Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Chapter 1
Nature of Mathematics
1.1Nature and Uses of Mathematics
1.2 Math Patterns in Nature and Society
1.3 Math Language
1.4 Problem Solving

Tessellation. A tessellation is a set of polygons that are arranged in

such a way that they cover a flat surface completely without gaps and
overlaps.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

1.1 Nature and Uses of Mathematics

At the end of this section, students are expected to

a. Describe the essential characteristics of mathematics;

b. Cite examples of mathematics that are invented and discovered;
c. Define mathematics and describe its uses.

NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
For the moment, we shall set aside defining what math is. All of us are acquainted with
mathematics although the extent of our familiarity with math differs with one another. Stu-
dents possibly have not seen much of math to effectively describe it. What they know about
mathematics is the proverbial tip of an iceberg. It is the finished product of a huge collection
of knowledge which is hundreds or thousands of years in the making. Most students are una-
ware of the processes that gave rise to the math education they received.

In addition, the structure of mathematical knowledge itself is often hidden to students

and is likely to remain so for the rest of their stay in school. The structure of mathematical
knowledge begins to unravel itself only when students study courses in pure mathematics.
Subjects like abstract algebra and non-Euclidean geometry. But these courses are studied
only by math majors. As a result, the true structure and nature of mathematics will remain
unknown to many. The nature of mathematics has to do with the essential characteristics of
mathematics. A set of characteristics which, taken together, sets it apart from other intellec-
tual endeavors.

Mathematics is Invented to Measure Things

The beginning of mathematics is a human invention and is nearly as old as humanity it-
self. It began as a method to represent thoughts about quantity, form, pattern, and change.
The concept of a number, for example, indicates quantity which gradually evolved into a
primitive number system to distinguish 1 cattle from 2 cattle, 3 deer from 4 deer, 1 crocodile
from 10 crocodiles, etc. The first impulse to invent mathematics had to do with measurement
and management. Things, people, animals, events, and processes must be measured if our
ancestors were to manage themselves and their resources. Measurement for the purposes of
managing people and their resources is the first driving force for the invention of mathemat-
ics.

Ishango Bone the Earliest Math Artefact

Prehistoric artifacts at least 20,000 years old discovered along the part of Nile River that
runs through Congo show how and why calendars may have been invented to predict time
and help people manage themselves in relation to time. The Ishango Bone, a fibula of a ba-
boon discovered in the area of Ishango near Semliki River, contained notches meant to track
the lunar phases in relation to the menstrual cycle of women (Zaslavsky, 1979). The men-
struation period, it seems, is in sync with the lunar cycle.

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

This math artefact goes too far back in time, we can no longer trace the names of the peo-
ple who invented it and the circumstances behind its invention. But we can make educated
speculations because even today, many women track their menstruation cycles. They track it
in relation to reproduction and other superstitions related to menstrual blood.

Nature of Mathematics
A. It is invented and discovered.
B. It is a language.
C. It is a systematic body of knowledge. This body of knowledge is a collection of ab-
stract concepts and relations among them whose properties are discovered though
logic reasoning.
D. It aims for what is true and beautiful.
E. It possesses a degree of usefulness in the physical world that is unmatched by other
disciplines.

Our observations of present attitudes towards menstruation can help us speculate why
the prehistoric people of Ishango might have felt compelled to invent a calendar.

a. If menstruation blood renders a woman defiled, either a woman during her period
must be put in isolation, or the tribe or family where she belongs must keep a dis-
tance from her.
b. If women are tasked to gather wood or fruits from the forest regularly where wild
animals abound, it is only wise to suspend this responsibility during their periods.
Monitor lizards, bears, and similar animals have a keen sense for the smell of blood.
This puts women in danger. The Ishango bone, therefore, becomes a fitting technol-
ogy to manage the responsibilities of the members of a tribe.
c. Even today, some cultures believe that a woman in her period causes fruits and food
to spoil quickly when a part of her body comes into contact with the latter. It makes
sense, therefore, to advise women to refrain from working with food during their
period.
d. It is possible that the prehistoric people of Ishango may have discovered that
women’s fertility is in sync with their menstruation cycles. Tracking the cycle can
help tell when a woman is fertile and when not. Sexual intercourse when a woman is
fertile leads to pregnancy. In societies where the birth of a baby carries a great sig-
nificance, a calendar like the Ishango bone becomes a precious tribal technology.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Ishango Bone. A prehistoric artifact found near Semliki River in Ishango in the Democratic Re-
public of Congo is a fibula of a baboon. Notches were curved on the bone to track the men-
strual cycle of women.

Metrology
Metrology, the scientific study of measurements, is the major concern for early Sumerian
mathematics. The practical purpose of mathematics is supported by a huge collection of
close to 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s (Boyer, C. 1991). The math content re-
vealed by the tablets dealt primarily with counting the quantity of goods, services, and trans-
actions that flourish in an emerging civilization. The ancient people of Sumer developed dis-
tinct counting systems that depend on the quality of goods being counted. Studies of proto-
cuneiform reveal that they had twelve separate counting systems.

In addition, their counting systems reveal that early ancient Sumers had not yet acquired
the abstract idea of a number. Number three as an abstract idea that refers to three pieces of
anything is surprisingly absent. For example, the symbol for three fish is different from the
symbol for three slaves. They didn’t have one agreed symbol for three (Melville, D. 2006).

TABLE 1 SAMPLE OF BABYLONIAN COUNTING SYSTEMS

Counting System Purpose

Used to count slaves, animals, fish, wooden objects, stone ob-
Sexagesimal System S
jects, containers
System G Used to count field measurement
SE System S Used to count wheat & barley by volume
EN System E Used to count weight

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Babylonian Tablet Plimpton 322, circa 1800 BCE. A mathematical tablet discovered in a des-
sert in present-day Iraq.

Sophisticated numeration systems like the sexagesimal system of the Sumerians were in-
ventions of people who lived in ancient Mesopotamia. This invention goes a long way back in
time, we cannot trace the names of specific persons who introduced them. Historians, how-
ever, agree they were invented by scribes who acted as priests, chroniclers, and administra-
tors of huge human settlements for purposes of managing irrigation, apportioning lands and
taxes, collecting taxes, counting livestock and sacks of grains, and tracking the movements of
celestial bodies.

If the identity of persons who invented early mathematics is obscure, we are quite certain
about the identity of persons who invented recent mathematical creations. The modern bi-
nary system, for example, was introduced by Gottfried Leibniz in 1679. The foundation of the
functioning and operation of modern computers is based on the binary system. Calculus is
the brainchild of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz. Graph Theory was introduced by a
Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler in 1735 and is at the heart of algorithms behind net-
works. Hyperbolic Geometry, the next category of geometry that appeared after Euclidean
Geometry, owes its birth from the combined works of Carl F. Gauss, Janos Bolyai, and Nikolai
Lobachevsky. Abstract Algebra, the first pure math subject studied by students who are pur-
suing a degree in mathematics, owes its birth from Emmy Noether. Noether did not hold any
official designation in universities as a mathematician, but on occasions, she did take over
her father’s math lessons when he was sick.

Modern Mathematics is Invented to Solve Math Problems

Inventions continue to appear in mathematics, but what sets modern inventions apart
from old inventions is that inventions in modern mathematics are motivated by specific
math problems, or they are motivated by novel mathematical ideas that require new mathe-
matical methods.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Calculus, for example, came to be the math that it is because Sir Isaac Newton must de-
velop a new set of math tools to track the change in velocity of objects over infinitesimally
small changes in time. Students who studied calculus can recognize this as the limit of 𝑓(𝑡) −
𝑓(𝑡 + ∆𝑡) as ∆𝑡 approaches zero where 𝑓(𝑡) gives the distance covered by an object as a
function time t.

𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓(𝑡 + ∆𝑡)

lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous velocity of a moving object at time t

The subdomain of calculus that studies instantaneous rates of change is called differential
calculus.

Hyperbolic Geometry came about because Lobachevsky replaced the parallel postulate of
Euclidean Geometry with a new postulate that seemed to contradict Euclid’s. Euclid’s paral-
lel postulate is also referred to as the Fifth Postulate. Long before Lobachevsky introduced
the hyperbolic geometry parallel postulate, mathematicians had doubted the wisdom of
making the fifth postulate among the fundamental postulates. It diminishes the elegance of
the body of knowledge behind Euclidean geometry. Euclid’s assertion about the parallel pos-
tulate is not self-evident. In the late 19th century, mathematician began to question if it is
even true. This led to the development of non-Euclidean geometry such as hyperbolic geom-
etry, spherical geometry, elliptical geometry, and more.

TABLE 2 HYPERBOLIC GEOMETRY VS EUCLIDEAN (PLANE) GEOMETRY

For any line 𝑙 and point 𝑃 not on 𝑙, in a plane that contains both 𝑙
Euclidean Geometry
and 𝑃, there is one and only one line through 𝑃 that is distinct
Fifth Postulate
from 𝑙 that does not intersect 𝑙.
For any line 𝑙 and point 𝑃 not on 𝑙, in a plane that contains both 𝑙
Hyperbolic Geometry
and 𝑃, there are at least two distinct lines through 𝑃 that are dis-
Fifth Postulate
tinct from 𝑙 that do not intersect 𝑙.

Graph Theory, a pure math that is popular in many universities in the Philippines that
give degrees in mathematics, took root from a recreational math problem known as the Kö-
nigsberg Bridge Problem. It is a puzzle. It teases readers to show if it is possible to walk
around the city in a way that one will cross each bridge only once. Leonhard Euler, a Swiss
mathematician, answered and published his solution to this problem in 1736. His paper
gave rise to Graph Theory.

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Euclidean Geometry Fifth Postulate (Parallel Postulate)

Hyperbolic Geometry Fifth Postulate (Parallel Postulate)

At the fundamental level, Graph Theory is about vertices and their connections called
edges. Collectively, the set of all vertices and their edges is called a graph. This graph is a fit-
ting model to describe many processes in the physical world— processes that involve flow,
interconnections, path, communication, network, etc.

Königsberg Bridge Problem

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Applications of Graph Theory

a. Coloring Problem
b. Routing Problem
c. Flow Problem

Mathematics is Discovered
For the most part, the beginning of many subdomains of mathematics took root because
of an act of invention, but what was invented gave rise to a body of knowledge that has an
innate structure and properties in itself. These structures were discovered by generations of
mathematicians who devoted their thoughts and diligence to studying mathematics.

Euclidean geometry best exemplifies this development. The five postulates, for example,
are an act of choice for Euclid to begin geometry. However, the collection of theorems the
postulates gave rise to were discoveries. These were discoveries made by generations of
mathematicians after Euclid who devoted themselves to geometry. By way of analogy, Euclid
dug a hole in the soil and deliberately planted the seed of a mango tree when he could have
planted the seed of a coconut tree instead.

A similar analogy applies to calculus and graph theory. The genesis of both calculus and
graph theory must be directly credited to Newton, Leibnitz, and Euler, but the body of
knowledge that now composes them are discoveries contributed by succeeding generations
of mathematicians.

Math Patterns in Shapes and Nature

There are patterns in geometric figures that are clearly discoveries. For example, for any
circle, the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is constant. That constant is what we
call 𝜋. It is a non-terminating and non-repeating real number which is conveniently written
as 3.14 or 22/7 in basic math.

The pattern that gives the area of a regular n-polygon with side 𝑠 is also one that is dis-
covered. The impetus that led to this discovery is due to the fascinating pattern that leaves
students struck with awe even to this day. For any regular n-polygon with side 𝑠, the area is
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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

1
𝐴𝑛 = 𝑝𝑎
2

where 𝑝 is the perimeter and is equal to n times s, and a is the height of the congruent isosce-
les triangles that compose the polygon. This height is called the apothem.

TABLE 3 SOME PATTERNS IN NATURE

a. The cycle of one day is approximately 24 hours (23 hours, 56 minutes and 4 seconds).
b. The cells of a beehive are in the shape of a regular hexagon.
c. There are four seasons in temperate regions: summer, fall, winter, and spring.
d. There are two seasons in the Philippines: dry season and wet season
e. There are two distinct sexes among sexually reproducing organisms: males and fe-
males.

Plato and Aristotle on Mathematics

The twin natures of mathematics resonate in the philosophical views held by Plato and
Aristotle. For Plato, mathematics is discovered. Mathematical ideas exist independently of
human experience. There is a realm, an abode of pure ideas, where the true circles, regular
polygons, counting numbers, and similar math objects exist. This realm is a space not inhab-
ited by people but a space inhabited by the perfect versions of everything in physical reality.

Mathematical Platonism rests on three assumptions. First, mathematical objects exist.

Second, mathematical objects are abstract. Third, mathematical objects exist independent of
humans. These assumptions ultimately led to a pressing question directed to Platonism. If
mathematical objects exist but are abstract and independent of human existence, how then is
math to be studied and discovered?

Aristotle, a student of Plato, is seen by some as Neo-Platonist. His two treatises, Meta-
physics xiii and xiv, preserve Plato’s ideas about mathematical objects; they are immutable,
eternal, and independent of human senses. This being said, Aristotle affirms the primacy of
deductive reasoning on matters of proof. Since mathematical objects exist independent of
human senses, the body of knowledge that is math must begin with fundamental assump-
tions. In the language of Euclidean geometry, these fundamental assumptions refer to postu-
lates. Aristotle called them axioms. Axioms do not refer only to assumptions about funda-
mental math objects but also to general principles of logical reasoning. Principles such as the
law-of-excluded middle, addition property of equality, transitive property of equality and
congruence, etc.

What we have said so far about Platonism ought to point us to the answer to the question
posted in the earlier paragraph. If mathematical objects exist but are abstract and independ-
ent of human senses, then how is math to be studied?

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

It must be studied through deductive reasoning. This explains why classic Euclidian ge-
ometry came to us as a collection of postulates, definitions, theorems, and their proofs whose
structure came to be revealed by deductive reasoning. It begins with a set of five postulates,
definitions, and continued with a long list of assertions about mathematical objects, whose
validity is demonstrated by a formal proof.

What did Aristotle hold that sets him apart from Plato?

We must keep in mind that Aristotle is also a scientist. Before Galileo Galilei appeared in
the history of science, Aristotle is called the father of science. On matters of physical investi-
gations, he gave preeminence to observations. This is where the rift between Platonism and
Aristotelianism can be found.

The Academy, the school founded by Plato, insists that the movement of heavenly bodies,
since they move in circles or close to circles in orbit, is a subject that is best studied under
mathematics. Aristotle’s school, the Lyceum, however, disagreed. The motion of heavenly
bodies must be studied under Physics. The laws of motion that govern their movements
must be obtained not by deductive reasoning but by actual observations of their movements.
Math must be studied and pursued through deductive reasoning, but Physics must be stud-
ied through observations and habits of mind that collectively came to be called the scientific
method.

The Elements is a mathematical treatise on geometry attributed

to the Greek mathematician Euclid. Picture (English Version)

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Mathematics is a Language
Mathematics is a form of language. It is a collection of symbols, words, and syntax that
convey mathematical ideas. However, math language possesses characteristics that make it
similar to and different from other languages.

Characteristics of Math as Language

a. It is an ideograph.
b. It is non-temporal.
c. It has no emotional content, but it has an aesthetic quality.
d. It is precise and concise.

Math language is an ideograph.

To effectively describe how math language came to be an ideograph (also ideogram), let
us compare it with a language that is not an ideograph. Let us compare it to a phonetic lan-
guage like Tagalog, for example.

A word rendered in a phonetic language like Tagalog is a symbol that represents an idea,
a collection of sounds, and how the idea ought to be written. How a word ought to be written
must match how it must to be spoken. There is a one-to-one correspondence, a match be-
tween the written symbol and the spoken word. For example, tatay (ta-tay), inay (i-nay), ak-
lat (ak-lat), etc. These words must be spoken according to syllabications that appear in the
word. A phonetic word, in addition to its appearance and meaning, conveys instructions
about how it ought to sound.

Ideograms, however, are strikingly different. Ideograms are symbols that convey ideas
only; they do not carry specific instructions about how they ought to be spoken. There is no
information about sound in an ideogram. Math symbolic language is an ideogram (Rotman,
2000). This makes math language comparable with the Egyptian hieroglyphics and the an-
cient Chinese characters. Some ancient Chinese ideograms are still extant in the modern Chi-
nese language.

Example 1 Math Symbolic Language & Their Interpretation

a. 𝑛2 ∈ 2ℕ → 𝑛 ∈ 2ℕ
b. 𝑎𝑐|𝑏 → 𝑎|𝑏 ∧ 𝑐|𝑏
c. 𝑎 < 𝑏 → 𝑎 + 𝑐 < 𝑏 + 𝑐
If 𝑛2 is an even counting number, then 𝑛 is also an even count-
ing number.
If the product of 𝑎 and 𝑐 divides 𝑏, then both 𝑎 and 𝑐 divide 𝑏.
If 𝑎 is less than 𝑏, then 𝑎 + 𝑐 is less than 𝑏 + 𝑐.

Math language is non-temporal.

Normally, languages contain words that indicate actions. They are called verbs. Actions
either happened in the past, are happening in the present, or will happen in some future
time. This produces a set of rules that affect the appearance of a word in relation to time.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Some languages, like English and Filipino, have a conjugation of verbs to reflect the tense of a
verb. Others, like Mandarin, modifies the tense of a verb by appending a time adverb or sen-
tence particle.

Ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphs Symbols and Meaning

Chinese Characters Traditional Word Symbols

Nothing like this takes place in mathematics. Math language is non-temporal (Dias, 1998).
There are no words or symbols in math that are directly comparable to verbs or words that
take time into account. Math language is chiefly concerned with declaring the essence of
math objects. This is done by declaring what it is.

Example 2 Describing the Essence of Math Objects

a. ̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅
𝐴𝐵 ⊥ 𝐵𝐶 Line AB is perpendicular to line BC
b. 1/2 ∉ ℕ One-half is not a counting number.
c. 𝑥 ∈ℤ ∧𝑦∈ℤ→𝑥+𝑦∈ℤ If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are integers, their sum is an integer.

Math language carries no emotional content, but it has an aesthetic quality

It has no equivalent words for joy, happiness, despair, or sadness. However, how math
language is used can inspire an aesthetic experience (Hardy, 1940), a satisfying experience
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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

effected by logical coherence and form. In addition, the usefulness of math in many endeav-
ors and how math ideas in one subdomain relate to other subdomains of knowledge add to
this aesthetic appreciation.

Math Language is Precise and Concise

It is exact and accurate, and as a consequence, it has no need for unnecessary words.
This, however, does not always help students because by being novice in math, they need
elaboration, exploration, and more explanation which can be achieved only with more
speech. That speech, however, comes from teachers and writers who assist students in their
studies and not from mathematics itself.

The language of teaching mathematics or the language of mathematics education is not

the same as the language of mathematics. The language of mathematics education is neces-
sarily redundant and replete with teaching strategies that must sacrifice precision when nec-
essary.

Mathematics is a Systematic Body of Knowledge

There is a clear and distinct organization in the various subdomains of knowledge in
mathematics that sets it apart from other intellectual disciplines. The formal organization of
mathematical knowledge in both academic textbooks and professional journals is essentially
deductive (Wohlgemuth, 2003). It begins with mathematical objects and their descriptions.
It is followed by definitions of relations among objects. The rest is a collection of assertions
(theorems) that logically follow from one another.

The subdomain of mathematics that is under the category of pure mathematics always
require the presentation of a formal proof to support assertions. The necessity of a formal
mathematical proof permeates the entire body of mathematical knowledge.

Mathematics Aims for What is True and Beautiful

Mathematics is not value-free; it is laden with values (Ernest, 2016). It cares deeply for
what is true and beautiful although these aspirations are often implied only. The entire pro-
cess of doing math is chiefly aimed at discovering what is true using a set of fundamental
principles and rules of reasoning.

However, to pursue what is true is not enough. It must be accompanied by an aesthetic

quality, a quality that is revealed by logic and form. Thus, how math language uses logic and
form to achieve the truth affects the aesthetic quality of mathematics and the consequent
emotional experience that comes with seeing something truly beautiful.

Mathematics has an Extraordinary Effectiveness

Physicist Eugene Wigner put it emphatically. In an article published in the 1960s, Wigner
pointed out that the structure of a piece of physical reality rendered in mathematics lan-
guage does not only satisfyingly model that reality, it also often points to further advances in
the theory and, at times, even to predictions. Mathematics, used to model many physical

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

processes, has a tremendous explanatory power and effectiveness to assist in predictions

(Wigner, 1960).

We need not visit the fundamental laws of physics, all of them rendered in math language,
to see once again the extraordinary usefulness of mathematics. Everyday life is replete with
many applications of mathematics.

The crudest form of mathematics, which is math for measurement, is the most useful
math there is in society. Math is in all economic and business transactions. It is used in the
management of economies, companies, and organizations. Teachers use it to decide if stu-
dents are fit to move to the next grade level or fit to receive a bachelor’s degree or not. A
medical laboratory report is awash with measurements that reveal the state of one’s health.
Projections about the size of populations and their demands in the future help with planning
and allocation of resources. The list is endless, and the consequent ease with which we make
decisions as a result is satisfying.

WHAT IS MATHEMATICS?
Mathematics has no universally accepted definition (Tobies, 2012). We shall quote some
definitions proposed by famous mathematicians and mathematics educators.

Definitions of Mathematics
a. Mathematics is the science of quantity. Aristotle (384-322 BCE)
b. It is the science of indirect measurement. Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857)
c. Mathematics is a science that draws necessary conclusions. Benjamin Pierce (1809 –
1880)
d. All mathematics is symbolic logic. Bertrand Russel (1872 – 1970)
e. It is the science of structure, order, and relation that has evolved from the elemental
practices of counting, measuring, and describing shapes of objects. (Fraiser, 2022)
f. It is the study of assumptions, properties, and applications (Yadav, 2017)

Teachers and students ought to take up the challenge of defining mathematics them-
selves. For our part, our definition is one which we base from our experience as former stu-
dents and experience as teachers who must shepherd students in their mathematics educa-
tion. Mathematics has two essential characteristics. It is a language; it is also a body of
knowledge. As language, we use it to name and describe objects or events that reveal quan-
tity, form, pattern, and change, and to describe the relationships among them. As a body of
knowledge, it is a set of concepts and relations among concepts whose properties and char-
acteristics are obtained through logical reasoning.

Principal Branches of Mathematics

Algebra, at the collegiate level, studies various sets of mathematical objects, the opera-
tions applied on them, and their resulting structure. It organizes these sets according to

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

similarity in structure. In abstract algebra, for example, the common structures being stud-
ied are groups, factor groups, rings, fields, manifolds, and vector spaces.

Analysis is calculus plus algebra, in the sense of abstract algebra. Analysis builds on the
works of Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibnitz, but generations of mathematicians after them
contributed copiously to analysis. At the fundamental level, it studies the limit of functions,
functions that are differentiable, and the integral of functions. Students who are pursuing de-
grees in engineering, computer science, and mathematics must study two courses related to
analysis. These are differential calculus and integral calculus.

Combinatorics, at the fundamental level, studies the selection, arrangement, and combina-
tion of elements from finite sets. It aims to solve problems principally by counting. Counting
the elements that go into a selection, counting their arrangements and combinations.

Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries study two general classes of geometries. Euclid-
ean geometry is plane geometry. Non-Euclidean geometry is the geometry of curved spaces.
At the fundamental level, the two geometries differ on their assumptions about the Parallel
Postulate.

Game Theory is mathematics applied to situations when two entities have similar, op-
posed, or mixed interests. It assumes that these entities act logically and must act strategi-
cally to maximize best results or minimize worst outcomes. A phrase that occasionally ap-
pears in public discourses is “zero-sum”. It sprung from Game Theory. Zero-sum means
strategies that are designed to achieve best results require trade-offs. One must give away
something to achieve another that is equally desirable, if not more desirable.

Graph Theory, at the fundamental level, studies graphs. They are a collection of vertices
and their joins called edges. It is frequently applied in interactions that can be modelled by
graphs such as cities and the roads that connect them, the security of computer networks, a
network of mobile phones and the cell tower that connect them, etc.

Number Theory studies the properties and relations among integers and the patterns that
arise from them. Many unsolved problems in mathematics have the quality of problems fit
for combinatorics and number theory.

Numerical Analysis studies various methods to solve equations that require arithmetic
operations. These problems are often so complex, they require computers. It is concerned
chiefly with designing and studying algorithms to perform complex computational tasks.
Some of these tasks are approximations in the real world of ideas studied in analysis. For ex-
ample, the limit at infinity, partitions that run into infinity, the sum of a sequence, limit of a
sequence, and more. In the physical world, everything is finite.

Optimization aims to maximize or minimize outcomes given a finite collection of re-

sources to achieve them. At the foundational level, it is differential calculus. But the tools it
uses to achieve optimal outcomes are drawn from combinatorics and numerical analysis.
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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Probability Theory studies random events. It looks for the likelihood of events by assign-
ing them a value between 0 and 1. Zero is an impossible event. One is a sure event. As a
branch of mathematics, it began as a recreational form of mathematics pursued to help gam-
blers improve their chances of winning. Overtime, experts discovered that many outcomes
that happen outside gambling can be assisted by probability theory. Outcomes such as the
sexes of newborn infants, the position of electrons in an atom at any moment, the result of
elections, and more. Probability theory is the foundational mathematics behind insurance
and pensions.

Set Theory studies the properties of sets. It is the foundational theory for the whole of
mathematics because mathematics studies collections of mathematical objects. Set theory
assists the understanding of relations, functions, sequences, probability, geometry, etc.

Statistics is a different matter. Some professional statisticians, statisticians who have a

PhD in statistics, will disagree that their field is a principal branch of mathematics. They have
a point. Statistics is assisted by mathematics, no doubt, but so are physics and engineering.
Economics draws a lot from algebra, differential calculus, and optimization. Computer sci-
ence is assisted by graph theory and set theory. But physics, engineering, economics, and
computer science are not principal branches of mathematics.

The same logic applies to statistics in relation to mathematics. The organization of de-
partments in major universities in the country reflects this separation. All math subjects in
previous paragraphs that have been listed up to this point are taught by teachers from the
math department except statistics. Statistics is taught by teachers from the Statistics depart-
ment. This separation is reflected in the academic organizations of big universities. Universi-
ties like UP Diliman and UP Los Baños keep separate institutes for mathematics and statis-
tics.

Dr. Ismail Abbas (2022) pointed out that statistics belongs to physics rather than mathe-
matics. The principal branches of mathematics study objects that exist abstractly. They do
have physical analogues, but that is only incidental. Statistics, on the other hand, studies
physical reality. Statistics like physics studies a slice of physical reality, and like physics, it
uses mathematics to assist its investigations. The starting point of investigations in mathe-
matics, on the other hand, are mathematical objects that are nowhere to be found in physical
reality. This separation is so distinct statistics must not be listed as a principal branch of
mathematics.

Topology studies the properties of geometric objects that remain unchanged after defor-
mation. The deformation can happen through bending, stretching, squeezing, but not break-
ing. Topology reveals, for example, that a sphere has the same topological structure as a cube
because one can be deformed to appear like the other. A sphere, however, is not topologi-
cally equivalent to a donut because a sphere must be broken, a piece of it must be removed,
to form a donut.

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Careers in Mathematics
Academe. In the Philippines, the immediate employment of mathematicians is in universi-
ties. They teach service courses like trigonometry, algebra, and calculus. Senior faculty mem-
bers teach higher courses like real analysis, topology, graph theory, etc. They also teach in
graduate schools. Teaching, however, is their minimal preoccupation. Their true calling is re-
search. To publish the results of their research. To share their research in the mathematics
community. They are paid no small amount of fees for their output. On top of their regular
salary, their research fetches funds from public institutions like CHED and DOST.

Industry. Businesses that focus on collecting and analyzing huge collections of data al-
ways recruit from the ranks of mathematics graduates. Accenture, for example, a world-wide
consulting company, render services that require a strong mathematics discipline. Services
like data analytics, finance consulting, artificial intelligence, digital commerce, etc. Business
data analytics is the professional service where many mathematics graduates are employed.

There are companies that specialize in business analytics. Companies like Accenture, IBM
and Google render business analytics as part of their consulting and technical services. How-
ever, all banks and all institutions that render financial services also require business analyt-
ics. As a result, banks today are also a niche where many mathematics graduates secure a ca-
reer.

Professional Teaching. Professional teachers refer to teachers who are employed in

schools for basic education. This covers primary education and secondary education. Pri-
mary education starts with kindergarten to Grade 6. Secondary education has two parts: Jun-
ior High School and Senior High School. Employment in basic education requires a profes-
sional teaching license. A collegiate degree in education plus a professional teaching license
will help teachers get employed as math teachers. Non-education graduates can also be em-
ployed as math teachers, but they must meet two requirements. First, they must finish the
required 18 units of professional education. Second, they must past the licensure examina-
tion for teachers.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

TABLE 4 UNDERGRADUATE DEGREE PROGRAMS DEVOTED TO MATHEMATICS &

MATHEMATICS EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

BS Applied Mathematics with Specialization in Actuarial Science

BS Applied Mathematics with Specialization in Data Science
BS Applied Mathematics with Specialization in Mathematical Finance
BS Mathematics
BS Mathematics with Specialization in Business Applications
BS Mathematics with Specialization in Computer Applications
BS Mathematics and Science Teaching
Bachelor of Elementary Education Major in Mathematics Education
Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Mathematics Education

TABLE 5 OTHER UNDERGRADUATE DEGREE PROGRAMS IN THE PHILIPPINES

WITH SOLID MATHEMATICS CONTENT

BS Applied Economics
BS Applied Physics
BS Chemical Engineering
BS Chemistry
BS Civil Engineering
BS Computer Science
BS Economics
BS Electronic Engineering
BS Electrical Engineering
BS Industrial Engineering
BS Marine Engineering
BS Materials Engineering
BS Mechanical Engineering
BS Physics
BS Statistics

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 Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

Name: Date:

Section: Score:

Activity 1.1 Nature of Mathematics

I. Multiple Choice. Choose the letter of the best answer.
1. He is the mathematician who is the acknowledged author of The Elements.
A. Isaac Newton C. Euclid
______ B. Plato D. Aristotle
2. It is a type of language in which the written scripts convey ideas but do not
convey information about how they must be spoken.
A. Phonetic language C. Ideogram
______ B. Alphabetic language D. Sign language
3. It is the science of measurements.
A. Mathematics C. Physics
______ B. Geometry D. Metrology
4. It is a type of reasoning that starts out with a set of assumptions and continues
with obtaining conclusions as a result of direct implications.
A. Deductive reasoning C. Inductive reasoning
______ B. Mathematical Induction D. Logical thinking
5. As a math artefact, this is the Ishango Bone.
A. It is a calendar C. It is a bone
______ B. It is a meter stick D. It is a weighing scale
6. This is true about mathematics.
A. It is invented.
B. It is discovered.
C. It is a language.
______ D. All choices in this list are true.
7. Mathematics is not value-free. It has a primary goal. This is the primary goal
of mathematics.
A. Truth and Beauty C. To develop logical thinking
______ B. Honesty D. To develop a moral character
8. It is the subdomain of mathematics that studies vertices and their connections
called edges.
A. Geometry C. Graph Theory
______ B. Abstract Algebra D. Non-Euclidean Geometry
9. This is what the history of geometry has revealed.
A. It is not obvious that given a line AB and a point P not on that line, there
is exactly one line through point P that does not intersect line AB.
______ B. There are geometries that do not agree with Euclidean Geometry.

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Chapter 1 Nature of Mathematics

C. The geometry of flat surfaces is different from the geometry of curved

surfaces.
D. All choices in this list are correct.
10. This is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter.
A. Radius C. Center
______ B. 𝜋 D. 3.14

II. Enumeration
11. Describe three major differences between spherical geometry and Euclidean geome-
try.

12. Describe two major differences between Newton’s version of calculus and Leibnitz’s
version.

13. Describe one example of a routing problem that is modelled by Graph Theory.

14. Describe three instances when you use mathematics at home.

15. Write a formal proof to show that the sum of the interior angles of a triangle (Euclid-
ean Geometry) is 180°. Write the proof in two-column format.

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