon 2500 Semiconductor

Paper 1010

Mica 5 x 1010 Insulator

Quartz 1017

Example: If an oven has a 240 V heating element with a resistance of 24 . What is the
minimum rating of a fuse that can be used in the lines to the heating element.

Given:

Note: The minimum rating of the fuse is

the value of the current flowing though the
240 V series circuit.

Required: Irating= ? = I

Solution:

Using Ohm’s Law, we have

V = IR
So that
𝑽 𝟐𝟒𝟎
I=𝑹= 𝟐𝟒

I = 10A
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 Example: The resistance of a certain wire is 15 . Another wire of the same material and
the same temperature has a diameter one-third as great and a length twice as great. Find
the resistance of the second wire.

Given:

Note:
d2= 1/3 d1
l2= 2 l1

Required: R2= ?

Solution:

Since And Then

 =  R2 = 270 
𝑰
R=𝑨 2
𝑹𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑨𝟐 𝑹𝟏 (𝝅𝒅𝟏 /𝟒)𝑰𝟐
= 𝑹𝟐 = 2
𝑰𝟏 𝑰𝟐 (𝝅𝒅𝟐 /𝟒)𝑰𝟏
So that
𝑹𝟏 𝑨𝟏 𝑰𝟐 2
𝑹𝟐 =
2
𝑹𝟏 𝒅 𝟏 𝑰 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝒅𝟏 (𝟐𝑰𝟏)
𝐑𝐀 𝑨𝟐 𝑰𝟏 𝑹𝟐 = =
=
2 2
𝒅𝟐2 𝑰𝟏 (𝟏/𝟑)𝒅𝟏 𝑰𝟏
𝑰
𝑅2 = 18𝑅1 = 18(15)
1 = 2

Conductance is that property of a material that aids the flow of electrons. It is also the
reciprocal of resistance(G = 1 / R).

The quantity symbol for conductance is G.

The SI unit of conductance is the siemens (S)

Conductivity ()

For a conductor of uniform cross section(see Figure 2), we have

𝑨
G
𝑰

To establish the equality relationship, we have

𝑨
G=
𝑰

Where

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  is the constant of proportionality of conductance in siemens per meter (S / m or S
m-1)

OHM’S LAW (Conductance Concept)

Since
𝟏 𝟏
G= = 𝑽
𝑹
𝑰

I = GV Ohm’s Law (Conductance concept)

TEMPERATURE EFFECT

The resistance of most good conducting material increases almost linearly over the range
of normal operating temperature.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT (continuation)

If we let the linear portion of the resistance vs temperature to extend to the temperature
axis, it will intersect the temperature axis at temperature T0, called the “inferred zero
resistance temperature”. The actual zero resistance temperature is at -273C.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT (continuation)

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 If we consider a point on the linear portion of the curve(R vs T)and extend a line normal
to the resistance axis, this line will intersect the resistance axis at point R1. Using the
same point on the curve, If we drop a line normal to the temperature axis, it will intersect
the temperature axis at point T1.

If we want to know the resistance of a material at a certain point on the linear portion of
the curve, R2, at a known temperature T2, we simply perform the same process by
extending a line from this point normal to the resistance axis, and we let the point of
intersection to be R2. Afterwards we drop a line normal to the temperature axis, and we
let the point of intersection to be T2.

TEMPERATURE EFFECT (continuation)

To be able to find R2, we use theorem on similar triangles, that is

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐
=
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎
Then
𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎
R2 = R1 1
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎

TEMPERATURE EFFECT (continuation)

Also, using theorem on similar triangles using the two small triangles, we have

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 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 − 𝑹𝟏
=
𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟎 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏

So that And
𝑻 −𝑻 𝑻 −𝑻
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹 𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + (𝟏 + 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )
𝟏 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎

Then
𝟏
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝟎 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )] 2 𝟎 = 𝑻 − 𝑻𝟎
𝟏

Where  is the temperature coefficient of

Table 2 resistance at temperature T0
𝟏
= 𝐂−𝟏 =
𝐂
𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆

2 Where

𝟎 is the temperature coefficient of resistance at temperature T 0

Example: Find the conductance of 100 ft No. 14 AWG iron wire which has a diameter of
64 mils. The temperature is at 20C.

Given:

but
=
1=1/S

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 Required: G=?

Solution:

Since

𝐴 𝐴 𝜋𝑑2 (64)2mil2 (1 in2 / 10002mil2)(2.54)2 cm2 / 1 in2 )(1m2 / 1002 cm2 )

G= = I = =
𝐼 4 𝐼 4(12.3 x 10−8 m)(100 ft)(1 m / 3.28 ft)(1/S / 1)

G = 0.55345 S

Example: The resistance of a certain copper power line is 100  at 20C. What is the
resistance when the sun heats the line up to 38C.

Given:

R1 = 100  at T1= 20C

R2 = ? at T2= 38C

Required: R2 = ?

Solution:

Using 1 , we have Using 2 , we have

𝑻 −𝑻 38 − (−234.5)
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎 = 100 𝟐𝟎 − (−𝟐𝟑𝟒.𝟓) 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝟎 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )]
𝟏 𝟎
𝑹𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎 [𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑 (𝟑𝟖 − 𝟐𝟎)]
𝑅2 = 107.07269 Ω
R2 = 107.074 

Example: A certain energized copper transformer has a resistance of 30  at 20C under

rated operation, however, the resistance increases to 35 . Find the temperature of the
energized winding.

Given:

R1 = 30  at T1= 20C R2 = 35  at T2= ?

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 Required: R2 = ?

Solution:

Using 1 , we have Using 2 , we have

𝑻 −𝑻
𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟎 ; 𝑻𝟐 =
𝑹𝟐 (𝑻𝟏 −𝑻𝟎 )+𝑻𝟎 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏 [𝟏 + 𝟎 (𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )]
𝟏 𝟎 𝑹𝟏
35(20 – (−234.5) 𝑹𝟐
= + (-234.5) 𝑹𝟏
−𝟏 𝟑𝟓/𝟑𝟎−𝟏
30
𝑹𝟐 = + 𝑻𝟏 = + 𝟐𝟎
𝟎 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟗𝟑
T2 = 62.4167
T2 = 62.4088C
COLOR CODING

The most popular resistance color coding has a nominal resistance value and tolerance
indicated by the color of either three and four bands.

Nominal Resistance Value refers to the manufacturer’s print resistance value on the
resistor casing either in numerical form or color coding.

25  5

R = 47 k  5%
R = 25  5 watts

Tolerance is the percentage variation of resistance about the nominal value.

NOTE:

1. Each color has corresponding numerical value as shown in Table 3.

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 Table 3

COLOR VALUE

Black 0

Brown 1

Red 2

Orange 3

Yellow 4

Green 5

Blue 6

Violet 7

Gray 8

White 9

Gold 0.1

Silver 0.01

2. The color of the first and second band refers to the first and second digit of the
nominal resistance value.

3. Because the first digit is never zero, the first band is never black.

4. The color of the third band refers to the number of zeros that follows the first two digits
of the nominal resistance value.

Hence, the resistance can be read as

R = 47 000  or
R = 47 k
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 5. A third band of gold corresponds to a multiplier of 10-1 and a third band of silver
corresponds to a multiplier of 10-2.

R = 4.7 

Gold = 0.1
6. The fourth band indicates the tolerance and is either gold or silver-colored or missing.
Gold corresponds to a tolerance of 5%, silver to 10% and a missing color to 20%.

R = 4.7  + 5%
Example: A 12.1 mA current flows through a 10 percent, 2.7 k resistor. What must the
resistor voltage be in ?

Given:
I = 12.1 mA

2.7 k  10%
Rmin = 2.43 k

Rmax = 2.97 k

Required: Vmin= ? And Vmax= ?

Solution:

Using Ohm’s Law, we have Likewise

Vmax = IRmax
Vmin = IRmin

Vmin = (12.1)(2.43) Vmin = (12.1)(2.97)

Vmin = 29.403 V Vmin = 35.9373 V

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 Example: What is the maximum current that 1 W, 56 k resistor can safely conduct?

Given:
P=1W +

56 k
V
I =?

Given:

Solution:

Since Likewise
I = 4.23 mA
P = I2 R

So that

I = P / R = 1 / 56 X 103

OPEN CIRCUIT has infinite resistance which simply means that it has zero current flowing
through it but with a finite value of voltage across it.
I = 0A
+ –
V (finite value)

SHORT CIRCUIT has zero voltage across it but with a finite value of current flowing
through it.
I (finite value)
+ –
V=0V

Internal Resistance

Every practical voltage or current source has an internal resistance that adversely affects
its operation.

RINT

V I RINT

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 Practical Voltage Source Practical Current Source
Note:

1. Except for an open circuit load, a voltage source have a loss of voltage across its
internal resistance.
I=0 VINT = 0(Rint) = 0 V(short circuit)

RINT +

Vout = V(source voltage)

V

–
Open Circuit Load

I (finite value) VINT (finite value)

+ –
There is a loss of
RINT +
voltage across Rint

–
With A Load

Note:

2. Except for a short circuit load, a current source has a loss of current through its internal
resistance.

There is a loss of
+ current through Rint
RINT
I VINT

–
IINT

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 Open Circuit Load

Almost all the current

+ flows through the
short circuit wire that
RINT should be avoided.
I VINT

–
IINT

Short Circuit Load

Example: A ½ hp automobile electric starter motor operates at 85 % efficient from a 12

V battery. What is the battery internal resistance if the battery terminal voltage drops to
10.5 V when energizing the starter motor?

Given:
Vint = (0) Rint = 0V

𝑉𝑆 = 12V R int

V = 12 V

𝑰 = 𝑰𝒊𝒏𝒕
+ 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑡 +
𝑉𝑆 = 12V Rint + 𝑷𝒊𝒏 = 𝑽𝑰

V = 10.4V
𝜂 = 0.85
1
I Pout = 𝟤 hp

b -
Solving for 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 , we have (Ohms’s Law)
Required: 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑡 = ? Vint Vint
Rint = = 1
Solution: Iint I

Using KVL, we have

12 - Vint – 10.5 = 0

Vint − 1.5 V

Example: A ½ hp automobile electric starter motor operates at 85 % efficient from a 12

V battery. What is the battery internal resistance if the battery terminal voltage drops to
10.5 V when energizing the starter motor?

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 Solution:

But Using 1 & 2 we have

1Ω
Pout pout v
η Vint (0.85)(10.5 V)(1.5 V)
η= = Rint = =
Pin I pout 1 745.7W 1 V A
(𝟤 hp) ( 1hp ) ( 1W )
Pout
I= 2
ηv Rint = 0.036 Ω

Example: A short circuit across a current source draws 20 A. When the current source
has an open circuit across it, the terminal voltage is 600 V. Find the internal resistance of
the source.

Given:
+
I = 20 A Isc = 20 A I = 20 A V = 600 V
𝑅𝑚𝑡
-

Required: 𝑅𝑚𝑡 = ?

Solution:

Using Ohm’s Law, we have

Vmt 600
Rmt = =
Imt 20

Then

Rmt = 30 Ω

2 Types of Resistors

1. Linear resistor is a resistor that follows Ohm’s Law with a voltage and current relation
given by
V = IR
SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

2. Non-linear resistor is a resistor that does not obey Ohm’s Law and with a voltage and
current relation may be given by
2
V = 4I + 7
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 SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

Example: At 20C, a PN junction silicon diode has a current voltage relation of I = 10 -14
(e40V – 1). What is the diode voltage when the current is 50 mA.

Given:

RINT RINT

+
V Non-linear
resistor
– –
I = 50 mA I = 50 mA

Required: V = diode voltage = ?

Solution:

Since

I = 10-14 (e40V – 1) = 50 x 10-3

Resistor Power Absorption

Since Using 1 and 4 we have

P=VI 1
P = V (V / R)
2
P=V /R 5
But

V = IR 2

Using 1 and 2 we have

P = (IR)I
2
P=I R 3
And
I=V/R 4

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 TOPIC 3: SERIES AND PARALLEL
DC CIRCUITS

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 Week –3–TOPIC 3: SERIES AND PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

SERIES AND PARALLEL DC CIRCUITS

Branch of a circuit is any component such as a resistor or battery.
Examples

Node is a connection of two or more branches.

Examples

NOTE: If a short circuit connects two nodes, these nodes are considered to
be as just one node.

Examples: Determine the number of nodes and branches for the circuit below.

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 Loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Mesh is a loop that does not have any closed path or components in its interior.
Examples: Determine the number of loops and meshes of the circuit below.

# of Meshes: 3
# of Loops: 7

Series circuit is the interconnection of different circuit elements such that there is
only one current flowing through the different components of a series circuit.

Parallel circuit is the interconnection of different circuit elements such that there
is only one voltage across the different components of a parallel circuit.

V=V =V =V
1 2 3

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 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law(KVL) states that the algebraic sum of the voltage drops
and voltage rises is zero.

THREE VERSIONS:
1.The summation of the voltage drops in a series circuit is zero.
2.The summation of the voltage rises in a series circuit is zero.
3.The summation of the voltage drops and voltage rises in a
series circuit is zero.

Using KVL, we have

Example: Find the unknown voltages in the circuit below.

Given:

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF A SERIES CIRCUIT

Using KVL, we have

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 By Ohm’s Law, we have

Voltage Division is the fastest method of getting the voltage across any component of
a series circuit.

Derivation:

For the series circuit below

Using Ohm’s Law, we have

V1 = R1I1=R1I

But
V
I= R
T

And

RT= R1 + R2+R3

Hence

V1 = R1 V
RT

Likewise

V V3 = R3 V
V2 = R2
RT RT

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 KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW(KCL)

Three Versions:
1. The summation of the currents entering a given node or closed surface is zero.
2. The summation of the currents leaving a given node or closed surface is zero.
3. The summation of the currents entering and leaving a given node or closed surface is
zero.

By KCL, we have
I1 – I2 – I3 KCL
Equation

TOTAL RESISTANCE OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT

By KCL(at node X), we have

I – I1 – I2 – I3 =0

I = I1 I2 + I3
By Ohm’s Law, we have
V / RT = V1 / RT + V2 / R2 + V3 / R3
So that

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 1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

1
RT =
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

Examples: Find the unknown currents in the circuit below.

Given:

Required: I1 = ?, I2 = ?, I3 = ?
Solution:

By applying KCL(at node X), we have

10 + 8 – I2 =0

I2 = 18 A

By applying KCL(at node Z), we have

I2 – 9 – I1 = 0

I1 = 9 A

To check:
By applying KCL(at node W), we have
I1 – 10 + I 1 = 0
3

I1 = 9 A

By applying KCL(at closed surface V), we have

10 + 8 – 9 – I1 = 0
I1 = 9 A

By applying KCL(at node Y), we have

9– 8 – I3 = 0

I3 = 1 A

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 Current Division is the fastest method of getting the current flowing through any
component of a parallel circuit
Derivation:
For the series circuit below

Using Ohm’s Law(conductance concept), we have

I1 = G1V1 = G1V
But GT = G1 + G2 + G3
I And
V =
GT
Hence

I1 = G 1 I
GT

Likewise

I2 = G 2 I
GT

And

I3 = G 3 I
GT

Given:

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 Required: I1 = ?, I2 = ? and I3 =?

Solution:
Using current division, we have
I 15
I1 = G1 = 2
GT 11

Then

I1 = 2.7272 A

Likewise
I 15
I2 = G2 = 4
GT 11

I2 = 5.4545 A

And
I3 = G3 15
GT = 5
11

I3 = 6.8181 A

Given:

Required: I1 (double CDR) = ?

Solution: Using the first CDR, we have

8

36A
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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin
4
 20
I1 = 20+5 𝐈𝟐 8CDR
First

36A
20

6 5

8
I2 = 8+10 36

I2 = 16A

Then
20
I1 = 25 16

I1 = 12.8𝐴

Example: Solve for the mesh currents in the circuit below.

2k

20V 4k
I II
18V 24V

Required: I1 = ? , & I2 = ?
Solution: Using mesh analysis via self-resistance/mutual resistance concept, we have
(2+9)I1 – 4I2 = 20 + 18 1
-4I1 + (4+7)I2 = -18 – 24 2

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 Then
I1 = 5mA

I2 = -2mA

III
4k 8k I3

100V 6k
I II
176V 112V
2k I1 I2

Required: I1 = ? , I2 = ? , & I3 = ?
Solution: Using mesh analysis, we have
12I1 – 6I2 – 4I3 = -76 1
-6I1 + 14I2 – 8I3 = 64 2
-4I1 – 8I2 + 22I3 = 48 3

Then I1 = -2mA I3 = 4mA

I2 = 6mA

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 MESH ANALYSIS
Note:

1. Preferably all current sources are converted to voltage sources and

all admittances are converted to impedances.
2. Clockwise referenced currents are used in every mesh.
3. Finally KVL is applied to each mesh.
Derivation:
For the two-mesh network, using KVL, we have.

Using KVL, we have

(V1 − VZ1 − VZ2 + V2 = 0)(−1)

𝑉𝑍1 + 𝑉𝑍2 + 𝑉𝑍3 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2

I1 Z1 + I1 Z2 + (I1 − I3 ) Z3 = V1 + V2
( 𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍1 ) 𝐼1 −𝑍3 𝐼2 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝐌𝐞𝐬𝐡 𝐄𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝟏

Self-Impedance of Mesh I Mutual Impedance of Mesh I & Mesh II

I1 𝐼2

Using mesh analysis via self impedance/mutual impedance concept, we have

-Z3 I1 + (Z3 + Z4 + Z5 ) I2 = −V2 − V3
2

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 MESH ANALYSIS

By applying KVL, mesh I, we have.

Using self-resistance/mutual resistance concept,

we have (using mesh I)

Again, by using self-resistance/mutual resistance.

concept, we have (using mesh II)

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 Example: Solve for the mesh currents in the circuit below.

Required: I1 = ? , & I2 = ?
Solution:
Using mesh analysis via self-resistance/mutual resistance concept, we have
(2+9)I1 – 4I2 = 20 + 18
-4I1+ (4+7) I2 = -18 – 24
Then
I1 = 5mA
I2 = -2mA

Required: I1 = ? , I2 = ? , & I3 = ?
Solution: Using mesh analysis, we have

Then

I1 = -2mA

I2 = 6mA

I3 = 4mA

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 LOOP ANALYSIS
Note:
1. Loop Analysis is similar to mesh analysis, the principal difference being the current’s path selected
are loops that are not necessarily meshes.
2. Also, there is no convention on the direction of loop currents; they can be clockwise or
counterclockwise, as a result, mutual terms can be positive when KVL is applied to the loop.

Example: Use loop analysis to solve for the current to the right through the 5 resistor in the circuit
below.

Given:

Required: I5k = ?
Solution: Using mesh analysis, we have

Then

Using KCL, we have (using node X)

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 Using loop analysis via self-resistance/mutual resistance, we have

Example: Use loop analysis to find I in the circuit below.

Required: I = ?
Since

Then

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 Nodal Analysis

Note:
1.Preferably all voltage sources are converted to current sources and all impedances are
converted to admittances.
2. KCl is applied to all nodes except for the ground node. Almost always the bottom node
is selected as the ground.
node even though any node can be.
3. Conventionally, voltages on all other nodes are referenced positive with respect to the
ground node.
4. Finally, KCL is applied to each nonrounded node, one at a time.

Example: Solve for the nodal voltages in the circuit below.

Given:

Solution:
Using nodal analysis via self-conductance/mutual conductance concept, we have.

Then

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 Dependent Source or Controlled Source produces a voltage or current that depends.
on a voltage or current elsewhere in a circuit.

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 Example: Find V for the circuit below.
Given:

Required V=?
Solution:
Using Ohm’s Law, we have.
𝑉 = 40000 𝐼𝐶 1
But
−60000(20𝐼)
𝐼𝑐 = 2
100000
And
2−0.005𝑉
𝐼= 3
15733

Using 2 and 3, we have.

2 − 0.005𝑉
(60000)(20) ( )
𝑉 = 40000 ( 15733 )
100000

𝑉 = −72 𝑉

Example: Find for I1 for the circuit below.

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 Given:

Required: I1 = ?
Solution:
Using loop analysis, we have

So that

Then

Example: Find V1 for the circuit below.

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 Example: The figure below shows a transistor with a bias circuit. If IC = 50 IB
VBE = 0.7 V and find VCE ?

Given:

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 Required: 𝑉𝐶𝐸 =?
Solution:

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 TOPIC 5: DC EQUIVALENT
CIRCUITS, NETWORK THEOREMS,
AND BRIDGE CIRCUITS

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 Week – 9 & 10 – Topic 5-DC Equivalent Circuits, Network Theorems, and

Bridge Circuits.

AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS, NETWORK THEOREMS AND BRIDGE CIRCUITS

NETWORK THEOREMS

Entire Network
A b
B

Thevenin’s Theorem
Thevenin’s Voltage(𝐕𝑇ℎ ) is the open circuit voltage measured across the open circuit terminals,
a and b, of A.

a
+ 𝐙𝐓𝐡

A 𝐕𝐓𝐡
-
b

Thevenin’s Impedance(𝐙 𝑇ℎ ) is the open circuit voltage measured across the open circuit
terminals, a and b, of A.

A b
B
DC EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS, NETWORK THEOREMS AND BRIDGE CIRCUITS
THREE METHODS OF GETTING RTh
1. Killing all Independent Sources

ZTh = (Z1 + Z2) // Z3 + Z4

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 2. By applying a short circuit across the open circuit terminals of A and getting the value of
the short circuit current, 𝐈𝐬𝐜

VTh
ZTh =
I𝑠𝑐

3. When the circuit to contain dependent sources, we connect1 A current source and
1 V voltage source

Vout = I RTh = (1) RTh

RTh = Vout

Norton’s Theorem
Norton’s current(𝐈𝐍 ) is the short circuit current flowing through terminals, a and b, of A. with
terminals a and b short circuited.

Norton’s Impedance(𝐙𝐍 ) is the same as the Thevenin’s Impedance.

Hence :

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 Example: what resistor draws a current od 5A, when connected across terminals a & b of
the circuit below

Given: 6Ω a

100V 20Ω R

b
Required:
Solution:

RTh
a
IR = 5A

A R B

So that (using Ohm’s Law) Solving for RTh, we have

VTh
5=R 5Ω 6Ω
Th
+𝑅 a
VTh − 5RTh
R= RTh
5
80− 5(10) 100V 20Ω
R= 5
b
R = 6Ω

Solving for VTh, we have

Hence
5Ω 6Ω a
RTh = 6 + 20//5
RTh = 10Ω
VTh
100V 20Ω

Using KVL, we have Solving for V20Ω , we have

V20 − V6Ω − VTh = 0 (80)(100)
V20Ω =
VTh = V20 − V6Ω 20+5
VTh = V20 V20Ω = 80V

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 To check (Norton’s Theorem)

Using CDR, we have

𝑅 𝐼
5 = 𝑅 𝑁+𝑅
𝑁
𝑁

𝑅𝑁 𝐼𝑁 −5𝑅𝑁
R= 5

Then
(10)(8)−5(10)
R= 5

R= 6Ω

Solving for 𝑰𝑵 , 𝐰𝐞 𝐡𝐚𝐯𝐞

Using Mesh Analysis, we have

25 𝐼1 − 20𝐼𝑁 = 100
-20 𝐼1 20𝐼𝑁 = 0

Then
𝐼𝑁 = 8 A

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 THEVENIN’S AND NORTON’S THEOREM
Example: If in the circuit below the load is a resistor with a resistance R, What value of R
causes a 0.1 A RMS current to flow through the load?
Given : 6Ω −j4Ω a
0.1A
+ 1∠30°𝐴 A 𝐵
j8Ω 𝑅
-

Required : R = ?
Solution :
Using Thevenin’s Theorem, we have
𝐙𝐓𝐡 a

+ 0.1A 𝐵
𝑍
𝐕𝐓𝐡
-
A 𝑅 𝑋
𝜃
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇ℎ
b
Using Ohm’s Law, we have
VTh
0.1 =
√(R + RTh )2 + x 2
Solving for VTh, we have
a
6Ω −j4Ω
+
+
1∠30°𝐴 A
j8Ω 𝐕𝐓𝐡
-
b-

Vj8 − V−j4 − VTh = 0

0
𝑉𝑇ℎ = Vj8 − V−j4 = 𝑉𝑗8 − (0)(X0 )

VTh = 𝑉𝑗8

Using VD/VDR, we have

(𝑗8)(1∠30°)
VTh = 𝑉𝑗8 =
6+𝑗8

VTh = 0.8∠66.87°𝑉

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 Solving for ZTh , we have a
6Ω −j4Ω

+ 1∠30°𝑉
A j8Ω 𝐙𝐓𝐡
-
b

(6)(𝑗8)
ZTh = 6//j8 – j4 =
6+𝑗8

ZTh = 3.84 − j1.12 = 4∠ − 16.26°

Then :
VTh
0.1 =
√(R + R Th )2 + x 2

Using Norton’s Theorem, we have

a

A 0.1A 𝐵
𝐈𝐍 𝐙𝐍 = 𝐙𝐓𝐡 𝑅

Using CD//CDR, we have

4(0.2)
(0.1 = )2
2
√(R + R Th ) + x 2
𝑍
4(0.2) 𝑋
0.1 =
√(3.84 + R)2 + 1.122
R = 4.08
𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑅

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 Example: Using Thevenin’s or Norton's Theorem, find I in the bridge circuit shown in Fig. 14-11
if IS = 0A.
Given :

Required : R = ?
Solution :

Using Thevenin’s Theorem, we have

3Ω −j4Ω
IS

120∠30°𝑉 𝐵
A a 2Ω j3Ω b

j5Ω 4Ω

So That :
𝐙𝐓𝐡

I
2Ω
𝐕𝐓𝐡

VTh
I=
ZTh + 2 + 3
Solving for VTh , we have

3Ω + + −j4Ω
𝐕𝟑𝜴 𝐕−j4
120∠30°𝑉 - -
A 𝐕𝐓𝐡
a
+ +
𝐕4𝜴
j5Ω - - 4Ω

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 Using KVL, we have
VTh + 𝑉3𝛺 − 𝑉−𝑗4 = 0

VTh = 𝑉−𝑗4 −𝑉3𝛺 = 84.85∠ − 15° − 61.71 ∠ − 29.04

Using VD/VDR, we have

(−𝑗4)(120∠30°)
𝑉−𝑗4 = ; 𝑉−𝑗4 = 84.85∠ − 15°
4−𝑗4

(3)(120∠30°)
𝑉3𝛺 = ; 𝑉3𝛺 = 61.71 ∠ − 29.04 °
3+𝑗5
Then :

VTh = 29.10∠15.97°

Solving for IN , we have

3Ω −j4Ω
I
120∠30°𝑉 III IN

+
j5Ω I 4Ω
3

I2
ZTh = 3 // j5 + 4//-j4
ZTh = 4.26∠ − 9.14

Using Loop Analysis, we have

(3 − j4 )IN − (3 − 𝑗4)I2 + 3I3 = 0

−3 + j4 IN + (7 + 𝑗1)I2 − (3+ j5)I3 = 0

3IN + (−3 − 𝑗5)I2 + (3 + 𝑗5)I3 = 120∠30°

Using Cramer’s rule, we have

0 −3 + j4 3 0 −3 + j4
0 7 + 𝑗1 −3 − 𝑗5 0 7 + 𝑗1
−3 − 𝑗5 3 + 𝑗5 120∠30°𝑉 −3 − 𝑗5
120∠30°𝑉
3 − j4 −3 + j4 3 3 − j4 −3 + j4
−3 + j4 7 + 𝑗1 −3 − 𝑗5 −3 + j4 7 + 𝑗1
3 −3 − 𝑗5 3 + 𝑗5 30 −3 − 𝑗5

906∠30
=
380.13∠10.30 − 240.61∠13.46

IN = 6.83∠25.116

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 Millman’s Theorem is a method of reducing a circuit by combining parallel voltage
Sources to a single voltage source. It is a special case of the application of
the Thevenin’s Theorem.
That is

Where
…
I = I1 + I2 + I 3 + + In
… Rm
GT= G1 + G2 + G3 + + Gn

Then Vm

…
I1 + I2 + I3 + + In
Vm =
GT

1
Rm =
1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 1/Rn

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 Example: Use Millman’s theorem to find the current drawn by a 5  resistor from
four batteries operating in . The battery open-circuit voltages and internal resistances
are18 V and 1 , 20 V and 2 , 22 V and 5 , and 24 V and 4 .
Given: I5

1 2 5 4

B
A 5
18 V 20 V 24 V

Required: I5 = ?
Solution:
Using Millman’s Theorem, we have

A 5 B

I5 = Vm 19.692 Then

=
Rm + 5 0.5128 + 5
But I5 = 3.572 A

Vm = 18/1 + 20/2 + 22/5 + 24/4

1/1 + 1/2 + 1/5 + 1/4
Vm = 19.692 V
1
Rm = 1/1 + 1/2 + 1/5 + 1/4 ; Rm = 0.5128 

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 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem specifies that a resistive load receives maximum
Power from a linear and bilateral circuit if the resistance load is equal to
the Thevenin’s resistance as seen by the load.
For the AC source to be replaced by the
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit, we have
RTh

VTh

The value of the load to be connected to this source for it to have maximum
power, can be derived as follows:

RTh

VTh I

The power absorbed by RL is given by

PR = 2 R 1
But L I L
VTh
I= 2
RTh + RL
Using 1 and 2 , we have
2
VTh
PR = RL
L RTh + RL

By the principle of maxima/minima

2
VTh
d RL
RTh + RL
dPR
0= L =
dRL dRL

Hence 0 =
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 By the principle of maxima/minima
2
VTh
d RL
RTh + RL
dPR 2 RL
0= L= = VTh d
dRL dRL (RTh + RL) 2

dRL

Hence

(RTh + RL) 2(1) – RL – 2 (R + R ) (1)

Th L
0=
(RTh + RL) 4

2 + 2 RThRTh
0 = RTh + R2
L – 2R R – 2 R2
L
Th L

2
R2
L = RTh

Then

RL = RTh

For the power, we have

RTh

Using
2
P= V
R
VTh/2 2
PR =
Lmax RTh

2
VTh
PR =
Lmax 4RTh

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 MAXIMUM POWER TANSFER THEOREM
The load Impedance for maximum power transfer is equal to the conjugate of the Thevenin’s.
Impedance connected to the load(𝑍𝐿 = 𝑍𝑋𝑇ℎ)
𝐏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒁
Proof :
𝐙𝐓𝐡 = 𝑹𝑻𝒉 + 𝒋𝑿 𝒁↓𝑰↑
𝒁↓
a

𝐕𝐓𝐡 𝑰
𝒁𝑳 𝑹𝑳

𝑍
b 𝑋
𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇ℎ
Since :

VTh 𝒅𝒚
𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝐿 = ( )2 𝑅𝐿 𝒎=𝟎=
𝒅𝒙
√(R + RTh )2 + x2
RL
𝑃𝑅𝐿 = 𝑉2𝑇ℎ ( )
((𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇ℎ )2 + 𝑥2 )

By Maxima/Minima, we have
𝑅𝐿
𝑑𝑃𝑅𝐿 ( 2 2)
2 (𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑇ℎ ) + 𝑥
0=0= = 𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑑𝑅𝐿 𝑑𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝐿
𝑑( )
(𝑅 + 𝑅𝑇ℎ )2 + 𝑥 2
0=
𝑑𝑅𝐿
Then :

((𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑥 2 )(1) − (𝑅𝐿 )(2(𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )(1))

0=
((𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿 )2 + 𝑥 2 )2

2
0 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ + 2𝑅𝑇ℎ 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐿2 + 𝑋2 − 2𝑅𝐿 𝑅𝑇ℎ − 2𝑅𝐿2

1
(𝑅2𝐿 = 𝑅2𝑇ℎ + 𝑥2 )2

𝑅𝐿 = √𝑅2𝑇ℎ + 𝑋2

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 Superposition theorem specifies that, in a linear circuit containing several independent
sources, the current or voltage of a circuit element equals the algebraic sum of the
component voltages and currents produced by the independent sources acting alone. Put
another way, the voltage or current contribution from each independent source can be found
separately, and then all contributions algebraically added to get the actual voltage or current
with all independent sources in the circuit.

The bridge circuit can be used for a precision resistance measurement. A Wheatstone
bridge has a center branch that is a sensitive current indicator, such as galvanometer, as
shown Figure 6-8. Three of the other branches are precision resistors, one of which is
variable as indicated. The fourth branch is the resistor with the unknown resistance, Rx that
is to be determined.

Using VDR/VD, we have

R1 V R2 V
=R
R1 +R3 2 +Rx

R3 V Rx V
=R
R1 +R3 2 +Rx

R2 R3
Then Rx = R1

At “balanced condition” of the bridge, we have

VR1 = VR2

−t−Y and Y−t− Transformation

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 -to-Y CONVERSION FORMULAS

Considering the total resistance at terminals B and C, we have

Considering the total resistance at terminals A and B, and C and A, we have

Considering and , we have

Using and , we have

Then

NOTE:

1.Notice in the -to-Y conversion formulas that the denominators are the same: R1
+ R2 + R3, the sum of the resistances.

2.Each numerator is the product of the two  resistances adjacent to the Y

resistance being found
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 3.If each  resistance is R, each resistance of the corresponding Y is R / 3 . That is

Y-to- CONVERSION FORMULAS

Considering the total resistance at terminals B and C, we have

So that

Then

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Likewise

NOTE:
1.Notice in the Y-to- conversion formulas that the numerators are the same: RARB +
RBRC + RCRA, the sum of product of the Y resistances.

2.Each denominator is the Y resistance opposite the delta resistance being found.

3.If each Y resistances are the same,R, each resistance of the corresponding  is 3R.
That is

Then

5.30 Use -to-Y transformation in finding the currents 𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , and 𝐼3 for the circuit
shown in Fig. 5-34.

5.30 Find I for the circuit shown in Fig. 5-38 by using -to-Y transformation.

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 5.33 In the circuit shown in Fig. 5-38, what resistor R replacing the 20-Ω resistor
causes the bridge to be balanced? Also, what is I then?
Given:

Required: Rx = ? , I = ?
Solution:
At balanced condition of the bridge, we have
R2 R3 (10)(1.6)
Rx = = ; Rx = 1.14 Ω
R1 14

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 So that

Solving for I, we have

19+
I = 8 +(14//10)+(1.6//1.14)+ ; I = 13.52 A

To check:
19
I = 8 +15.6//11.14

I = 13.52 Ω

5.48 Find the input resistance at terminals 1 and 1’ of the transistor circuit shown
in Fig. 5-51 if a 2-kΩ resistor is connected across terminals 2 and 2’.
Given:

Required: Rin=?
Solution:
Since

1A

But
Vin
Rin = 1

Rin = Vin
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 Using nodal analysis, we have

0.001Vin – 0.001 V = 1
1
– 0.001Vin + 0.0017V = 60 IB

So that
0.001Vin – 0.001 V = 1

– 0.001Vin + 0.0017V = 60

Hence

Vin = 88142.857 V

Then

Rin = 88142.857 

5.48 Find the input resistance at terminals 1 and 1’ of the transistor circuit shown
in Fig. 5-51 if a 2-kΩ resistor is connected across terminals 2 and 2’.
Given:

Required: Rin=?
Solution:
Since

1 k 1A

But
Vin
Rin =
1

Rin = Vin

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Example Find the output resistance of the transistor circuit below.
Given:

Required: 𝑅out = ?

Solution:
Since
Vc
𝑅out = Ω
I

𝑅out = Vc Ω

−0.0004Vc
Solving for Vc , we have 2000
1
𝑉 : - 0V = 1 - 25 IB
40000 𝑐
1 −0.0004𝑉𝑐
𝑉 = 1 – 25 ( )
40000 𝑐 2000

𝑉𝑐 = 50000V
Then
𝑅out = 50000 kΩ

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 TOPIC 6: DC TRANSIENT

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Week – 14-15 – Topic 6- DC Transients Capacitor and Capacitance

Capacitors and Capacitance

INTRODUCTION

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by an insulator. The chief feature of a

capacitor is its ability to store electric charge, with negative charge on one of its two
conductors and positive charge on the other. Accompanying this charge is energy, which
a capacitor can release. Figure 8-1 shows the circuit symbol for a capacitor.

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance, the electrical property of capacitors, is a measure of the ability of a capacitor to
store charge on its two conductors. Specifically, if the potential difference between the two
conductors is v volts when there is a positive charge of Q coulombs on one conductor and a
negative charge of the same amount on the other, the capacitor has a capacitance of

where C is the quantity symbol of capacitance. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad, with
symbol F. Unfortunately, the farad is much too large a unit for practical applications, and the
microfarad (μF) and picofarad (pF) are much more common.

CAPACITOR CONSTRUCTION
One common type of capacitor is the parallel-plate capacitor of Fig. 8-2a. This capacitor has
two spaced conducting plates that can be rectangular, as shown, but that often are circular.
The insulator between the plates is called a dielectric. The dielectric is air in Fig. 8-2a, and is a
slab of solid insulator in Fig. 8-2b.

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 A voltage source connected to a capacitor, as shown in Fig. 8-3, causes the capacitor
to become charged. Electrons from the top plate are attracted to the positive terminal of
the source, and they pass through the source to the negative terminal where they are
repelled to the bottom plate. Because each electron lost by the top plate is gained by
the bottom plate, the magnitude of charge is the same on both plates. Of course, the
voltage across the capacitor from this charge exactly equals the source voltage. The
voltage source did work on the electrons in moving them to the bottom plate, which
work becomes.

For the parallel-plate capacitor, the capacitance in farads is

where A is the area of either plate in square meters, d is the separation in meters, and is the
permittivity in farads per meter (F/m) of the dielectric. The larger the plate area or the smaller
the plate separation, or the greater the dielectric permittivity, the greater the capacitance. The
permittivity & relates to atomic effects in the dielectric. As shown in Fig. 8-3, the charges on the
capacitor plates distort the dielectric atoms, with the result that there is a net negative charge
on the top dielectric surface and a net positive charge on the bottom dielectric surface. This
dielectric charge partially neutralizes the effects of the stored charge to permit an increase in
charge for the same voltage. The permittivity of vacuum, designated by &, is 8.85 pF m.
Permittivity's of other dielectrics are related to that of vacuum by factor called the dielectric
constant or relative permittivity, designated by ,. The relation is ε = ε𝑟 , ε0 . The dielectric
constants of some common dielectrics are 1.0006 for air. 2.5 for paraffined paper, 5 for mica,
7.5 for glass, and 7500 for ceramic.

8.5 Find the distance between the plates of a 0.01μF parallel-plate capacitor if the area of each
plate is 0.007 m2 and the dielectric is glass.

8.6 A capacitor has a disk-shaped dielectric of ceramic that has a 0.5-cm diameter and is 0.521
mm thick. The disk is coated on both sides with silver, this coating being the plates. Find the
capacitance.

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 TOTAL CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL CAPACITORS

….
Q1 Q2 Q3
Qn

C1 C2 C3 Cn
V
Ↄ

Ↄ
Ↄ ….
Since,

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + …. + Qn 1

But,
Q = CV

Rewriting (1), we have

CT V = C1 V + C2 V2 + C3 V3 + …+ Cn Vn
1

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + … Cr

TOTAL CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL CAPACITORS

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Using KVL, we have
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉𝑛 = 0 1

ButQ
Q=CV , 𝑉 =𝑄
𝐶

Rewriting (1) , we have

𝑄𝑇 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3 𝑄
= 𝐶 + 𝐶 + 𝐶 +….. 𝐶 𝑛
𝐶 𝑇 1 2 3 𝑛

1
𝐶𝑇 = 1 1 1 1
+ + ….
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛

8.9 Find the capacitance Cr of the circuit shown below.

8.10 A 4-μF capacitor, a 6-μF capacitor, and an 8-μF capacitor are in parallel
across a 300-V source. Find (a) the total capacitance, (b) the magnitude of charge
stored by each capacitor, and (c) the total stored energy.

8.15 A 3-μF capacitor charged to 100 V is connected across an uncharged 6-μF

capacitor. Find the voltage and also the initial and final stored energies.

8.17 A 2-μF capacitor charged to 150 V and a 1-μF capacitor charged to 50 V are
connected with plates of opposite polarity joined. Find the voltage and the initial and final
stored energies.

8.13 Find each capacitor voltage in the circuit shown in Fig. 8-8. The approach is to find
the equivalent capacitance, use it to find the charge, and then use this charge to find the
voltages across the 6- and 12-F capacitors, which have this same charge because they
are in series with the source.

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 8.14 Find each capacitor voltage in the circuit shown in Fig. 8-9.

TIME-VARYING VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

In DC resistor circuits, the currents, and voltages, are constant-never varying. Even if
switches are included, a switching operation can at most, cause a voltage or current to jump
from one constant level to another. (The term “jump” means a change from one value to
another in zero time.) When capacitors are included, though, almost never does a voltage or
a current jump from one constant level to another when switches open or close. Some
voltages or currents may initially jump at switching, but the jumps are almost never to final
values. Instead, they are to values from which the voltages or currents change exponentially
to their final values. These voltages and currents vary with time- they are time-varying.

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 NOTE: The term “jump” means a change from one value to another in zero time.

For a time-varying current, though, the value of i is usually changes from instant to instant. So,
finding the current at any particular time requires using a very short time interval, then the
current is approximately q/t. For an exact value of current, this quotient must be found in
the limitas t approaches zero:
Lim q
i = → 
dq
i=
dt

NOTE: This limit, designated by dq/dt , is called the derivative of charge with respect
to time.
CAPACITOR CURRENT
An equation for capacitor current can be found by substituting q=Cv into (1) :

i =
dq
= d(Cv)
dt dt

But C is a constant, and a constant can be factored from a derivative. The result is

dv
i = C dt

If a capacitor voltage is constant, then the voltage is not changing and so dv/dt is zero.,
making the capacitor current zero. Of course, from physical consideration, if a capacitor
voltage is constant, no charge can be entering or leaving a capacitor, which means that
the capacitor current is zero. With a voltage across it and a zero curreny flow through
it, the capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc. Remember, though, it is only after a
capacitor voltage becomes constant that the capacitor acts like an open circuit.
Capacitors are often used electronic circuit to block dc currents and voltages.
Another important fact from i = C dv/dt or i = C v/t is that a capacitor voltage cannot
jump.If for example, a capacitor voltage could jump from 3 to 5V or, in other words, a
change in 2 V in zero time, then v would be 2 and t would be 0, with the result that
the capacitor current is infinite. An infinite current is impossible because no source can
deliver this current. Further such a current flowing through a resistor would produce an
infinite power loss, and there are no sources of infinite power and no resistors that can
absorb such power.

NOTE: Capacitor current has no similar restriction. It can jump or even change
directions, instantaneously. Capacitor voltage not jumping means that capacitor Page |
voltages
Prepared by: Engr. right
Jovencio afterfora TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
V. Merin switching operation are the same as right before the operation.
This is an important fact for resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit analysis.
 Example: Sketch the waveform of the current that flows through a 2 F capacitor when the
capacitor voltage is shown in the figure below. As always assume associated references
because there is no statement to the contrary.

Example: Sketch the waveform of the current that flows through a 2 F capacitor when
the capacitor voltage is shown in the figure below. As always assume associated
references because there is no statement to the contrary.

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 SINGLE-CAPACITOR DC-EXCITED CIRCUITS
When switches open or close in a DC RC circuit with a single capacitor, all voltages, and
currents that change do so exponentially from their initial values to their final constant values
as can be shown from differentia equations. The exponential terms in a voltage or current
expression are called transient terms because they eventually become zero in practical
circuits.
The voltages and currents approach their final values asymptotically, graphically speaking,
which means that they never reach them.

NOTE: As a practical matter, however, after five-time constants they are close enough
to their final values to be at them. Graphically speaking, which means that they never
actually reach them.

Time constant, with symbol , is a measure of time required for certain changes in
voltages and currents. For a single-capacitor RC circuit, the time constant of the circuit is
the product of the capacitance and the Thevenin’s resistance as “seen” by the capacitor:

RC time constant =  = RTh C

Example: Find the time constant of the circuit shown below.

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Example: How long a 20 uF capacitor charged to 150 V take to discharge through a 3
M resistor? Also, at what time does the maximum discharge current occur and what
is its value?

The voltages and currents shown in Figure 2 are.

-t/ 
v(t) = v() + [v(0+) – v() ]e
-t/ 
i(t) = v() + [i(0+) – i() ]e

where

v(0+) and i(0+) are initial values immediately after switching

v() and i() are final values

Example: In the circuit shown in the Figure below, find the indicated voltages and
currents at t = 0+ s, immediately after the switch closes. The capacitor is initially
uncharged. Also, find these voltages and currents a long time after the switch closes.

Example: A 2 uF, initially charged to 300 V, is discharged through a 270 k resistor.

What is the capacitor voltage at 0.25 s after the capacitor starts to discharge?

Example: In the circuit shown below, the switch closes at t= 0s, find vc and i for t > 0
s if vc (0) = 100 V

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Given:
Required: vc and i at t > 0 s = ? If v(0) = 100 V
Solution:
Since the capacitor voltage cannot jump, we have

And
A long time the switch is closed, the capacitor is open circuited , so
that

60
v() = 300
60 + 40

v() = 180 V
Also

RTh = 16 + 40//60

RTh = 40 

 =  = ()()

 =  
Then

-t/0.1
vc = 180 + [100 – 180]e
-10t
vc = 180 + – 80]e for t > 0 s

Solving for v(0+), using nodal analysis, we have

1/40 + 1/60 + 1/16) v(0+) = 300/40 + 100 /16
v(0+) = 132 V
Solving for i(0+), using nodal analysis, we have

i(0+) = 132/60
i(0+) = 2.2 A
Solving for i(), using ohm’s law, we have
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i(Merin
Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. ) = 300/(40+60)
for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
i() = 3 A
 Then
-t/ 
i(t) = i() + [i(0+) – i() ]e
-10t
i = 3+ [2.2– 3) ]e

Example: The switch is closed at t = 0 s in the circuit shown below. Find i for t > 0 s.
The capacitor is initially uncharged.

Example:After a long time in position 1, the switch in the circuit shown in the
figure below is thrown to position 2 at t = 0 s for a duration of 40 s and then returned
to position 1. (a) Find the equations for v for t > 0 s. (b) Find v at t= 5 s and at t
= 40 s. (c) Make a sketch of v for 0 s < t < 80 s.

Required : v at t > 0 s = ?, v(5s) = ?, v(40s), sketch of v for 0s < t < 80 s = ?

Solution:
Since
Page |
SolvingV.for
Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio v(0+)
Merin for ,TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
we have
 So that(since the capacitor voltage cannot jump), we have
v(0+)= 20 V
A long time the switch is at position 2, we have

v()2 = 70 V
RTh = 20 M
 −
 =  = (   )(   )

 =  

Solving for v at t > 0 s, we have

-t/40
v = 70 + [ 20 – 70]e
—0.025t
v = 70 – 50e V at t > o s

At t > 40 s, we have
—0.025t
v(40s) = 70 – 50e V at t > o s
—0.025(40)
v(40s) = 70 – 50e V at t > o s

v(40s) = 51.606 V

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Week – 16 & 17 – Topic 6 – Inductors and Inductance

INDUCTOR AND INDUCTANCE

The equation for the inductor voltage is given by
𝑑𝑖
v = L𝑑𝑡

The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is given by

1
WL= Li2
2

Note:

1. Inductor currents cannot jump and that inductors are short circuit to dc.

2. For a single-inductor RL circuit, the time constant of the circuit is the ratio of the
inductance and the

Thevenin’s resistance as “seen” by the inductor:

𝐿
RL time constant =  =
𝑅𝑇ℎ

MAGNETIC FLUX

Magnetic phenomena are explained using magnetic flux, or just flux, which relates to magnetic
lines of force that, for a magnet, extend in continuous lines from the magnetic north pole to
the south pole outside the magnet and from the south pole to the north pole inside the magnet;
this is shown in the figure below. The SI unit of flux is the weber, with unit symbol Wb. The
quantity symbol is  for a constant flux and  for a time-varying flux.

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 Note:

Current flowing in a wire also produces flux, as shown in the figure above. The relation
between the direction of flux and the direction of current can be remembered from one version
of the right hand rule. If the thumb of the right hand is placed along the wire in the direction of
the current flow, the four fingers of the right hand curl in the direction of the flux about the
wire. Coiling the wire enhances the flux, as does placing certain material, called ferromagnetic
material, in and around the coil. For example, a current flowing in an identical coil wound on
a plastic cylinder.

Permeability () is a measure of this flux-enhancing property.

The SI unit of permeability is the henry per meter and in unit symbol of H/m.

The henry, with unit symbol H, is the SI unit of inductance.) The permeability of vacuum,
designated by 0, is 0.4 H / m. Permeabilities of other materials are related to that of vacuum
by a factor called, the relative permeability, with symbol r. The relation is  = r0.

Most materials have relative permeabilities close to 1, but pure iron has them in

the range of 6000 to 8000, and nickel has them in the range of 400 to 1000.

Permalloy, an alloy of 78.5 percent nickel and 21.5 percent iron, has a relative

permeability of over 80 000.

If a coil of N turns is linked by a  amount of flux, this coil has a flux linkage of N.

Any change in flux linkages induces a voltage in the coil of

INDUCTANCE AND INDUCTOR CONSTRUCTION

For most coils, a current I produces flux linkages N that are proportional to i.

The Equation relating N and i has a constant of proportionality L that is the quantity symbol

For the inductance of the coil. Specifically, Li = N and L = N / i.

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 The SI unit of inductance is the henry, with unit symbol H. A component designed to be used
for its Inductance property is called an inductor.
The terms “coil” and “choke” are also used.
The figure below shows the circuit symbol for an inductor.

The inductance of a coil depends on the shape of the coil, the permeability of the
Surrounding material, the number of turns, the spacing of the turns, and other factors. For the
single layer coil, shown above, the inductance is approximately.

L = N A / l
Note:

The greater the length to diameter, the more accurate the formula. For a length 10 times
the diameter, the actual inductance is 4 percent less than the value given by the formula.

INDUCTOR VOLTAGE AND CURRENT RELATION

𝑑𝑁
If we substitute N = Li into , we have
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑖
v = L𝑑𝑡

Note:

1. The voltage at any instant depends on the rate of change of inductor current at that instant,
but not at all onthe value of current then.
𝑑𝑖
2. One important fact from 𝑣 = 𝐿 is that if an inductor current is constant, not changing,
𝑑𝑡
then the inductor voltage is zero because di/dt = 0. With a current flowing through it, but
zero voltage across it, an inductor acts like a short circuit: An inductor is a short circuit
to DC. Remember, though, that it is only after an inductor current becomes constant that at
inductor acts like a short circuit.
𝑑𝑖
3. The relation 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡  L i/t also means that an inductor current cannot jump. For a
jump to occur, i would be nonzero while t was zero, with the result that i/t would be
infinite, making the inductor voltage infinite. In other words, a jump in inductor current
requires an infinite inductor voltage. But, of course, there are no sources of infinite voltage.

4. Inductor voltage has no similar restriction, It can jump or even change polarity
instantaneously. Inductor currents not jumping means that inductor

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 currents immediately after switching operation are the same as immediately before
operation. This is an important fact for RL (resistor-inductor) circuit analysis.

TOTAL INDUCTANCE

The total or equivalent inductance (LT or Leq) of inductors connected in series, as in the circuit
shown

By applying KVL, we have

1
By substituting 𝑣 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 to 1
𝑑𝑖
, we have

Then

LT = L1 + L2 + L3

In general

LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + … + Ln

The total or equivalent inductance (L or L ) of inductors connected in parallel, as in the

circuit shown, below

With the voltage-current relation at the source terminals:

𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑇 = 𝐿 𝑇
𝑑𝑡
𝑣𝑇 𝑑𝑖𝑠
𝐿𝑇
= 𝑑𝑡 1

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 By applying KCL, we have

2
Using 1 and 2 , we have

𝑣𝑇
=
𝐿𝑇

𝑣𝑇 𝑣1 𝑣 𝑣
= = 𝐿2 = 𝐿3
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 2 3

Then

1 1 1 1
= = =
𝐿𝑇 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
1
𝐿𝑇 = 1 1 1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3

ENERGY STORAGE

The energy stored in an inductor is

SINGLE-INDUCTOR DC-EXCITED CIRCUITS

When switches open or close in an RL dc-excited circuit with a single conductor, all voltages
and currents that are not constant change exponentially from their initial values to their final
constant values. That is

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 For a single-inductor RL circuit, the time constant of the circuit is the ratio of the inductance
and the Thevenin’s resistance as “seen” by the inductor:

𝐿
RL time constant =  =
𝑅𝑇ℎ

Consequently the voltage and current equations are the same.

v(t) = v() + [v(0+) – v()]e-t / V

-t /
i(t) = i() + [i(0+) – i()]e A

Example: What is the rate of change of flux linking a 200-turn coil when 50V is across tbe
coil?

Required: dΦ/dt = ?

Solution: This rate of change is the dΦ/dt in v = N dΦ/dt:

𝐝𝚽 𝑣 50
= 𝑁 = 200
𝐝𝐭

Example: Find the approximate inductance of a single-layer 50-turn coil that is wound on a
ferro-magnetic cylinder 1.5cm and 1.5mm in diameter. The ferromagnetic material has a
relative permeability of 7000.
1.5 cm
Required: L = ?

Solution:

Ferro-magnetic
cylinder
Using

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Example: Find the voltage induced in a 400-mH coil from 0s to 8ms when the current shown
in Fig. 8-5 flows through the coil.

Given:

Inductor current
“cannot jump”

Required:

Solution:
At 4ms  t  6ms , we have
At 0  t  1ms , we have
𝑑𝑖 Δ𝑖 (0.4)(20 − 20)
𝑣=𝐿 =𝐿 𝑣= ; 𝑣 = 0V
𝑑𝑡 Δ𝑡 (6 − 4)
(0.4)(−40 − 0) At 6ms  t  8ms , we have
𝑣= ; 𝑣 = −16 V
(1 − 0)

At 1ms  t  4ms , we have

(0.4)(20 − (−40)) (0.4)(0 − 20)

𝑣= ; 𝑣 = 8V 𝑣= ; 𝑣 = −4 V
(4 − 1) (8 − 6)

Then

Inductor voltage
“can jump”

Example: Find the time constant of the circuit below ? Also what is energy stored in the
inductor?

Given:

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Required:  = ?

Solution:

Since
𝐿
RL time constant =  = 𝑅
𝑇ℎ

RTh

RTh = (50 + 30)//20 + 14 + 75//150

RTh = 80 k

Then

50x 10 / 80 x 10

 = 0.625 

Solving for WL, we have,

But

= (0.5)(0.05)(0.00025)

w = 1.56 nJ
Presumably, the circuit has been constructed long enough(5 = 3.13 s)

Solving I, by thevenin’s theorem, we have

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 𝑉𝑇ℎ 20
𝑖=𝐿 = ; 𝑖 = 0.25 𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝑇ℎ 80

Solving for 𝑉𝑇ℎ , we have

(20)(100) 20
𝑉𝑇ℎ = 𝑉20𝑘Ω = ;= ; 𝑉𝑇ℎ = 20 𝑉
50 + 30 + 20 80

Example: In the circuit shown in Fig. 8-13, switch S1 is closed at t = 0s, and switch S2 is
opened at t = 3s. Find i(2) and i(4), and make a sketch of i for t > 0s.

Given: At t() , we have

6
i() =
0.1 + 0.2
i() = 20 A
And
 =  
 = ( + )

Required: i(2) = ?, i(4) = ? sketch of I for t > 0s = ?

Solution:

Since
i(t) = i() + [i(0+) – i()]e A

At t(0+), switch S is closed, such that, i(0+) = 0 A

S1

Inductor current is constant

and inductor voltage becomes
”zero and short circuited”

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 At t(3+), switch S opens, such that

And

i(t) = i() + [i(3+) – i()]e A

i(3) = 20 – 20e A 0 t  3 s

i(3) = 10.55 A = i(3+) since the

“inductor current cannot jump.”

At t(), inductor becomes constant , the inductor becomes short circuited

6
i() = 0.1 + 0.2 + 0.2

And

 =1.2 /(0.1 + 0.2 + 1.2)

Since
-t /4
i(t) = 20 + [0 – 20]e A
-t /4
i(t) = 20 – 20e A 0< t < 3 s

So that

i(2) = 7.87 A

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 Such that
-(t-3)/
i(t) = i() + [i(3+) – i()]e A

i(t) = 4 + [10.55 – 4]e-(t-2)/0.8 A

i(t) = 4 + 6.55e-(t-2)/0.8 A t > 3s

Then
-(4-3)/0.8
i(4) = 4 + 6.55e A

i(4) = 5.88 A

Since
-t /
i(t) = i() + [i(0+) – i()]e A

i(t) = 20 + [0 – 20]e-t /4 A

i(t) = 20 – 20e-t /4 A 0< t < 3 s

So that

i(2) = 7.87 A

For the graph of the current based on the two current equations, we have

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.
 REFERENCES:

Electrical Circuits by Charles S. Siskind, 2nd ed

Basic Circuit Analysis by John O’ Malley

Electric Circuitsby Joseph A. Edminister

Basic Electrical Engineering by B.L. Theraja and A.K. Theraja, 1st multicolor ed., 2005

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Prepared by: Engr. Jovencio V. Merin for TUP-COE-EE-Dept.