our sting, nale act anin mber cb 1015, erted bel/ orla/ hese beth: 5 CHAPTER 4 149) Personality and Val ‘ersonality is indeed a strong factor for many life and work outcomes. Personality plays a major role in success in the workplace, although the effects are not always direct; sometimes they are nuanced. We will explain extraversion, conscientiousness, openness, agreeableness, and neuroticism: the traits which comprise the Big Five, the most well-defined and supported personality framework to-date. We'll also review frameworks that describe an individual's personality and tendencies. ‘Linking an Individual’s Personality and Values to the Workplace Describe the ‘Thirty years ago, organizations were concerned with personality, in part because differences between they used it to match individuals to specific jobs. That concern has expanded to person-job fitand include how well the individual’s personality and values match the organization. person-organization Why? Because managers today are less interested in an applicant's ability to fit perform a specific job than with his or her flexibility to meet changing situations and maintain commitment to the organization. Still, one of the first types of fit, managers look for is person-job fit. Person-Job Fit The effort to match job requirements with personality characteristics is described personaly-job ft theory Atheoy by John Holland’s personality-job fit theory, one of the more proven theories Uatidenfessipesoaityypes jn use internationally.’ The Vocational Preference Inventory questionnaire con- gd popass tate bee? tains 160 occupational titles, Respondents indicate which they like or dislike, andl awcuaity ope rd upton heir answers form personality profiles, Holland presented six personality types ara tue. and proposed that satisfaction and the propensity to leave a position depend on how well individuals match their personalities to a job. Exhibit 41 describes the six types, their personality characteristics, and examples of the congruent occu- rations for each. Pasphere are cultural implications for person-job fit that speak to workers’ expectations that jobs will be tailored. In individualistic countries where workers expect to be heard and respected by management, increasing person-job fit by tailoring the job to the person increases the individual's job satisfaction. How- exer, in collectivistic countries, person-job fit is a weaker predictor of job satisfac- tion because people do not expect to have a job tailored to them, so they value person-job fit efforts less. Therefore, managers in collectivistic cultures should not violate cultural norms by designing jobs for individuals; rather, they should seek people who will likely thrive in jobs that have already been structured.” 4- Person-Organization ‘We've noted that researchers have looked at matching people to organizations and jobs. If an organization has a dynamic and changing environment and needs employees able to change tasks readily and move easily between teams, it’s more important that employees’ personalities fit with the overall organiza- tion’s culture than with the characteristics of any specific job. person-organization ft _A theory Person-organization fit essentially means people are attracted to and are Ua people ae attacted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and they leave organizations that Solced by orators tat match are not compatible with their personalities.® Using the Big Five terminology, for ‘hale values, and leave when theres rweanpatbity instance, we could expect that extraverts fit well with aggressive and team-oriented150 PART2. The Individuat creative expression Holtand’s Typology of Personality and Congruent Occupations 1 Type a Personality Characteristics congruent Occupations | Realistic: Prefers physical activities that___Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, Mechanic, dill pres operator, | requite skill strength, and coordination practical assembiyline worker, farmer Investigative: Prefers activities that involve Analytical original, curious, independent Biologist, economist, mathematician, | thinking, organizing, and understanding news reporter | Social: Prefers activities that involve Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding Socal worker, teacher, counselor, | helping and developing others clinical psychologist | Conventional: Prefers ruleegulated, Conforming ficient, practical unimaginative, _ Accountant, corporate manager, bank | orderly, and unambiguous activites inflexible teller, file clerk | Enterprising: Prefers verbal activities Set-confident, ambitious, energetic, Lawyer, real estate agent, public in which there are opportunities to ‘domineering relations specialist, small business | influence others and attain power manager Antistic: Prefers ambiguous and Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, Painter, musician, writer, interior Unsytematic activites that allow impractical decorator cultures, people high on agreeableness match better with a. supportive organizational climate, and highly open people fit better in organizations that emphasize innovation rather than standardization.‘ Following these guidelines when hiring should yield employees who fit better with the organization's culture, which should, in turn, result in higher employee satisfaction and reduced turnover, Research on person-organization fit also looked at whether people’ values match the organization's culture. A match predicts high job satista commitment to the organization, and task performance, as well as low turnover It is more important than ever for organizations to manage their image online because job seekers view company websites as part of their pre-application process. Applicants want to sce a userfriendly website that provides informa- tion about company philosophies and policies. For example, millennials in particular may react positively when they perceive that an organization is com- mitted to workife balance. The website is so important to the development of perceived person-organization fit that improvements to its style (usability) and substance (policies) can lead to more applicants.” Other Dimensions of Fit Although person-job fit and person-organization fit are considered the most salient dimensions for workplace outcomes, other avenues of fit are worth examining. These include person-group fit and person-supervisor fit!” Person~ group fit is important in team settings, where the dynamics of team interactions, significantly affect work outcomes. Person-supervisor fit has become an impor- tant area of research because poor fit in this dimension can lead to lower job satisfaction and reduced performance. All dimensions of fit are sometimes broadly referred to as person— environment fit, Each dimension can predict work attitudes, which are partially based on culture. A recent meta-analysis of person-environment fit in East Asia, Europe, and North America suggested the dimensions of person-organization and person-job fit are the strongest predictors of positive work attitudes and performance in North America. These dimensions are important to a lesser degree in Europe, and they are the least important in East Asia.® Decat forma sport: job fit passic sport: quail all po: with p personal ‘hich anontive that dines ture, uced rple’s tion, nage ation ils in nt of, yand most orth tions apor- r job tially Asia, atio Decathlon India—a large format store that sells ft ress equipment, goods and ‘cessories for more than 70 Sports-—belioves in person- job ft, Thus, while hiring, the passion ofthe person to play Sports is seen as an essential {uelification. The selection of ail possible candidates begins with playing 2 team sport a2, Desoide personaiy the way itis measured, andthe factors that shape i personality The sum of ways in bch an nda eats to and interact wth oes Personality and Values CHAPTER 4151 Ri Personality Why are some people quiet and passive, while others are loud and aggressive? Are certain personality types better adapted than others for certain jobs? Before we can answer these questions, we need to address a more basic one: What is personality? What Is Personality? When we speak of someone's personality, we use many adjectives to describe how they act and seem to think; in fact, participants in a recent study used 624 distinct adjectives to describe people they knew.” As organizational behavior ists, however, we organize personality characteristics by overall traits, describing the growth and development of a person's personality Defining Personality For our purposes, think of personality as the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others. We most often describe personality in terms of the measurable traits a person exhibits Measuring Personality Personality assessments have been increasingly used in diverse organizational settings. In India, psychometric assessments are used for recruitment and competency mapping by several companies including Cognizant, Ford Motors, Tata Motors, TVS Sundaram, Deloitte, etc. In a historic move, the Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) mandated that in all its 19,500 affiliated schools, the teaching and non-teaching staff should undergo a psychometric evaluation which tests among other things the personality measures.” Personality tests are useful in hiring decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job." ‘The most common means of measuring personality is through self-report surveys in which individuals evaluate themselves on a series of factors, such as “I worry a lot about the future.” In general, when people know their personality scores are152 PART2.— The Individual ‘going to be used for hiring decisions, they rate themselves as about half a standard deviation more conscientious and emotionally stable than if they are taking the test to learn more about themselves.” Another problem is accuracy, a candidate who is in a bad mood when taking the survey may have inaccurate scores.'® Research indicates that culture influences the way we rate ourselves. People n individualistic countries trend toward selfenhancement, while people in collectivist countries like India, Taiwan, China, and South Korea trend toward self-diminishment. Selfenhancement does not appear to harm a person’s career in individualistic countries, but it does in collectivist countries, where humility is valued. Underrating (selfdiminishment) may harm a person's career in both collectivistic and individualistic communities." Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent assessment of personality. Here, a coworker or another observer does the rating. Though the results of self-reports and observerratings surveys are strongly correlated, research sug- gests that observer-ratings surveys predict job success more than selfratings alone." 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However it owed ne beredty at concep physiologic psetologs Energetic decisive, courage are perse describe founder ¢ traits het here prot bulls one and resp in travel testy,ndard re test who is ‘eople ple in oward rson’s where nality alts of h sug. atings dual’s teredty Fectos determined ‘at conception; one's bila, piysilogial, and inherent sycologal makeup Energetic, charismatic, decisive, ambitious, adaptable, ‘courageous, and industrious are personaly tats used to {describe Richard Branson, ‘ounder of Virgin Group. These traits helped Branson, shown here promoting Virgin Tans, bull one of the most recognized ‘and respected global brands, in travel, entertainment, and iestye. 2 result of both; however, re Personality and Values CHAPTER 4 153 behavior, so a combination of self-reports and observer reports predicts per- formance better than any one type of information. The implica Use both observer ratings and selfreport ratings of personality when making important employment decisions. ion is clear: Personality Determinants An early debate centered on whether an individual’s personality is the result of heredity or environment. Personality appears to be ‘ch tends to support the importance of heredity over environment Heredity refers to factors determined at conception. Physical stature, facial features, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and biological rhythms are either completely or substantially influenced by parentage—by your biological parents’ biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup. The heredityapproach argues that the ultimate explanation of an individual's personality is the molecular structure of the genes, which are located on the chromosomes. A review of 134 studies found that there is some truth to this approach, with about 40 percent of personality being attributable to heredity and the other 60 percent attributable to the environment." This is not to suggest that personality never changes. People’s scores on dependability tend to increase over time, as when young adults start families and establish careers. However, strong individual differences in dependability remain; everyone tends to change by about the same amount, so their rank order stays roughly the same." Furthermore, personality is more changeable in adolescence and more stable among adults.'® Early work on personality tried to identify and label enduring character- istics that describe an individual’s behavior, including shy, aggressive, sub- missive, lazy, ambitious, loyal, and timid. When someone frequently exhibits these characteristics and they are relatively enduring over time and across154 PART2. The Individuat personality traits Enduring characters that dasrbe an Inchiuals Denavir 4.3 Dsotbe ne svenns and weaknesses ofthe Myers-Briges “Wpe indicator (MET) personality framework and the Big Five model Myers-Brges Type Indicator (MBH) ‘personality test that taps four charatestes and dassifes people into one of sateen persona types. situations, we call them personality traits." The more consistent the charac. teristic over time and the more frequently it occurs in diverse situations, the more important the trait is in describing the individual, Personality Frameworks Throughout history, people have sought to understand what makes individu. als behave in different ways. Many of our behaviors stem from our personali- ties, so understanding the components of personality helps us predict behavior. Important theoretical frameworks and assessment tools help us categorize and study the dimensions of personality. The most widely used and best known personality frameworks are the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Personality Model. Both describe a person's total personality through exploration of the facets of per- sonality. Other frameworks, such as the Dark Triad, explain certain aspects, but not the total, of an individual’s personality. We discuss each below, but let's begin with the dominant frameworks. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator ‘The MyersBriggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is one of the most widely used personality assessment instruments in the world.” Itis a 100-question personality test that asks people how they usually feel or act in situations. Respondents are classified as extraverted or introverted (E or 1), sensing or intuitive (S or N), thinking or feeling (T or F), and judging or perceiving (J or P) © Extraverted (B) versus Introverted (1), Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and assertive. Introverts are quiet and shy. * Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N). Sensing types are practical and prefer rou- tine and order, and they focus on details. Intuitives rely on unconscious processes and look at the big picture. * Thinking (7) versus Feeling (F). Thinking types use reason and logic to han- dle problems. Feeling types rely on their personal values and emotions. * Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P). Judging types want control and prefer order and structure. Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous. ‘The MBTI describes personality types by identifying one trait from each of the four pairs. For example, Introverted/Intuitive/Thinking/Judging people (INTJs) are visionaries with original minds and great drive. They are skeptical, critical, independent, determined, and often stubborn, ENFJs are natural teach- ersand leaders, They are relational, motivational, intuitive, idealistic, ethical, and, kind, ESTJs are organizers. They are realistic logical, analytical, and decisive, per- fect for business or mechanics. The ENTP type is innovative, individualistic, ver- satile, and attracted to entrepreneurial ideas. This person tends to be resourceful in solving challenging problems but may neglect routine assignments. According to the Myers & Briggs Foundation, introverts account for over 50 percent of the E/I responses in the U.S. population. Indeed, two of the three most common MBTI types are introverts: ISEJ and IST]. ISEJs are nurturing and responsible, and ISTJs are dutiful and logical. The least common types are INF] (insightful and protective) and ENT] (focused and decisive). ‘The MBT1 is used in a variety of organizational settings. It is taken by over million people each year, and 89 of the Fortune 100 companies use it? Big Five ‘hat pro encom in ume cans limersi who er persiste ation dimers ascaim (poste and inst esc ‘pega penne: person: charac Imagin: great dimen who and tss, the used nality ts are WN), going, Frou. yhan- refer ich of eople tical, teach: Land > per over reeful ver 50 three uring vover eit Big Fve Model personaity mode ‘hat proposes fv basic dimensions encompass most ofthe difeences in human personaly. cansientiousness A personality dimension tat desosbes someone wha is responsible, dependable, Dersistent and organized. ational stabity pesonaty dimension at characterees someone ascal,sttconident, and secure (poste) versus enous, depressed, ana insecure (negate), eatraverion pessoal dimension Aesibing someone wos socable, pegs, and ase. ‘openness to experience A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imaghation, sensi and curiosity. ‘agreeableness A personality dimension vat describes someone vio is good natured, cooperative, and wasting Personality and Values CHAPTER 4 155 Evidence is mixed about its validity as a measure of personality; however, most of the evidence is against it-* As Professor Dan Ariely noted about MBTI results, “Next time, just look at the horoscope. It is just as valid and takes less time." One problem with the MBTI is that the model forces a person into one type or another; that is, you're either introverted or extraverted. There is no in-between. Another problem is with the reliability of the measure: When peo- ple retake the assessment, they often receive different results. An additional problem is in the difficulty of interpretation. There are levels of importance for each of the MBTI facets, and there are separate meanings for certain com- binations of facets, all of which require trained interpretation that can leave room for error. Finally, results from the MBTI tend to be unrelated to job per. formance. The MBTI can thus be a valuable tool for increasing selEawareness and providing career guidance, but because results tend to be unrelated to job performance, managers should consider using the Big Five Personality Model, discussed next, as the personality selection test for job candidates instead. The Big Five Personality Model ‘The MBTI may lack strong supporting evidence, but an impressive body of research supports the Big Five Model, which proposes that five basic dimensions underlie all others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality” Test scores of these traits do a very good job of predicting how peo- ple Behave in a variety of reaMlife situations” and remain relatively stable for an individual over time, with some daily variations.” These are the Big Five factors: + Conscientiousness. ‘The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of personal consistency and reliability. A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized, dependable, and persistent. Those who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized, and unreliable. * Emotional stability. The emotional stability dimension taps a person's ability to withstand stress, People with emotional stability tend to be calm, self-confident, and secure, High scorers are more likely to be positive and optimistic and to experience fewer negative emotions; they are generally happier than low scorers. Emotional stability is sometimes discussed as its converse, neuroticism. Low scorers (those with high neuroticism) are hypervigilant and vulnerable to the physical and psychological effects of stress. Those with high neuroticism tend to be nervous, anxious, depressed, and insecure. Extraversion. The extraversion dimension captures our relational approach toward the social world, Extraverts tend to be gregarious, assertive, and sociable. They experience more positive emotions than do introverts, and they more freely express these feelings. On the other hand, introverts (low extraversion) tend to be more thoughtful, reserved, timid, and quiet. + Openness to experience. The openness to experience dimension addresses the range of interests and fascination with novelty. Open people are cre- ative, curious, and artistically sensitive. Those at the low end of the cat- egory are conventional and find comfort in the familiar. * Agreeableness. ‘The agreeableness dimension refers to an individual's propensity to defer to others. Agreeable people are cooperative, warm, and trusting. You might expect agreeable people to be happier than disagreeable people. They are, but only slightly: When people choose organizational team members, agreeable individuals are usually their first choice. In contrast, people who score low on agreeableness are cold and antagonistic.156 PART2. The Individual General Motors CEO Mary Barra is unusual in that she ‘appears to score high on all the Big Five personality dimensions. Her unique combination of traits has helped er become the first female CEO of a major global automaker. How Do the Big Five Traits Predict Behavior at Work? There are many relation- ships between the Big Five personality dimensions and job performance,” and we are learning more about them every day. Let’s explore one trait at a time, beginning with the strongest predictor of job performance—conscientiousness. Conscientiousness at Work As researchers have stated, “Personal attributes rclated to conscientiousness ... are important for success across many jobs, sp: ning across low to high levels of job complexity, training, and experience Employees who score higher in conscientiousness develop higher levels of job knowledge, probably because highly conscientious people lean more (consci- entiousness may be related to grade point average, [GPA]; *° and these levels correspond with higher levels of job performance." Conscientious people are also more able to maintain their job performance even when faced with abusive supervision, according to a recent study in India." Prior reviews also suggest that conscientious people tend to be more likely to engage in more organizational cit- zenship behaviors (OCBs), les likely to engage in counterproductive work behav iors (CWBs) or think about leaving the organization, and can adapt to changing task demands and situations.® Conscientious people also engage in less unsafe behavior and tend to have fewer aecidents than those who are less conscientious.™* Conscientiousness is important to overall organizational success. As Exhibit 42 shows, a study of the personality scores of 313 Chief Executive Officer (CEO) candidates in private equity companies (of whom 225 were hired) found con- scientiousness—in the form of persistence, attention to detail, and setting high standards—was more important to success than other traits. Like any trait, conscientiousness has pitfalls. Extremely conscientious individuals can be too deliberate and perfectionistic, resulting in diminished happiness and performance, which includes task performance, safety perfor- mance, and OCB." They may also become too focused on their own work to help others in the organization.” Finally, they are often less creative, especially artistically.as of job al citi- Miious ished erfor- ork to cially Personality ang Values CHAPTER 4 157 patblstas Traits That Matter Most to Business Success at Buyout Companies Mort nprat ess oor Persistence Strong oral communication | Attention to detail ‘Teamwork | ‘Sace' Based en 6.8 Kan, MLM. Mtr a M,Srneen "Wen 80 Curent Nts Mater? The ural at Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance, However, the other Big Five traits are also related to aspects of performance and have other implications for work and for life, as Exhibit 48 summarizes, Emotional Stability at Work Of the Big Five traits, emotional stability is most strongly related to life satisfaction, job satisfaction, and reduced burnout and intentions to quit.” People with high emotional stability can adapt to unexpected or changing demands in the workplace." At the other end of the spectrum, neurotic individuals, who may be unable to cope with these Enz Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria | bic FvE rears WHY sIFRELEVANTE wnat oorsmarecre | | “tes negetve thinking ond} Higher job and fe satstcon Emotional silly —» fewer nagotve emotions Lope * Lower sess lovee [7 tess hypenvigiont * More adoptale fo change | Beter interpersonal skis | # Higher performance Exraversion L—p Greater social dominance p+ Enhanced leadership ‘More emotionally expressive | + Higher job ond life satisfaction + creosed leoring + Enhanced Tring * Mor retin + | Periomonce ‘Mere lle ond autonomous |” *Enhonced leodership + eter ited | Higher perfomance “More complontond Lg. ower eel of deviont conforning behavior ‘Groote effort and perience | *Higher performance Conscientiousness -—p- * More drive and discipline L_- * Enhanced leadership * Beter organized and plonning += Greater longevity158 PART2.—The Inividual ® Dark A consteation of agate personaly ats consisting of Machievetianism,nrisism, end psyehopaty demands, may experience burnout."! These people also tend to experience work-family conflict, which can affect work outcomes." Given these negative, straining effects, neurotic employees are more likely to engage in CWBs, less likely to engage in OCBs, and less likely to be motivated at work."® Extraversion at Work People with extraverted personality traits tend to perform well in jobs that require interpersonal interaction. They are socially dominant, “take charge” people who are usually more assertive than introverts.** Extra: versioi is a relatively strong predictor of leadership emergence and behaviors in groups. Extraverts also tend to have generally high job satisfaction and reduced bumout. Some negatives are that extraverts can appear to be self aggrandizing, egoistic, or too dominating and that their social behavior can be disadvantageous for jobs that do not require frequent social interaction.” Openness at Work Open people tend to be the most creative and innovative compared with the other traits."* Open people are more likely to be effective Ieaders and more comfortable with ambiguity—they cope better with organiza. tional change and are more adaptable.*” While openness isn’t related to initial performance on a job, individuals higher in openness are less susceptible t0 a decline in performance over a longer time period.” Open people also experi- ence less work-family conflict." ‘Agreeableness at Work _Agreeable individuals are better liked than disagreeable people; they should perform well in interpersonally oriented jobs such as customer service. They experience less work-family conflict and are less susceptible to turnover. They also contribute to organizational performance by engaging in OCB. Disagreeable people, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in CWBs, as are people low in conscientiousness.* Agreeableness is associated with lower levels of career suecess, perhaps because highly agreeable people consider themselves less marketable and are less willing to assert themselves.” In general, the Big Five personality factors appear in almost all cross-cultural studies,” including studies in China, India, Israel, Germany, Japan, Spain, Nigeria, Norway, Pakistan, and the United States. However, a study of illiterate indigenous people in Bolivia suggested that the Big Five framework may be less applicable when studying the personalities of small, remote groups.”” Research indicates that the Big Five traits have the most verifiable links to important organizational outcomes, but they are not the only traits a person exhibits, nor are they the only ones with OB implications. Let’s discuss some other traits, known collectively as the Dark Triad. The Dark Triad Outside the Big Five framework, researchers have identified three other socially undesirable traits, which we all have in varying degrees, are also relevant to orga- nizational behavior: Machiavellianism, narcissism, and psychopathy. Because of their negative nature, researchers have labeled these the Dark Triad—though they do not always occur together."® The Dark Triad may sound sinister, but these traits are not clinical patholo- gics hindering everyday functioning. They might be expressed particularly strongly when an individual is under stress and unable to moderate any inap- propriate responses. Sustained high levels of dark personality traits can cause individuals to derail their careers and personal lives.”” action which ar aint believes