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As Edexcel Unit 1 Jan 2023 Class: Topic 1A Chemistry For Biologist
As Edexcel Unit 1 Jan 2023 Class: Topic 1A Chemistry For Biologist
&
Topic 1A
Mammalian
Chemistry
transport
for biologist
29/10/2022
Part 1
Mammalian transport
Solution
A) heart to creat a mass flow of fluid with nutrients and oxygen to be transported around the body
…down presure gradient in blood vessels ….allowing sufficient supply of glucose and oxygen to
body cells …meeting high energy demand and allow rapid removal waste products from cells
Small organisms don;t need a transport system
Heart ….generate pressure , to ensure mass flow …..by transporting substances from high pressure to low
pressure ….down pressure gradient over a long distance.
Branching blood vessels …. To transport the substances following a specific route to required body part .
Blood ….transport medium with dissolved nutrients , oxygen and waste products .
Respiratory system …..to provide large surface area for gas exchange ……maintaining steep concentration
gradient of gases ( oxygen and Co2)
Types of circulation
Open circulation
Closed circulation
Blood is not enclosed in blood vessels Blood is closed in blood vessels , thus being
It is pumped into body cavities separated from tissue fluid / interstitial fluid
Double Single
Mammals Fish
Double circulation :
Blood enter heart twice in one complete circuit around the body
Advantages
1. Separation of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood …maintaining steep oxygen concentration gradient …for gas
exchange …thus allowing tissue to receive needed amount of oxygen to meet high metabolic rate and high energy
demand .
Explain how double circulation allows effective gas exchange ?
1 RBCs Erythrocytes
2. Biconcave shape ..larger surface area to volume ratio so more oxygen can diffuse in and out at a
faster rate
3. No nucleus ….haemoglobin
4. Flexible to squeeze through tiniest capillaries ..
2. Platelets Thrombocytes
Formed from large cells in the bone marrow called mega karyocytes
Serotonin
Stimulate vasoconstriction in damaged blood Thromboplastin
vessel Soluble
In presence of calcium ions
Reduce blood flow to the damaged area ( help convert prothrombin into
thrombin)
blood to flow near the skin surface Inactive enzyme Active enzyme
Soluble Soluble
Catalyse the
conversion of
Fibrin
Fibrinogen InSoluble protein
Globular protein Forms a mesh
Soluble Trap blood cells to form clot
Cascade of reaction =
chain of reactions Proteins in platelets cause clot to become
tighter and tougher forming a scab.
Blood clotting
Cut ..platelets in contact with cut surface ….become more sticky and break and release
A) serotonin ….to stimulate vasoconstriction to reduce blood flow to cut tissue avoiding risk of bleeding .
Then protein in platelets cause the clot to become tougher and tighter forming a scab
Protect skin and cells underneath the scab divide for healing .
Understanding Partial pressure : pressure exerted by a gas in a mixture of gases .
O2
Arterial blood
% saturation of Hbg with oxygen is high
Haemoglobin ( oxyhaemoglobin) ·?
O2
Lungs Tissue
CO2
% saturation CO2
of Hb with
oxygen Venous blood Haemoglobin ( less oxyhaemoglobin)
Lower PO2
% saturation of Hbg with oxygen is low
88
X
Lungs
Tissue
~
oxygen
At Tissues 1. At high PO2 in blood
Oxygen diffuse from lungs into
blood
1. Low PO2 in blood Bind to haemoglobin ( OXYhbg)
2. Oxygen leave the Increasing % saturation of
blood to respiring haemoglobin with oxygen
tissue Dissociating
3.% saturation of Hb
Hb - N CO2 Hb - N
cotH
% saturation
Lungs
#
of Hb with 1. At high partial pressure of oxygen in
oxygen blood .
At Tissues ( oxygen enters the blood ).
2. Where oxygen Diffuse down its
1. Low partial pressure of
concentration gradient into blood
oxygen in blood ( oxygen
3. Oxygen bind with haemoglobin .
leave the blood to tissue )
4. % saturation of haemoglobin with
2. Oxygen dissociation
oxygen is higher .
from haemoglobin
3. Diffuse down its Why Hbg affinity to oxygen is higher at lungs ?
Tissues
concentration gradient to Higher oxygen concentration
Where Hbg affinity to oxygen is higher ( CO2
respiring cells / tissues Dissociation of oxygen from hb concentration is low ) ..so less H+ ion concentration
4. % saturation of Partial pressure of
….so Hbg has higher affinity to Oxygen ..so more
oxyhaemoglobin …transport more oxygen to respiring
haemoglobin with oxygen is oxygen in blood =
cells
concentration of oxygen
low
Why at tissue % saturation of haemoglobin( affinity) with
oxygen is low ?
Where there is high Co2 concentration ….so high hydrogen ion concentration..so Hbg
affinity to oxygen will decrease , as it has higher affinity to H+
So forming haemoglobinic acid
So more oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
For oxygen to be more readily available for respiring tissues
T Respiring cell Understand
High CO2 concentration
Co2 Co2
Co2 Co2
5% of CO2 remain in
1 blood plasma
3 85% of CO2
Plasma 3c HCO3-
3a Cl-
2 10% of CO2 bind to
haemoglobin to form CO2 + H2O Carbonic
……………………H2CO3
anhydrase ( carbonic acid )
Fast reaction
carbamino haemoglobin . Thus maintaining steep
RBC
concentration gradient for
diffusion of CO2 from tissue to + + t
blood
Free oxygen molecule
3d
Diffuse down its 3b H2CO3 ……………H+ + HCO3-
Chloride
concentration CL- shift to
balance the
gradient into the cells electronegati
4 Hb.O8…………Hb + 4O2 vity
02
O2
O2 5
6 O2 b Haemoglobinic acid
nY
Lungs Understand
O2
or
tur O2
Ye*epvinie
O2
O2
X
I O2
N O2
I
Not
2 A)5% CO2 in plasma
CO2
CO2
4 C) 85% of CO2 transported as HCO3-
HCO3- + H+……………H2CO3 CO2
H2CO3 ……………..CO2
Carbonic + H2O
anhydrase
Reverse 5
reaction
Haemoglobinic acid Hb + 4O2 …….Hb.4O2
HHb…..Hb
-> + H+
Respiring cells
1.low PO2 and high CO2 concentration
- Co2 diffuse down its concentration gradient from cell into blood :
( high PCO2)
A) 5% of Co2 will be transported in blood plasma
B) 10% of CO2 bind to Hb to form carbamino haemoglobin
2.H+ increase Study
C) 85% of CO2 3.Affinity of haemoglobin to Oxygen
CO2 + H2O …………….H2Co3 decrease
H2CO3…..H+ + HCO3- …….diffuse out of RBC 4.Hb Has higher affinity to H+
5.More Oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
- HB.4O2….Hb + 4O2
6.So more oxygen is made readily
Hb + H+ ………HHb ( hamoglobinic acid )
availble for respiring tissue…diffuse down
Affinity of Hb to Oxygen decrease / hbg has higher affinity to Hydrogen ions
- oxygen free molecules in cytoplasm of RBCs its concentration gradient .
Diffuse into respiring tissue
In lungs
Oxygen diffuse down its concentration gradient from alveoli into blood 1. higher partial pressure of oxygen ,
A) HHb ( haemoglobinic acid ) …..Hb + H+ 2.Affinity of haemoglobin to Oxygen is high
Hb + 4O2 ….Hb. 4O2 3.Hb Has lower affinity to H+
4.More Oxyhaemoglobin formation
B) H+ + HCO3- ….H2CO3 5.So more oxygen is transported to
H2CO3 ….CO2 + H2O respiring tissue .
Study
B) Co2 free molecules diffuse into alveoli
% saturation of
🐘 🐁
Elephant
-
f
Hb with oxygen More respiration
Read
More CO2
More H+
Mouse
Hb has lower affinity to )2
More oxyhaemoglobin dissociation
PO2 More O2 readily available for cells
Lower % saturation of hb
Bohr’s shift
🪑 🐘 🏃 🐁
% saturation of
f
Hb with oxygen Elephant
~
Haemoglobin is made from 4 polypeptides with 4 haem group ,
where haemoglobin pick up the oxygen molecules till it becomes fully
Imp
saturated
First molecule of oxygen combining with iron atom in the first haem
group
Foetus Imp
Adult Explain the shape of the curve
01093850599
At high altitude
Imp
At high altitude lower pO2
PO2 is lower than at sea level
So less oxygen in inhaled air
Lungs
Lower PO2 in alveoli
Lower concentration gradient between alveoli and blood
So Slower rate of diffusion of oxygen from alveoli into blood Sea level higher
So haemoglobin is less well saturated with oxygen PO2
Less oxyhaemoglobin …Hb at low PO2 has lower affinity to oxygen .
So less oxygen in blood …so less respiration …..altitude sickness and hypoxia
Solution / adaptation.
A) produce more RBCs ……compensate for smaller volume of oxygen being absorbed
B) increase heart rate and breathing
C) increase capillary density
So tissue will receive sufficient O2
5/11/2022
Part 3
Cardiac cycle
Blood vessels
->
Epithelium …tissue ( epithelial cells ) Squamous epithelial cells ( squamous
epithelium ) flat cells
thi
Refers to a layer of cells lining an organ A) blood vessels ( endothelium )
we
One layer of cells , squamous , inn er
part of the organ
B) alveoli Wid
Blood vessels
Columnar ( ciliated )
rig
Tunica externa ( outer layer)
Smooth muscles
D
Artery Collagen Contract and relax
Vein ( vasoconstriction and
Tunica media vasodilation) change
Smooth muscles diameter of blood vessels
to accommodate the
Elastic fibres
volume of blood reaching
Collagen
·
different body parts ..
Elastic fibres
Tunica intima
Somet
Stretch ( expand) and recoil
Endothelium
( become narrower) ..maintain
Wall in one cell thick
Squamous ( single layer ) blood flow under high pressure
Facing the lumen and Collagen
minimize the friction
with moving blood . Needed to provide strength to withstand
high pressure without bursting .
Arteries 3. Tunica initima ( endothelium )
Function: carry blood under high pressure away from the heart Single layer of flat thin cells with smooth
Carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary and umbilical artery surface facing lumen to smooth out blood
flow with least frictional resistance .
1. Tunica externa :
Contain collagen and elastic As it is folded …expand ( stretch )during
fibres systole to increase diameter of lumen to
To withstand high blood re avoid damage of endothelium.
pressure without bursting
( collagen gives strength )
4. Narrow lumen
To maintain blood flow under high
pressure
2. Tunica media ( middle layer )
1. As we move further away from the heart , the lumen gets narrower , help resist the blood flow to maintain
blood pressure
2. As we move away from the heart , elastic fibres decrease while smooth muscles increase .
ior
contraction and relaxation .
B) elastic fibres to stretch and recoil to maintain high blood pressure .
3. Inner folded endothelium …( single layer of squamous epithelial cells ) expands upon ventricular
systole to prevent bursting and with stand high blood pressure without damaging endothelium .
Read
What ensures the blood to return to heart from vein
Muscle contract
Muscle relax ,
Squeeze on blood
semilunar valve close
To force move
preventing back flow
forward
of blood
Inhale
Imp Less
pressure on
heart -
•
Pressure venacave is low
→←
→
re
Pressure high
Why walls of left ventricles are thicker than walls of right ventricles ?
Coronary arteries
Transport / supply heart muscle with oxygen and glucose for aerobic respiration to release energy for
contraction
Branch directly from aorta :
A) much faster to reach the heart
B) aorta closest blood vessel with oxygenated blood so supplies the heart muscle with highest level of
oxygen
Septum
Myoglobin
Recoil
Ventricular diastole
:*
""
Pulmonary circulation
money .
aorta .
or
a
artery
semilunar
.
Teniente -0 Pulmonary
⇐ vein
.
atrioventricular
""
- Septum .
hzÑhg"
Liver hepatic artery
§
hepatic
Portal .
vein
Small intestine
ythenaluein gmj
Kidney
Renal artery
.
?⃝
?⃝
LORD
In ……vein ………atrium
Away ….artery …..ventricle
Structure of the heart
Semilunar valves : prevent back flow of blood from aorta to the left ventricle
And from pulmonary artery to right ventricle
Tendinous cords
How atrioventricular valves are adapted :
↑
Ventricular diastole -
Low blood pressure in ventricle
Cardiac cycle ( DIASTOLE ………………….ATRIAL SYSTOLE ………….VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE)
(Relaxed …………………atria contract ………………………ventricles contract )
0.4 S ………………………0.1 S …………………………..0.3 S
0
C
0.4 S…..0.1 s……..0.3 S
Atrial systole
C 0
0.3 S …..0.4…..0.1
0.1……..0.3…..0.4
0.3
Ventricular systole
0.4
Diastole
Atrial systole
0.1
Atherosclerosis
Imp
Damage to endothelium
Forming atheroma
Calcium ions build on atheroma
1. Aneurysm :
• Where if an artery is narrowed by plaque, blood tends to collect behind the blockage.
• The artery bulges (swell) and the wall is put under more pressure than
usual , so it becomes weakened (aneurysm).
• The weakened artery wall may split open, leading to massive internal
r
bleeding Leading to massive blood loss. And drop in blood
ab
pressure.
• This happens in the blood vessels supplying the brain or in the aorta.
• If early diagnosis takes place to aneurysm , it can be treated by surgery before they burst.
lg
2. Raised blood pressure:
( kidney )
Narrowed arteries due to plaque on walls cause raised blood pressure. =
iha
Which damages the tiny blood vessels % % of
0 protein
Effect on kidney:
If those vessels are feeding kidney tubules, high blood pressure may force protein molecules
.N
out their walls( doctors can test for protein in urine as a sign of kidney damage).
Effect on retina:
Tiny blood vessels supplying retina are easily damaged, thus if become blocked or leak, their
Dr
will be deficiency in oxygen supply to retinal cells, which would die and cause blindness.
Effect on brain
Stroke, Caused by bleeding from damaged capillaries in the brain, or blockage cutting blood
supply to brain .
any
2. Symptoms:
usually first noticed during exercise, as cardiac
muscle is working harder and needs more oxygen .
The anaerobic respiration in cardiac muscle cause
r
gripping pain in chest that extend to particularly left
ab
arm, jaw and cause breathlessness.
These symptoms subside( become less intense)
once exercise stops. lg
3. It can be managed by :
• taking regular exercise
iha
• losing weight
• Stop smoking
• Reducing fat intake. t HR, Dilation Coronaycteres
At
.N
4. Treatment: E -
-
Reskny
L
Symptoms treated by resting and drugs that cause rapid dilation of coronary arteries so
Dr
r
x Clot formed in coronary arteries known as coronary
ab
thrombosis Blocking the coronary artery.
- >
So part of
heart muscle is permanently starved of oxygen. Muscles
resort to anaerobic respiration. Lactate produce and
lg-
It may occur at any time, though exercise may start it and often lasts for several hours.
Death may occur very rapidly with no previous symptoms, or it may happen after several days
of feeling tired and suffering symptoms mistaken for indigestion.
Dr
3. Treatment:
Not relieved by rest and vasodilation alone.
React quickly giving two full strength aspirin tablets to help stop blood clotting and send them
to hospital as fast as possible .
Notice:
1. Coronary arteries are like an inverse tree, in other
words branching downwards with larger branches
splitting into smaller ones .
2. So the extent of damage is based on on how high
the blockage is.
-
2A 1H.
Symptoms:
It varies depending on how much of brain affected .
Dizziness, confusion, slurred speech, blurred vision, or partial loss of vision,and numbness.
r
In more sever strokes, there can be paralysis, usually in one side of body.
ab
lg
iha
.N
Dr
C) capillaries
Adaptation ..same as o level