5.

CONTROLLERS
31 October 2022 16:46

BOOKS :

LINKS : What is PID Controller ? - Instrumentation Tools

---------- Table of Content ----------

 INTRODUCTION
○ Physical Representation of Control System
○ Block Diagram : (Signal never divide)
 TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
○ PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER (P - Controller)
 Summary
○ PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL CONTROLLER (PI - Controller)
○ PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER (PID - Controller)
 Summary
 BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION
○ General form of Transfer Function
 SERVO PROBLEM (set point tracking)
 REGULATORY PROBLEM
 CONCEPT OF OFFSET
 DYNAMIC RESPONCE OF 𝟏 𝐬𝐭 ORDER SYSTEM
○ Effect Of P-Controller on 𝟏 𝐬𝐭 Order System
 Graphical Representation
○ Dynamic Behaviour of Integral Controller
  Graphical Representation
 Summary
○ Dynamic Behaviour of Derivative Controller
○ P vs PI vs PID Controller Graph
○ PID Controller in Industry

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INTRODUCTION
---------
 Why we are studying Controller ?
- To control the system.

 By control the system we

- Increase the safety.
- Optimise the process and product.
- Increases the efficiency.
- Efficiently and effectively use the raw material.

 Physical Representation of Control System :

- This is a close loop system.

M = Measuring Device
C = Controller
fs = Steam flowrate
E = Error
○ Measurable(Controlled) variable : Which we wanna measure .
- Ex : height, Temperature, Pressure

○ Manipulated Variable : which control the measurable variable.

- Ex : steam flowrate

○ Measuring Device : Measures the condition or manipulated variable of the process and gives the signal
to the controller.
- Ex : Thermoset, Speedo meter, thermometer, etc...

○ Controller : work as judge.

- It output signal is error.
- Controller only listen set point not a measuring device signal. (means according to set point it takes
decision)
- According to difference between set point and measuring signal(yM ) it generats signal called error.

Error = 𝐲𝐬𝐞𝐭 − 𝐲𝐌𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞 (y = Temperature, pressure, height, etc...)

- This error signal is goes to the final control element.

○ Final control element : which control the manipulated variable according to the signal of controller.
- Ex : Valves.

- Close Loop Syatem : In this system the measured value of controlled variable feed back to the
controller.
- This system is more accurate.
- This system is costlier than the Open Loop System.
- Ex : Missile Tracking, Radar, water level indicator.

○ Open Loop System : in which output variable is not going to compare with set point.

 Block Diagram : (Signal never divide)---------

 - Here Comparator is device which calculate the error.
- In 95% cases error are positive because we easily change the set point compare to value of measured
variable.

TYPES OF CONTROLLERS
---------

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER
(P - Controller)
---------
 - Output of the controller is directly proportional to the input of the controller(Error).
𝐏 ′ (t) ∝ 𝛆(t)

- Here dash(') showing deviation from ideal state.

𝐏 ′ (t) = 𝐤 𝐜 𝛆(t)
p(t) - p(S) = 𝐤 𝐜 𝛆(t)

- Here kc = Proportional gain (sensitivity) / Gain of the controller / controller gain

- p(S) = baise value (value where error will ZERO)

 CASE 1 : Transfer function of the P - Controller

P′ (t) = kc ε(t)
P′ (S) = kc ε(S)
𝐘(𝐒) 𝐏 ′ (𝐒)
G(S) = 𝐗(𝐒) = 𝛆(𝐒)
= 𝐤𝐜

 CASE 2 : Order of the P - Controller

- Here in transfer function no 'S' term show means S0 therefor the order will be ZERO.

 CASE 3 : Graphical Representation

- p(t) = p(S) + kc ε(t)
- ε(t) = yset − ymeasure

 Point to be Noted : ---------

 kc 3 > kc 2 > kc 1
 B. W1 > B. W2 > B. W3
 Desire = minimum Band Width
1
 kc ∝ Band Width (Range of the error)

○ Special case of P - Controller : (ON-OFF Controller)

Where 𝐤 𝐜 → ∞, slope → ∞, Range of the error = Band Width = 0

- This case is called On-Off Controller (Fully opened, fully closed).

 CASE 4 :
P′ (S) 1
-
ε(S)
= kc provide Unit step ε(S) = S
(where M = 1)
kc
∴ P (S) =
′
S
- Now take invers of Laplace
∴ P′ (t) = kc
p(t) = 𝐤 𝐜 + p(S)

- Boundary conditions :
(1) at t < 0, p(t) = p(S)
(2) at, t ≥ 0, p(t) = kc + p(S)

 Summary : ---------
P′ (S)
(1) ε(S)
= kc | p(t) - p(S) = kc ε(t)

(2) Order = ZERO

 1
(3) kc ∝
Band Width (Range of the error)

(4) p(t) = kc + p(S) [provide unit step]

(5) special case(On-Off controller) when kc → ∞, slope → ∞, Range of the error = Band Width = 0

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL
CONTROLLER (PI - Controller)
---------

𝐭
- Integral action : 𝐏 ′ (t) ∝ ∫𝟎 𝛆(𝐭)𝐝𝐭

𝐤𝐜 𝐭
- I - Controller : 𝐏 ′ (t) = ∫ 𝛆(𝐭)𝐝𝐭
𝛕𝐈 𝟎
τI = integral time / Reset time

- For P & I - controller

𝐤𝐜 𝐭
𝐏 ′ (t) = 𝐤 𝐜 𝛆(𝐭) + ∫ 𝛆(𝐭)𝐝𝐭
𝛕𝐈 𝟎

- Take a Laplace;
kc (S)
P′ (S) = kc ε(S) +
I S

1
∴ P′ (S) = kc ε(S) 1 +
IS

𝐏 ′ (𝐒) 𝟏
G(S) = 𝛆(𝐒)
= 𝐤𝐜 𝟏 + 𝛕𝐈 𝐒
- This is the Transfer Function for PI - Controller.
 Graphical Representation : ---------
P′ (S) 1 1
- = kc 1 + provide Unit step ε(S) = (where M = 1)
ε(S) τI S S

1 1
∴ P′ (S) = kc 1 + τI S S

- Now take invers of Laplace

kc kc
∴ P′ (S) = L−1 +
S τI S2

kc
∴ P′ (t) = kc + τI
.t
𝐤𝐜
p(t) = 𝐤 𝐜 + 𝛕𝐈
. t + p(S)

kc
- Graph for P′ (t) = kc + τI
. t → Y = C + MX

kc
○ Graph for p(t) = kc + . t + p(S) → Y = C + MX
τI

 Reset Time(𝛕𝐈 ) : It is a time required by the responce to which responce of the P-Controller repeted.
 kc
- p(t) = kc + . t + p(S) at t = τI -------> p(t) = p(S) + 2kc
τI

kc
- p(t) = kc + τI
. t + p(S) at t = 2τI -------> p(t) = p(S) + 3kc

PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL DERIVATIVE

CONTROLLER (PID - Controller)
---------

𝐝
- Derivative action : 𝐏 ′ (t) ∝ 𝛆(𝐭)
𝐝𝐭

𝐝𝛆(𝐭)
- D - Controller : 𝐏 ′ (t) = 𝐤 𝐜 𝛕𝐃
𝐝𝐭

○ QUE : D-Controller never used alone??

ANS : In case of constant error derivative controller will not take any action against error and its fail.

- For PID - controller

𝐤𝐜 𝐭 𝐝𝛆(𝐭)
𝐏 ′ (t) = 𝐤 𝐜 𝛆(𝐭) + ∫ 𝛆(𝐭)𝐝𝐭
𝛕𝐈 𝟎
+ 𝐤 𝐜 𝛕𝐃 𝐝𝐭

- Take a Laplace;
𝐏 ′ (𝐒) 𝟏
G(S) = = 𝐤𝐜 𝟏 + + 𝛕𝐃 . 𝐒
𝛆(𝐒) 𝛕𝐈 𝐒

- This is the Transfer Function for PID - Controller.

 Graphical Representation : ---------
P′ (S) 1 1

ε(S)
= kc 1 + τI S
+ τD . S provide Unit step ε(S) = S
(where M = 1)

1 1
∴ P′ (S) = kc 1 + + τD . S
τI S S

1 1
∴ P′ (S) = kc + + τD
S τ I S2

- Now take invers of Laplace

1 1
∴ P′ (S) = L−1 + + τD
S τI S2

1
∴ P′ (t) = kc 1 + τI
.t + τD δ(t)

𝐤𝐜
𝐏 ′ (t) = [𝐤 𝐜 + 𝐤 𝐜 𝛕𝐃 𝛅(𝐭)] + .t
𝛕𝐈

- This equation compare with Y = C + MX

- A PID controller is an instrument used in industrial control applications to regulate temperature, flow,
pressure, speed and other process variables.

 Summary : ---------
P′ (S)
(1) P-Controller : ε(S)
= kc | It makes system fast.

P′ (S) 1
(2) PI-Controller : ε(S)
= kc 1 + τI S
| It eliminate the offset

P′ (S) 1
(3) PID-Controller : ε(S)
= kc 1 + τI S
+ τD . S | It captures the oscillation.
 P′ (S) 1
= kc 1 + + τD . S from the concept of Block Diagram Reduction.
ε(S) τI S

BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION

---------
○ Concept : How to solve the block diagram.
 Point 1 :

Y(S) = X(S)G(S)

- Ex : β(S) = α(S). A(S)

 Point 2 : Concept of Summing.

- We use comparator to add or subtract the two signal.

- Ex :
 Point 3 :
- For point 1 : Y(S) = α(S)B(S) & α(S) = A(S)X(S)
Y(S) = A(S)X(S)B(S)

 Point 4 : signals never divided.

- Close system :

- [α(S) − K] G(S) = Y(S)

∴[α(S) − A(S)Y(S)] G(S) = Y(S)
∴ α(S)G(S) − A(S)Y(S)G(S) = Y(S)
∴ α(S)G(S) = Y(S) [1 + A(S)G(S)]

(𝐒) 𝐆(𝐒) 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡

∴ 𝛂(𝐒) = [𝟏 𝐀(𝐒)𝐆(𝐒)]
= 𝐁𝐚𝐜𝐤𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝 𝐩𝐚𝐭𝐡

- Backward par = 1 + A(S)G(S) = 1 + open loop

- Ex :
 Yout Gc Gf Gp
- ANS : =
Ysp 1+ Gc Gf Gp GM

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Y(S)
QUE : Calculate the value of transfer function X(S) for the given control system.
---------

M(ON+1) M(OM+1) N(OM+1) 𝐎(𝐌𝐍−𝟏)

(A) 1+MO
(B) 1+NO
(C) 1+OM
(D) 𝟏−𝐍𝐎

Solution :
[(XM + Y)N - X]O = Y
∴(XMN + YN - X)O = Y
∴XMNO + YNO - XO = Y
∴X(MNO - O) = Y (1 - NO)
Y O(MN − 1)
∴X= (1 − NO)

QUE : The block diagram of a closed-loop control system is shown in the figure below, Y is the controlled
variable. D is disturbance, Ysp is the set point, G1 , G2 and G3 are transfer functions and Kc is the
proportional Controller

Y(S)
The closed loop transfer function D(S) is given by [GATE : 2006 IIT Kharagpur]
G3 G 1
(A)
1+(G1 G3 +G2 )Kc

G1
(B) 1+(G
1 3 +G2 )Kc
G

G3
(C) 1+(G
1 2 )G3 Kc
+G

G3
(D)
1+(G1 G3 +G2 )Kc
 Solution :

QUE CONTINUE : Let G1 (S) = 1 and G2 (S) = G3 (S) = 1/(S+1). A step change of magnitude M is made in
the set point.
The steady state offset of the closed-loop responce y is [GATE : 2006 IIT Kharagpur]
M M M(Kc −1)
(A) (B) (C) (D) Zero
1+2Kc 1+Kc 1+2Kc
Solution :

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Go To Top (---------)

 General form of Transfer Function : ---------

- ysp − yMGc Gp Gf + Gd d(S) = y

∴ ysp − yGMGc Gp Gf + Gd d(S) = y

∴ ysp .Gc Gp Gf + yGM Gc Gp Gf + Gd d(S) = y

𝐲𝐬𝐩 .𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟 𝐆𝐝
∴𝐲= + . 𝐝(S)
̅
𝟏+ 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟 𝟏+ 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟

𝐆𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐨𝐩 𝐓.𝐅 = 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟

 Here y or Y is deviation variable.

 SERVO PROBLEM (set point tracking)
---------
- Change in set point 𝐲𝐬𝐩 ≠ 0.
- But change in load will be zero 𝐝(S)
̅ =0

 Servo Problem : d(S) = 0

y .Gc Gp Gf Gd
y = 1+spG + 1+ G . d(S)
M Gc Gp Gf M Gc Gp Gf

𝐲 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟
∴ 𝐲 = 𝟏+ 𝐆
𝐬𝐩 𝐌 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟

REGULATORY PROBLEM
---------
- Change in load 𝐝(S)
̅ ≠ 0.
- But change in set point will be zero 𝐲𝐬𝐩 = 0
- How to calculate in GATE - Exam :

 Regulatory Problem : ysp = 0

y .Gc Gp Gf Gd
y = 1+spG + 1+ G . d(S)
M Gc Gp Gf M Gc Gp Gf

𝐲 𝐆𝐝
∴ =
𝐝(𝐒)
̅ 𝟏+ 𝐆𝐌 𝐆𝐜 𝐆𝐩 𝐆𝐟

 NOTE :
(1) Denominator will not change
𝐆
(2) T.F of Closed loop = 𝟏+𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐰𝐚𝐫𝐝
𝐆𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐧

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QUE : The block diagram for a process with feedback control for output deviation variable h is show in the
figure below. All transfer functions are given with pre-factor of s in minutes. A unit step change is made in
the set-point at t = 0. the time required for h to reach 50% of its ultimate value, in minutes (up to two
decimal places is) . [GATE 2015 : IIT Kanpur]
 Solution :
- Here unit step change is made in the set-point, that means this is Servo Problem.

0.2 1
h 0.5S × 1.5S+1 × 0.5S
hsp
= 0.2 1
1+1×0.5S × 1.5S+1 × 0.5S

h 0.2
∴ =
hsp 1.5S +1.2

- Take 0.2 common;

0.2
h
∴ h = 1.51.2
sp S +1
1.2

0.2
1
∴h= 1.5
1.2
×
S +1 S
1.2

1 1 Kp M
∴ h = 1.25 S +1 × 6S compare with Y(S) = (τ ×
p S + 1) S

t
∴ h(t) = 0.167 1 − e 1.25

- h to reach 50% of its ultimate value :h(t)t=∞ = 0.167

t
∴0.5 × 0.167 = 0.167 1 − e 1.25

t = 0.867 min

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

CONCEPT OF OFFSET
---------
- Offset called steady state error.
Offset = New Set Point − Ultimate Value of Responce

 Graphical Analysis :
 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QUE : Consider the following closed loop system with Gp and Gc as the transfer function of the process
and the controller, respectively.

For a unit step change in the set point (ysp ), the change in the value of the responce (y) at steady state is
__________ (round off to 1 decimal place). [2020 IIT Delhi]
Solution :

1 10
y 0.2 1+0.5S× (S+1)(2S+1)
-
ysp
= 1 10
1+ 0.2 1+0.5S× (S+1)(2S+1)

1 10
y 0.2 1+ ×
0.5S (S+1)(2S+1)
∴1= 1 10
S
1+ 0.2 1+0.5S× (S+1)(2S+1)

- Initial Value Theorem : limt→0 f(t) = lims→∞ s f(s)

1 10
0.2 1+ × 1
0.5S (S+1)(2S+1)
∴y = lims→∞ s × 1 10 × S
1+ 0.2 1+0.5S× (S+1)(2S+1)
2
∴y =
2

∴Y(S) = 1
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

DYNAMIC RESPONCE OF 𝟏𝐬𝐭 ORDER

SYSTEM
 ---------

 Effect Of P-Controller on 𝟏𝐬𝐭 Order System :

Kp
- Here Gc = Kc | Gp = | Gf = Gm = 1
τp S+1
Yout GGG
- Ysp
= 1+ GcGfGpG
c f p M

Kp
Kc × τ S+1 × 1
Y p
∴ = Kp
Ysp 1+ Kc ×1 × τ S+1 × 1
p

Y Kp Kc
∴Y =τ
sp p S+1+ Kc Kp

Kp Kc
Y 1+ Kc Kp
∴ Ysp
= τp
1+ Kc Kp
S+ 1

Kp ′
- Now compare with and assume Kp = 1
τp ′ S+1
τp ′ = Time constant after tacking controller.
Kp ′ = process gain after tacking controller.

K Kc K
- Kp ′ = p assume [Kp = 1] = 1+ cK
1+ K c Kp c
τp τp
- τp = ′
assume [Kp = 1] = 1+ K
1+ K c Kp c

○ Note 1 : Order will not increases(or change).

τ
○ Note 2 : τp ′ = p
1+ K c
At any value of 𝐊 𝐜 ----> 𝛕𝐩 ′ < 𝛕𝐩

○ Note 3 : As you ↑ 𝐊 𝐜 then 𝛕𝐩 ′ ↓ and system will be fast.

Kc
Kp ′ =
1+ Kc
 change in output
- If you ↑ Kc = means sensitivity of the system increases and for small changein input , output
change in input
will be large change that means system is unstable.
- So that value of Kc increases in limit which we will calculate in stability analysis chapter.

○ Note 4 : Offset Analysis

- If change in set point [M]
Y Kp ′
Ysp
=τ
p S+1
′

Kp ′ M
∴Y = ′ S+1 ×
τp S

Kp ′ M
- For Ultimate value of responce : limS→∞ Y = limS→0 S. Y = S × τ ′ S+1 × S
p

Y(∞) = MKp ′

MK
∴Y(∞) = 1+ Kc
c

MKc
- Offset = M - y(t → ∞) = M -
1+ Kc

𝐌
Offset = 𝟏+ 𝐊
𝐜

- By using the P-Controller offset will never be ZERO.

- That means P-Controller produced offset.

 Graphical Representation : ---------

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
QUE : Consider the following block diagram for a closed - loop feedback system
 A proportional controller is being used with Kc = -4. if a step change in disturbance of magnitude 2 effects
the system, then the value of the offset is ___________ [GATE 2014 : IIT Kharagpur]
Solution : Regulatory problem
2
- D(S) = S
2 2
C(S) Gd −S −S
- D(S)
= 1+ Gc Gf Gp GM
= 2 = 8
1+(−4)×0.5×− S×2 1+ S
2
− 2
∴C(S) = S
8 ×
1+ S S
2
−S 2
- Ultimate value : limS→∞ C(S) = limS→0 S. C(S) = S × 8 ×S
1+ S
∴C(S) = - 0.5

- Offset = New Set Point(NSP) - Ultimate Value of Responce (UVR)

∴Offset = 0 - (-0.5)
∴Offset = 0.5

- Here NSP is ZERO because it is Regulatory Problem(Change in load).

 Dynamic Behaviour of Integral Controller : ---------

Kc Kp
- Here Gc = | Gp = | Gf = Gm = 1
τI S τp S+1
Yout Gc Gf Gp
- =
Ysp 1+ Gc Gf Gp GM

Kc Kp
× τ S+1 × 1
Y τI S p
∴ = Kc Kp
Ysp 1+ ×1 × τ S+1 × 1
τI S p
 Y Kp Kc
∴Y =
sp τI τp S2 + τI S+ Kc Kp

Y 1
∴ = τI τp 2 τ
Ysp
Kc
S + KI S +1
c

Y(s) Kp ′
- Now compare with X(s) = ′ 2 s2 +
τp 2ζτp ′ s+1

○ Note 1 : Integral controller increase the order of system and system will become sluggish(slow).

𝛕𝐈 𝛕𝐩
○ Note 2 : 𝛕𝐩 ′ =
𝐊𝐜

τI
○ Note 3 : 2ζτp ′ =
Kc
τI
ζ= τI τp
2Kc Kc

𝟏 𝛕𝐈
𝛇= 𝐨𝐬𝐜𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐞𝐝
𝟐 𝐊 𝐜 .𝛕𝐩

- Oscillation may or may not be in the system its totally depends on the value of ζ .
- The value of ζ increasing and decreasing is depends on the value of Kc .

If 𝛇 < 1 then 𝐊 𝐜 ↑ , 𝛇 ↓ and oscillation ↑.

○ Note 4 : Offset Analysis

Y Kp Kc
= 2
Ysp τI τp S + τI S+ Kc Kp

Kp Kc M
∴Y = ×
τI τp S2 + τI S+ Kc Kp S

Kp Kc M
- For Ultimate value of responce : limS→∞ Y = limS→0 S. Y = S × 2 × S
τI τp S + τI S+ Kc Kp
∴Y(∞) = M

- Offset = M - y(t → ∞) = M - M
∴Offset = 0 Integral controller eliminates the offset .
 Graphical Representation : ---------
 Case 1 : We can say from Note 2; 𝐊 𝐜 ↑ , 𝛇 ↓ , 𝛕 ↓ keeping τI and τp is constant.

𝛕𝐈 𝛕𝐩
 Case 2 : 𝛕𝐩 ′ =
𝐊𝐜

- Here τI and τp is constant.

 Summary : ---------
(1) order↑
(2) offset eliminates
(3) Oscillation produce
(4) If ζ < 1 then Kc ↑ , ζ ↓ and oscillation ↑.
(5) Responce sluggish
(6) Kc ↑ , ζ ↓ , τ ↓ keeping τI and τp is constant.

 Dynamic Behaviour of Derivative Controller : ---------

Yout Gc Gf Gp
- =
Ysp 1+ Gc Gf Gp GM

- For derivative controller Gc = Kc τD S

 Kp
- Gp = | Gf = Gm = 1
τ p S+1

Kp
Kc τD S × τ S+1 × 1
Y p
∴ = Kp
Ysp 1+ Kc τD S ×1 × τ S+1 × 1
p

Y Kc τD S
∴Y =τ S+1+ Kc τD S
sp p

Y 𝐊 𝐜 𝛕𝐃 𝐒
∴ 𝐘 = (𝛕
𝐬𝐩 𝐩 + 𝐊 𝐜 𝛕𝐃 )+𝟏

○ Note 1 : Order -----> remain same (will not change)

○ Note 2 : τp ′ = τp + Kc τD

τp ′ > τp Responce slow.

○ Note 3 : Offset Analysis

Y Kc τD S
Ysp
= (τ
p Kc τD )+1
+

Kc τ D S M
∴Y = ×
(τp + Kc τD )+1 S

Kc τD S M
- For Ultimate value of responce : limS→∞ Y = limS→0 S. Y = S × (τp + Kc τD )+1
× S
∴Y(∞) = 0

- Offset = M - y(t → ∞) = M - 0
∴Offset = M overall offset will not reduce.

- By using Derivative controller offset will not reduce.

○ Note 4 :
 Advantage :
- It will capture the oscillation of the system.
- Noise controlled by D-controller.
 P vs PI vs PID Controller Graph : ---------

 PID Controller in Industry :

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