1.

INTRODUCTION
1.1. Generalities
Mechanics is one of the oldest natural sciences, which appeared from ancient times. On the base
of the studies mechanics phenomena, stay two fundamental notions: matter and motion.

• Matter is a philosophical category which design objective reality given to the man by his
sensory perceptions, but existing independent of them.
• Motion is an objective existing form of the matter, an essential feature of it.
Matter and motion are eternal, uncreated and indestructible, having an infinite nature.
Generally, in science motion means any kind of change, transformation or development of
physical, chemical, physiological or social nature.
1.2. Mechanics objectives
Mechanics studies one of the simplest motion form, knowing as mechanic motion, defined as
relative change of position of a body, or parts thereof, with respect to another body, considered
as referential.
About referentials, let mention that during mechanics history we had the following main
referentials:

• Geocentric system of Ptolemeu, an ancient philosopher, who said that the earth is fixed
and in the center of universe, all other celestial bocies move with respect to it.
• Heliocentric system of Nicolaus Copernic, a middle age scientist, who considered that the
sun is fixed and the earth and other celestial bodies move with respect to it.
• Later, appeared a new system (referential) more precisely related to three stars far away
from earth, which apparently they are motionless.

1.3. Mechanics divisions

Statics studies the material bodies equilibrium, as the effect of forces that act them and forces
systems reduction.
Kinematics studies the bodies motion, without taking into account the forces that act them, nor
their masses.
Dynamics studies bodies motion subjected to the forces action and keeping into acoount their
masses.
1.4. Historical references
 • Antiquity: Aristotel was the first who enunciated the principle of inertia but a deficient
one, found later by Galileo Galilei and improved by Isaac Newton.
Arhimede is considered the father of statics, he knew the levers laws and the gravity
centers notions.
• Renaissance: Leonardo da Vinci studied the friction phenomena for rigid bodies and
enunciated the principle of the impossibility of perpetual motion (perpetuum mobile).
Johannes Kepler founded the celestial mechanics, discovering the laws of planets
motions.
The founders of classical mechanics are considered Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) and Isaac
Newton (1642-1727). Galilei discovered the motions laws of the bodies in gravity champ,
and Newton effective founded classical mechanics enounceing the famous four principles
of mechanics.
Another scientists having contributions in mechanics development are: Leonhard Euler,
Joseph Louis Lagrange, William Rowan Hamillton, Alexandr Lyapunov and others.
1.5. Fundamental sizes. Derived sizes.
Fundamental sizes in mechanics are:

• Space is a complex notion which reflect a fundamental and objective form of matter
existence, characterizing the position of bodies and their dimension. In mechanics it is it
is considered the three-dimensional space that is continuous, homogeneous, isotropic
and eternal.
• Time characterizes the duration and succession of material phenomena and processes.
Time is infinit, continuous, uniformly ascending and irreversible.
• Mass defined by Newton, is a notion which reflect the general and objective properties
of inertia and gravity of matter.
In classical mechanics mass is constant and exists in two acceptions:
- Inertial mass outlines the matter property of inertia. This type of mass intervenes in the
fundamental law of mechanics enounced by Newton:

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

- Gravity mass outlines the matter property to be heavy. This type of mass intervenes in
universal attraction law of Newton:
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝑓
𝑟2

Where F is the attraction force between two bodies having masses m1 and m2 , r the
distance between bodies and f is the constant of universal attraction.
 Derived sizes in mechanics are all the others containing space, time and mass, such as
force, speed, acceleration, work, linear moment, kinetic energy a.o.
1.6. Theoretical models used in mechanics

• material point is a geometric point which is assigned mass

• system of material points is a lot of material points in mechanical interaction
• material continuum is a body within each vvolume element contains mass.
• Rigid body is a material continuum undeformable
Hear depending by dimensions are used:
-material line (bar, wire, rope, chain)
-material surface (plate, membrane)
-material block (space body)
1.7. The principle of classical mechanics
1. The principle of inertia
One body keeps state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, as long as no other forces
intervene to alter this state.
2. The principle of force action
The variation of motion is proportional with driving force applied and is orientated along the
line of the force.

𝐹̅ = 𝑚𝑎̅
3. The principle of action and reaction
Any action always corresponds an equal and contrary reaction
4. The principle of forces parallelogram
If on a point two forces F1 and F2 act simultaneously, their effect is the same if on point act a
single force having size and direction of the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn on the two
sides forces.
 F2 F

F1

𝐹̅ = ̅̅̅̅
𝐹1 + ̅̅̅̅
𝐹2

2. STATICS

2.1. Statics of material point

Definitions:

• Free material point is a material point that can occupies any position in space (or plane).
• Material point subjected to links is a material point which is imposed a geometric
restriction (the imposition to remain on a surface or a curve). The links can be unilateral
when geometric restriction obstruct the point displacement only in a sense (for example
a ball on a table or in a gutter) and bilateral when geometrical restriction doesn’t permit
point to leave the surface or curve (for example a ball between two parallel surfaces
having the distance between them equal the ball diameter, or a ring introduced on a
bar).
• Number of freedom degrees means the number of independent scalar parameters
necessary to determine the position of material point at a time.
Therefor, free material points has in space three freedom degrees, because it’s position is
determine using the cartesian coordinates x, y, z. The point constrained to stay on a surface
has two freedom degrees, because the point is locate using two coordinates x, y (if choosed
plane is xoy).
A material point constrained to remain on a curve, has a single freedom degree, because it
can locate using a single coordinate (curve coordinate-the length of curve arc).
2.1.1. Equilibrium of free material point.
The necessary and sufficient condition for a free material point to be equilibrium is the
resultant of all the forces that act it to be null. Vector relation for this condition is:

R=0
Scalar form of this vector eqution is obtained projecting on axis the relation above:

 Fix = 0
  Fix = 0
in space  Fiy = 0 or in plane 
 F =0  Fiy = 0
 iz
because R =  Fi
Application:
The ring M is linked by three wires, at the edge of wires hanging the weights P, G and Q, like in
fig. 2.1. The entire ensemble is in a vertical plane. It must determined the equilibrium position
for the ring M.

A B
y
α β

M
α β Q
P
P Q
x
G
G

Fig. 2.1 Fig. 2.1.S

The M ring position is known if the angles α and β are known. In fact, on the ring act three weight
forces P, G and Q through the tensions along the three wires, as it is shown in Fig. 2.1.S.
Equilibrium equqtions are:

( F = 0 ) Q sin  − P sin = 0
x

( F = 0 ) Qcos  + P cos − G = 0
y

or

Q sin  = P sin
Q cos  = G − P cos 
squaring and gathering relationships above, results:

P2 + G2 − Q2
cos  =
2 PG
Repeating the algorithm on relasions written like this:

P sin = Q sin 
P cos  = G − Q cos 
Is obtained relation:

Q2 + G2 − P2
cos  =
2QG

 
It is observed that physical,  ,    0,  , so,
 2
P2 + G2 − Q2 Q2 + G2 − P2
0  1; 0  1
2 PG 2QG
Solving this conditions, are obtained the relations:

G − P  Q and G − Q  P
Therefor for ring equilibrium to be possible, between the weights must have the above
conditions.

2.1.2. Equilibrium of material point subjected to links

Let be a material point on a surface (S). The resultant of all the forces acting on it is R . According
to Newton's principle of action and reaction, the surface (S), as a result of the action of the
resultant R , will generate the equal and opposite reaction R . As a result, for this situation, the
condition set in the case of the free material point is no longer valid. Logically, in the case of the
material point subjected to links, will be used what is called the links axiom. The links axiom
postulates that any link can be suppressed and replaced with suitable mechanical elements
(forces, moments of force).
Therefore, in the case of a material point subjected to links, the necessary and sufficient condition
to be in equilibrium is written:

R + R  = 0 (1)
or, in scalar form:

R x + Rx = 0 ; R y + R y = 0 ; R z + Rz = 0

When the point comes into contact with a surface or a curve, the link can be frictionless (ideal or
glossy) or frictional (real or rough). In reality, all links are frictional, but in certain situations when
friction is reduced, it can be neglected.

2.1.2.1. Equilibrium of material point subjected to frictionless links

Let the material point M be on a surface (S). The resultant of the forces acting on the point is R
and the reaction from the surface is R , equal and opposite. The resultant can be decomposed
into two composants perpendicular to each other, the normal composant (oriented according to
the normal nn’ at the surface (S) - meaning perpendicular to the plane (P) tangent in M at the
surface (S), and the tangent composant RT (oriented along the resulting line from the
intersection of the plane (P), with the plane determined by the resultant support and the normal
nn '). Analogous to the reaction will have the composants in the same directions normal reaction
and friction force. (Fig. below)

N R
(P)
Z’
RT
M t
T

R Rn
(S)

n’

The force tends to move the point M on the surface (S). In the case of the frictionless link, the
friction force T cannot occur, which implies that for equilibrium it is necessary that R T = 0 .
But it is observed that:

R = R n + RT ; R = N + T
Because T = 0 (frictionless link), condition (1) becomes:
 R+N =0
which is the necessary and sufficient condition for the equilibrium of a material point subjected
to frictionless links. The scalar form of this vector equation is obtained projecting on axis the
equation above:
Rx + Nx = 0; Ry + Ny = 0; Rz + Nz = 0
Application 1
A material point is on an inclined plane of angle α, having its own weight G and being actuated
by the force F as in fig. A1. The magnitude of the force F and the normal reaction for equilibrium
are required.

F N F

x
y
α
α G α G

Fig. A1 Fig. A1S

The normal reaction of the inclined plane N is introduced, the axes are chosen as in fig. A1S and
write the equilibrium equations:

( F = 0 ) F − G sin = 0
x

( F = 0 ) N − G cos = 0
y

Application 2
The ring M having its own weight G is found on the semicircle being caught with a wire that passes
through the fixed ring in A and which has the weight P attached at the other end (fig. A2). The
ensemble is in a vertical plane. The equilibrium position of the ring M and the value of the normal
reaction are required.
 A O B
θ

P G

Fig. A2
The normal reaction to the semicircle (perpendicular to the tangent in M) is oriented towards the
center O of the semicircle, and by means of the tension in the wire, on the ring M will act the
force of gravity P and own weight G. Choosing the system of axes as in fig. A2S write the
equilibrium equations:

y
A B
θ
x P
N
θ/2
M
θ
G

P

( F x = 0 ) P cos − G cos = 0
2

Fig. A2S ( F y = 0 ) N + P sin − G sin = 0
2
Introducing in the first equation the known trigonometric relation:

  
cos = cos2 − sin2 = 2 cos2 −1
2 2 2
is obtained:

 
2G cos2 − P cos − G = 0
2 2

that is a second degree equation of cos
2
Solving the equqtion is obtained:


P  P 2 + 8G 2
cos =
2 4G
Obviously being possible the solution:


P + P 2 + 8G 2
cos =
2 4G

P + P 2 + 8G 2
with condition: 1
4G
That means: G > P
The value of the normal reaction comes from the second equilibrium equation:

     
N = G sin − P sin = 2G sin cos − P sin = sin  2G cos − P  =
2 2 2 2 2 2 
 
= 1 − cos2  2G cos − P 
2 2 

where cos is the determined value.
2

2.1.2.2. Equilibrium of material point subjected to friction links. The laws of

wet friction. (Coulomb’s laws).
Born on June 14, 1736 in Angouleme, France, the physicist Charles Augustin de Coulomb, with
the help of a very simple experiment, made with a device called a tribometer, put in evidence
the presence of the sliding friction force. On a horizontal surface is placed a body that can be
assimilated with a material point. The body is clamped with a wire that passes over a fixed pulley
located at the end of the surface, at the other end of the wire being caught a tray. Putting small
weights on the plate, it is found that the material point remains in equilibrium up to a certain
value of weights, Fmax, from which starting the equilibrium is lost (fig. A2.2., a).

R
R’ N N
α j
F Fmax
G T
F Tmax
G G
a) b) c)
Fig. A2.2.
This implies that the reaction R’ is inclined at an angle α to the normal, having two composants,
the normal reaction N and the force T which is in fact the sliding friction force (fig. A2.2.b). This
frictional force is that which opposes the action of the force F. Fig. A2.2.c shows the limit case
when the forces F and T acquire the limit values and the angle ϕ as well. The value of this limit
angle, ϕ is called the friction angle. It is also observed that the sliding friction force can vary
between zero and the limit value Tmax. It is observed from fig. A2.2. b and c that:

T = N tg  and Tmax = N tg j

Because α ≤ φ, results:

T  N tgj

Noting tg φ = µ, where µ is called sliding friction coefficient, results:

T N

relation that represents equilibrium condition for a material point subjected to friction link. The
maximal friction force:

Tmax =  N

Coulomb also, following his experiences, enunciated the three laws of dry friction, which bear his
name:
1. The size of maximum slideing friction force is proportional to the size of normal reaction
2. The size of sliding friction force depends on the nature and the condition of the contact
bodies
3. The size of sliding friction force doesn’t depend on the relative movement speed of the
two bodies in contact, nor the size of the surface in contact
Subsequent research on Coulomb's experiments brings some interesting observations.First,
it is found that the value of the sliding friction coefficient µ varies depending on the relative
speed of the surfaces in contact. Specifically, it decreases with increasing speed. Therefore,
the value of this coefficient of friction in the case of resting bodies (coefficient of adhesion
µ0) is higher than that of moving bodies (dynamic coefficient of friction µ).The variation of
the coefficient of friction with speed is shown in figure below:
 µ

µ0

O v

Another observation would be that at high values of the normal reaction N, the sliding friction
force T is no longer linearly dependent on N. According to Coulomb's theory, if the height of the
surface roughness were reduced, the sliding friction force would have to be reduced. In reality,
however, it increases at some point due to the occurrence of other phenomena, such as
intermolecular adhesion forces. All these considerations refer to dry friction, so the situation
when no lubricant is introduced between the two surfaces in contact. In the case of surface
lubrication, the friction force obviously decreases, but the problem becomes a semi-dry or
hydrodynamic lubrication.
Application 1.
The application presented in figure A1 will be resumed, this time assuming that there is frictional
contact between the studied material point and the inclined plane. Therefore, the weight G of
the point, the angle α and the sliding friction coefficient µ are known. The values of the force F
are required for equilibrium (fig. A3)

F x
N F

µ
y T Tendinţa de
mişcare
α G
α G

Fig. A3 Fig. A3S

In fig. A3S are represented all the forces acting on the studied point. It is observed that in addition
to the previous situation, when the friction did not appear, it is the appearance in this case of the
sliding friction force, whose direction is always opposite to the tendency of movement.The
movement trend shown in fig. A3S. With the axes specified in the figure, the equilibrium
conditions are:

( F = 0 ) F − T − G sin = 0
x

( F = 0 ) N − G cos = 0
y
 And obvious the condition: T   N

From first equation results: T = F – G sin .

From the second: N = G cos .

Introduceing in inequatian (sliding friction condition) is obtained:

F − G sin  G cos 
The explanation of the module and the solution of the problem in both cases, actually contains
the consideration of both tendencies of motion of the point, when the frictional force T in one
direction, becomes - T in the opposite direction. Is obtained:

G(sin −  cos )  F  G(sin +  cos )

It is observed that in the presence of friction the equilibrium solution falls within a continuous
range of values, while at the point without friction, the solution was a single exact value.

Application 2:
The case of the application of fig. A2. this time taking into account the friction between the M
ring and the semicircle.

y
A
θ
P
N
Tendinţă de
O θ/2
A mişcare
θ µM θ
T
M µ G
P x
P
G

Fig. A3 Fig. A3S

Therefore, the weight G of the ring, the value of the weight P and that of the friction coefficient
µ are known. The values of the angle ϴ are required for equilibrium. The forces acting on the ring
M, as well as the coordinate axes used are shown in figA3S. The equilibrium conditions are:


( F x = 0 ) T + G cos − P cos = 0
2
 
( F y = 0 ) N + P sin − G sin = 0
2
T  N


From first equation: T = P cos − G cos
2

From the second: N = G sin − P sin
2
 
Introduceing in inequation is obtained: P cos − G cos   G sin − P sin
2 2

Putting: cos = 2 cos2 −1
2
   
sin = 2 sin cos = 2 1 − cos2 cos
2 2 2 2
 
sin = 1 − cos2
2 2
A rather complicated inequation is obtained in the solution of which it offers the possible
equilibrium positions of the ring.