MODULE-2

ECOSYSTEM
Ecosystem, the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all their interrelationships
in a particular unit of space.
The term ecosystem is made up of two Greek words “Eco’ means Ecological Sphere or house or place of
living or surroundings or environment. Where living organism does exist while ‘system’ means group
of organisms joined in regular and interdependent manner.

Meaning of Ecosystem; An Ecosystem can be visualized as a functional unit of nature, where living
organisms interact among themselves and also with the surrounding physical environment.

Classification of Ecosystem or types of ecosystem

The ecosystem can be generally classified into two types.

A. Natural ecosystem; natural ecosystem is developed and governed by nature, these are capable of operating
and maintaining themselves without any major interaction man.
B. Artificial ecosystem; an artificial ecosystem is created and maintained by man for his different needs.
Examples; reservoirs, artificial lakes and gardens. Etc

A. Natural ecosystem
1. Aquatic ecosystem
An ecosystem which is located in a body of water is known as aquatic ecosystem.
The aquatic ecosystem definition states it is a water-based environment, wherein, living organisms interact
with both physical and chemical features of the environment. These living creatures whose food, shelter,
reproduction and other essential activities depend in a water-based environment are known as aquatic
organisms. This ecosystem is related to water.
It is further sub divided into two types based on salt content.
a. Fresh water ecosystem;
It includes lakes, rivers, streams, and ponds, lakes are large bodies of freshwater surrounded by land. Plant
and algae are important to freshwater ecosystem because they provide oxygen through photosynthesis and
food for animals in this ecosystem.
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BIHE
 i. Lentic (Ponds and lakes) standing water
ii. Lotic (Rivers and Streams) moving water
iii. Wetland (Mashes and Swaps) edges of lake.
b. Marine ecosystem
These ecosystem are the biggest ecosystem as all oceans and their parts are included in them.
This particular ecosystem is the largest aquatic ecosystem and covers over 70% of the earth‘s total surface.
This ecosystem is relatively more concentrated in terms of salinity.
Nonetheless, the body of aquatic organisms is well-adjusted to saline water, and they may find it
challenging to survive in freshwater.
They contain salt marhes, intertidal zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroes, coral reefs, the deep sea and the
see floor.
Marine ecosystem has a unique flora and fauna. And support a vast kingdom of species.
i. Coastal area (estuaries, coral reefs, mangroves)
ii. Upwelling region
iii. Open oceans

B. Terrestrial ecosystem
Terrestrial ecosystem are those ecosystem that exists on land.
This ecosystem is related to Land.
Examples; Grassland ecosystem, Forest ecosystem, and Desert ecosystem etc
Availability of light is greater in terrestrial ecosystems than in aquatic ecosystems because the atmosphere
is more transparent on land than in water. Differences in temperature and light in terrestrial ecosystems
reflect a completely different flora and fauna.
Note: (check page no- 21 for more information about terrestrial ecosystem)

Structure of Ecosystem

The structure of an ecosystem is basically a description of the organisms and physical features of
environment including the amount and distribution of nutrients in a particular habitat. It also provides
information regarding the range of climatic conditions prevailing in the area. From the structure point of
view, all ecosystems consist of the following basic components:
The structure of an ecosystem can be split into two main components, namely
• Biotic components
• Abiotic components
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BIHE
The biotic components include all living organisms present in the environmental system.
The biotic components of an ecosystem can be described under the following three heads;
1. Producers (Autotrophic components )
2. Consumers,
3. decomposers or reducers and transformers, micro organisms

1. Producers;
The producer are the autotropic elements.
Means self food producing organisms as known as autotrophs.
They are green plants. The use radiant energy of sun in photosynthetic process.
• This is used in respiration by all living things, Algae and other hydrophytes of a pond, grasses of
the land, and trees of the forests are examples of producers.
2. Consumers
Consumers are organisms which cannot prepare their own food and depend directly or indirectly on the
producers.
Those living members of ecosystem which consume the food synthesized by producers are called
consumers.
Under this category are included all kinds of animals that are found in an ecosystem;
These are different classes or categories of consumers, such as
a) Consumers of the first order or primary consumers
b) Consumers of the second order or secondary consumers
c) Consumers of the third order or tertiary consumers
d) Parasites, scavengers and saprobes

a. Primary consumers
Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores
These are purely herbivorous animals that are dependent for their food on producers are green
plants,
insects, rabbit, deer, cow, buffalo, goat are some of the common herbivores in the terrestrial
ecosystem.

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BIHE
b. Secondary consumers
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.
These are carnivores and omnivores. Carnivores are flesh eating animals and the omnivores are
the animals that are adapted to consume herbivores as well as plants as their food.
Examples; Sparrow, crow, fox, wolves, dogs, cats, snakes etc
Tertiary consumers
These are the top carnivores which prey upon other carnivores, omnivores and herbivores, lions,
tigers, vulture, etc.
c. The parasites, scavengers and saprobes
The parasitic plants and animals utilize the living tissues of different plants and animals, the
scavengers and saprobes utilize dead remains of animals and plants as their food.

3. Decomposers and transformers

• These are the living components of the ecosystem and they are fungi, and bacterial. Decomposers
attack the dead remains of producers and consumer and degrade the complex organic substances
into similar components.
• The simple organic matters are then attacked by another kind of bacteria, the transformers which
change these organic compounds into the inorganic forms that are suitable for reuse by producers
or green plants. The decomposers and transformers play very important role in maintaining the
dynamic nature of ecosystems.

Abiotic competition
The non living components of an ecosystem is called abiotic components.
Abiotic components of ecosystem includes basic inorganic elements compounds, such as soil, water,
oxygen, calcium carbonates, and variety of organic compounds,
It also includes such physical factors and ingredients as moisture, wind currents and solar radiation.
Radiant energy of sun is the only significant energy source for any ecosystem. The amount of non-living
components, such as carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen, etc. that are present at any given time is known as
standing state or standing quantity.

Functions of ecosystem
1. Food circulation in the ecosystem; (Food Chain and Food Web)
2. Energy flow in Ecosystem
3. Ecosystem productivity
4. Biogeochemical cycle
5. Ecological succession
1. Food circulation in the ecosystem
a. Food chain
b. Food web

a. Food chain
The process of transfer of food (energy) from one organism to a series of organism is called as ‘Food
chain’. Food chain is a linear sequence of organisms which starts from producers organisms and ends with
decomposers species.

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BIHE
 A food chain show as single pathway from the producers to the consumers and how the energy flows in
this pathway. In the animal kingdom. Food travels around different levels. we get to know how organisms
are connected with each other. Food chain and food web form an integral part of the ecosystem.

Example;
The sun is the source of energy, which is the initial energy source. This is used by the producers or plants
to create their own food.
Through photosynthesis and grow. Next in this chain is another organism, which is the consumer that eat
this food, taking up this energy.
The primary consumers are the organisms that consume the primary producers.
In terrestrial ecosystem, it could be a herbivore like a cow or a goat or it could be a man. When a goat is
consumed by man, he becomes the secondary consumer.

b. Food web
In a food web many food chain are inter connected. Where different types of organisms are connected
of different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each tropic
levels.
Food web is a connection of multiple food chains.
A food web consists of all the food chain in a single ecosystem. Each living things in an ecosystem is part
of multiple food chain…
All of the interconnected and overlapping food chains in an ecosystem make up a food web.
Food chain follows a single path whereas food web follows multiple paths. From the food chain

2. Energy flow in ecosystem

Energy flow in an ecosystem is defined as the movement or transfer of energy from one tropic level to
another in an ecosystem. The energy that is passed is in the form of chemical energy.
Direction of energy flow
Energy flow in a unidirectional manner in an ecosystem
This is because the energy that is lost during energy flow cannot be recused in other stage of energy flow.
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BIHE
Energy flow from producers to primary consumers to secondary consumers and finally to tertiary
consumers.
Moreover; at each stage of energy transfer, a certain amount of energy is lost.

When the light energy falls on the green surfaces of plants, a part of it is transformed into chemical energy
which is stored in various organic products in the plants. When the herbivores consume plants as food and
convert chemical energy accumulated in plant products into kinetic energy, degradation of energy will
occur through its conversion into heat. When herbivores are consumed by carnivores of the first order
(secondary consumers) further degradation will occur. Similarly, when primary carnivores are consumed
by top carnivores, again energy will be degraded.

Steps of energy flow in an ecosystem

• First step of energy flow; is the production of energy
Primary producers utilize the solar energy to produce organic material through photosynthesis at the
first tropic level.
• Second step of energy flow
Plants are used as food by herbivores at the second tropic level of energy flow in the ecosystem, which
provides them energy
The metabolic operations of these creatures, such as breathing, digecting food, etc. consume a
considerable portion of this energy.
• Third step of energy flow
At the next tropic level, carnivores eat herbivores to obtain energy for their survival and growth.
If gain t predators are present, they represent a higher trophic level, and they get energy by feeding on
carnivores.
• Fourth step of energy flow;
Bacteria, fungi, and insects are examples of decomposers, which break down wastes and dead
creatures and return nutrients to the soil.
Then the producers then take up his decomposed waste, decomposition does not recycle energy;
instead, it releases it.

3. Ecosystem productivity;
In ecology, productivity refers to the rate of formation of biomass in the ecosystem. It can also be referred
to as the energy accumulated in the plants by photosynthesis.
These are two types of productivity, namely
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BIHE
 a. Primary productivity
b. Secondary productivity

a. Primary productivity
It is defined as the rate of which radiant energy is stored by the producers, most which are
photosynthetic, and to a much lesser extent the chemosynthetic microorganisms. (they use chemical
energy to produce their own food)
It refers to the generation of biomass from autotrophic organisms such as plants. Photosynthesis is the
primary tool for the creation of organic material from inorganic compounds such as carbon dioxide
and water.
b. Secondary productivity
This represents the energy storage at the consumer level.
It is the rate of energy storage at consumer’s level’s herbivores, carnivores and decomposers. Consumers
tend to utilize already produced food material in their respiration and also converts the food matter to
different tissues by an overall process.

4. Biogeochemical cycle
Biological – life/living
Geological – earth
Chemical – different chemical such as C,N,O,S P
Biogeochemical cycle mainly refers to the movement of nutrients and other elements between biotic
and abiotic factors.
The natural elements in the biogeochemical cycle flow from abiotic components to biotic components,
that we called as biogeochemical cycle.
Biogeochemical as a term, refers to three aspects in each cycle, those aspects are biological, geological
and chemical.
Biogeochemical cycle help in the regulation of natural elements that are necessary for living beings, by
channeling through physical and biological phenomenon. It acts as a recycling procedure in nature.
Importance of Biogeochemical Cycle
Biogeochemical cycles help in the regulation of natural elements that are necessary for living beings, by
channelling through physical and biological phenomenon. It acts as a recycling procedure in nature.
Types of biogeochemical cycle;
• Water cycle
• Carbon cycle
• Oxygen cycle
• Nitrogen cycle
• Sulphur cycle
Phosphorus cycle

5. Ecological succession
Ecological succession is a series of changes that occur in an ecological community over time.
Ecological succession is the steady and gradual change in a species of a given area with respect to the
changing environment. It is a predictable change and is an inevitable process of nature as all the biotic
components have to keep up with the changes in our environment.
Ecological succession aims at reaching the equilibrium in the ecological system. This is achieved by a
community called the climax community

Prof. Nisharani D P
BIHE
Ecological succession is a sequence of changes that occur in an ecological system over time.‖ The gradual
and progressive growth of a species in any given area with respect to its changing surroundings is called
ecological succession. It is an anticipated change that beholds the biotic components being an inevitable
part of them in the environment.
Types of ecological succession
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
3. Cyclic succession
4. Seral community

1. Primary succession
Primary succession is the succession that starts in lifeless areas such as the regions devoid of soil or the
areas where the soil is unable to sustain life.
When the planet was first formed there was no soil on earth.
The earth was only made up of rocks. These rocks were broken down by microorganisms and eroded to
form soil.
The soil then becomes the foundation of plant life. These pants help in the survival of different animals
and progress succession to the climax community.
If this primary ecosystem is destroyed, secondary succession takes place.
2. Secondary succession
Secondary succession occurs when the primary ecosystem gets destroyed. For eg. A climax community
gets destroyed by fire. It gets recolonized after the destruction. This is known as secondary ecological
succession.
Small plants emerge first. Followed by larger plants. The tall trees block the sunlight and change the
structure of the organisms below the canopy. Finally, the climax community arrives
Secondary succession is faster than primary succession
3. Cyclic succession
The change in the structure of an ecological system on a cyclic basis is called cyclic succession. There are
some plants that stay dormant for most of the year but emerge all at once. This can cause structural
variations in the ecosystem.
4. Seral community;
A seral community is a transitional stage of ecological succession progressing in the direction of the
climax community. A seral community is substituted by the succeeding community. It consists of simple
food webs and food chains. It exhibits a very low degree of diversity. The individuals are less in number
and the nutrients are also less.

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BIHE
Terrestrial ecosystem; Types
1. Forest ecosystem
A forest ecosystem is a functional unit or a system which comprises of soil, trees, insects, animals, birds,
and man as its interacting units. A forest is a large and complex ecosystem and chance has grater species
diversity.
A forest ecosystem Is a piece of natural woodland comprising of animals, plants, and microorganisms
(biotic part) working with all non-living (abiotic part) factors in the environment.
Types of forest ecosystem
The types of forest ecosystem have been decided based on latitude and different characteristics
1. Tropical forest ecosystem
2. Temperate forest ecosystem
3. Boreal ecosystem

1, Tropical Forest Ecosystem

• Tropical forests, also known as tropical rainforest, receives almost 100 inches of rain every year. The
tropical forest has a wide variety of species among all other types of forest ecosystems.
• Tropical forests are usually found in latitude between 23.5 degrees North and 23.5 degrees South. The
temperature recorded in tropical forests is between 68 degrees and 77 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Heavy rainfall in the tropical forest leads to poor quality of soil due to a lack of nutrients. High-level
rainfall throughout the year causes leaching of soil nutrients.
• The vegetation of the tropical rainforest mostly includes broad-leafed trees that are very tall about 82-115
feet height. Due to dense canopy, the sun finds it quite tough to reach the forest floor.
• The tropical forest is a home for millions of animals that includes a massive variety of birds, mammals,
amphibians, reptiles, etc. Here you can find almost half the species of animals that lived on Earth.
The tropical forest ecosystem is again divided into different categories and types. These are –
a. Evergreen forest: The evergreen forest receives heavy year-round rainfall with no dry season.
b. Seasonal forest: Seasonal forest host evergreen flora with a short-time dry season.
c. Dry forest: As the name suggests, dry forests experience a long-period of the dry season.
d. Montane forest: Montane forests received most of the precipitation in the form of fog, hence
also known as cloud forests.
2, Temperate Forest Ecosystem
• Temperate forests are usually found in North America, Eurasia, Japan, etc. Temperate forest receives less
rainfall as compared to tropical forests approximately 30-60 inches every year.
• Unlike tropical forests, temperate forests experience all the four seasons with variation in temperature. The
winters in the temperate forest quite often experience temperature below freezing point, and in summers,
the temperature becomes very high with a high level of humidity.
• The soil of temperate forest is rich in organic matter that allows a huge variety of vegetation to grow in the
temperate forest.
• The temperate forest provides natural habitat to many animals such as squirrels, deer, black bears, raccoons,
coyotes, various birds like warblers, owls, woodpeckers, hawks, etc.
3, Boreal Forest Ecosystem
• The boreal forest is also known as Taiga forests are generally found in Siberia, Northern Asia, Canada,
and Scandinavia. One of the main characteristics of the boreal forest is that it experiences short summers
and very long winter seasons. Boreal forests receive approximately 15-40 inches precipitation every year
(mostly receives in the form of snowfall).
• The trees found in boreal forests are the evergreen type, such as pine, fir, spruce, etc. The boreal forest has
a dense canopy that hardly allows the sun to reach the forest surface. This is why the vegetation is quite
less in the forest floor.
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BIHE
• The animals found in the boreal forest ecosystem are usually covered with thick fur to protect them from
a long period of cold winters. Some examples of animals that lived in boreal forests are – elk, caribou,
lynxes, wolverines, deer, snowshoe hare, moose, wolves, etc.

2. Desert ecosystem
Desert is a barren area of landscape where little precipitation occurs and, consequently, living condition
are hostile for plant and animal life.
Desert are barren areas of land characterized by extremely high or low temperatures. With low rainfall
and scarce or no vegetation.
Desert are examples of terrestrial ecosystem. These are regions with a short rainy season. It is scorching
in the daytime. And very cold at night in the desert.
Types of desert ecosystem
Desert are arid regions with especially low or high temperature and limited vegetation. Based on the
climate condition. Deserts are classified into two types-
a. Hot deserts
b. Cold desert

1, The hot and dry desert – Sahara

• The Sahara is known as the world’s largest desert, covering over 8.54 million square kilometres. It is the
largest, and the hottest desert in the world.
• Sahara desert is located in tropical regions, which are 1,000 m above sea level. It covers a huge part of
North Africa, and eleven other countries – Algeria, Tunisia, Egypt, Mali, Chad, Niger, Western Sahara,
Sudan, Mauritania, Libya and Morocco.
• The total area actually measures about 8,600,000 square kilometres, which is 4,800 km approximately
from east to west, and between 800 and 1,200 km from north to south.
• The climate in this region is extremely hot, sizzling, and dry, and often receives small quantities of
precipitation throughout the year.
• In this hot desert, the days are scorching. During the day, temperatures will rise as high as 45° C to 50° C,
heating the bare rocks and the sand. The nights can be extremely cold, with temperatures going below 0°
C, sometimes.

2, The cold and dry desert of Ladakh

• Ladakh is famously known as the cold desert of India. It is found in the high altitudes of the temperate
regions, which lie in the Great Himalayas within the eastern parts of Jammu and Kashmir and located in
the western Himalayas region, within Himachal Pradesh in North India.
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BIHE
• The altitude in Ladakh ranges from about 3,000 m in Kargil to 8,000 m in Karakoram. Due to its high
altitude, the climate remains extremely cold and dry. The day temperatures in summer are just above 0° C
and the night temperatures go below –30° C.
• The Gangotri glacier along with several other glaciers are found here, along with different rivers flowing
through Ladakh. Among the rivers, Indus is the most important river that flows through Ladakh.
• In Ladakh, there are very few, tiny patches of grasses and shrubs for animals to graze on. Many poplars,
groves of willows and shrubs of the genus Salix are seen in the valleys.

3. Grassland ecosystem
Grassland are the areas where the vegetation is dominated by a nearly continuous cover of grasses and
herbaceous (non-woody) plants, it is one of the most widespread of all major vegetation in the world.
What is grassland ecosystem?
A grassland ecosystem is the collection of pants, animals, and micro-organisms that live within an
environment where grasses are the primary form of vegetation.
Grassland are found in both tropical and temperate regions where rainfall is not enough to support the
growth of trees.
It is also known as transitional landscape and also known by different names in different regions of the
world steppes in Europe and asia, papas in south America,
Types of grassland ecosystem:
a. Temperate grassland
b. Tropical grassland
c. Flooded grassland

a. Tropical Grasslands; Tropical Grasslands are the ones which receive 50 cm to 130 cm rain.
Furthermore, they have both rainy and dry days. As a result, they are warm all year round.
Moreover, tropical grasslands are also called Savanna. These grasslands contain shrubs and small trees that
are dry in nature. also, the tropical grasslands contain quite short plants which makes it an excellent hunting
ground. For instance, the African savanna is one of the tropical grasslands. In conclusion, the tropical
grassland is a home for elephants, giraffes, lions, cheetahs, zebras, and other spectacular species.
b. Temperate Grasslands; Temperate grasslands receive rainfall of the range 25 cm and 75 cm.
Furthermore, the climate in the temperate grasslands makes it both dormant and growing.
Moreover, these grasslands suffer extreme climates. In the cold season, the temperature can reach up Flooded
Grasslands to 0 degrees Fahrenheit. While in the summer season it reaches up to 90 degrees in some areas.
The precipitation in these grasslands is mostly in the form of dew and snow. for instance, some vegetation
that grows here are, cacti, sagebrush, perennial grasses, buffalo grass clovers, and wild indigos, etc.
c. Flooded Grasslands; The flooded grasslands are having water all year-round. Furthermore, these
grasslands contain numerous vegetation that grows in water. Various water birds migrate to these areas
while some are residents of it. Most Noteworthy the Everglades is the world’s largest flooded grasslands.
Furthermore, it features various types of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, seed-bearing plants, amphibians, and
butterflies, etc.

Prof. Nisharani D P
BIHE