Nervous System

1. Define expressive and receptive aphasia. What part of the brain is affected in
each case?

- aphasia ia a disorder that results from damage to portions of the brain that are
responsible for language and usually happens on the left side of the brain

- expressive aphasia is when patients have difficulty producing grammatical

sentences and their speech is limited mainly to short utterances of less than 4
words, making it hard to find the right words.

- receptive aphasia is when someone is not able to speak well and use long
sentences, but what they say may not make sense.

2. State the functional difference between pre and post central gyrus.

- Gyrus: a ridge or folds between 2 clefts on the cerebral surface of the brain

- precentral gyrus controls voluntary motor movements. Found on the lateral surface
of the frontal lobe and anterior to the central sulcus.

- while post-central gyrus controls involuntary functions, and is situated in the lateral
parietal lobe of the brain

3. List the sensory and motor tracts. How can you tell by their name whether they are
ascending or descending?

- Motor; the corticospinal tracts send motor information from the cortex to the spinal
cord as the name suggest.

- Sensory: thee anterolateral (or spinothalamic) tracts and dorsal (posterior) column
pathways bring sensory input from the spinal cord to the brain by way of the
brainstem.

You can tell weather they are ascending or decending because a sensory pathway that
carries peripheral sensations to the brain is reffered to as an ascending pathway
4. Explain the difference between pyramidal and extrapyramidal pathways.

- conscious control of muscles from the cerebral cortex to the muscles of the body and
face.

- Extrapyramidal tracts; originate in the brainstem, carrying motor fibres to the spinal
cord

- Pyramidal tracts: conscious control of muscles from the cerebral cortex to the
muscles of the body and face

5. How would an individual with upper motor neuron injury be affected compared to
one with a lower motor neuron injury?

- upper motor neuron are responsible for motor movement, whereas lower motor
neurons prevent excessive muscle movment. Upper motor disorders usually cause
Spasticity, ( abnormal increase in muscle tone) lower motor disorders usually cause
flaccidy ( which is a abnormal increase

6. State three anatomical or biochemical differences between the SNS and PNS.

Right hemisphere of the brain

-Gisures and gyrus, central sulcus

- central sulcus starts on longitudinal fisher

Endocrine

1. Compare the anterior and posterior pituitary lobes with respect to control of
hormone release.

anterior- aka adenohypophysis

posterior-neurohypophysis

- The posterior lobe houses the axon terminals of hypothalamic neurons. It stores and
releases into the bloodstream two hypothalamic hormones: oxytocin and antidiuretic
hormone (ADH). The anterior lobe is connected to the hypothalamus by vasculature in
the infundibulum and produces and secretes six hormones.
- While the anterior pituitary cells synthesize certain hormones that are secreted
into the blood, in the posterior pituitary hormones are not synthesized. The
posterior pituitary stores and releases two hormones.

2. Identify the effects of thyroid hormone deficiency and thyroid hormone excess.

- Hypothyroidism, caused by an underactive thyroid gland, typically manifests

as bradycardia, cold intolerance, constipation, fatigue, and weight gain. In
contrast, hyperthyroidism caused by increased thyroid gland function manifests as
weight loss, heat intolerance, diarrhea, fine tremor, and muscle weakness

3. Describe the pathway of cortisol secretion and the major effects of cortisol on
the body

- The release of cortisol is under control of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal

(HPA) axis. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) is released by the
paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus
-
The synthesis of cortisol in the adrenal gland is stimulated by the anterior lobe
of the pituitary gland with ACTH; ACTH production is, in turn, stimulated by
CRH, which is released by the hypothalamus
- Effects
Cortisol, the primary stress hormone, increases sugars (glucose) in the
bloodstream, enhances your brain's use of glucose and increases the
availability of substances that repair tissues. Cortisol also curbs functions
that would be nonessential or harmful in a fight-or-flight situation

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 Muscle Physiology

1. Describe the functions of the sarcolemma, T-tubules, and sarcoplasmic

reticulum.

- sarcolemma/myolemma is the plasma membrane of the muscle cell, surrounded by

basement membrane and endomysial connective tissue. acts as a barrier between
the extracellular and intracellular compartments, defining the individual muscle
fiber from its surroundings.
- t -Tubules- are only present in striated muscle. They allow electrical impulses traveling
along the sarcomere to move deeper into the cell.

2. The sliding filament theory describes how actin and myosin interact to cause
muscular contraction. Using a flow chart or diagram, describe this theory to explain
the contraction cycle. Your description should include the following key terms:

-myosin, actin, troponin, calcium, ATP, power stroke

- You are myosin, actin is crush. Carcosol is the social outing. Troponin is your wing
mantropomyosin is crush bestie. ATP is the natural attraction. Tropomyosin is talking to actin.
Troponin bestie goes and takes tropomyosin our of the way bc actin fillamet has only 1 spot to
actin. The “signal “ is calcium. And it lifts the tropomyosin out of the cell by lifting it up.
Without troponin, there is no chance for myosin to bind.
A Muscle Contraction Is Triggered When an Action Potential Travels Along the
Nerves to the Muscles

Cardiovascular system

1. Draw and indicate the differences between the skeletal and cardiac muscle action
potential.

2. Review the electrical conduction system of the heart.

- a network of specialized muscle cells is found in the hearts walls. These muscle cells
send signals to the rest of the heart muscle causing a contraction.

 Step 1: Pacemaker Impulse Generation. The first step of cardiac conduction is impulse
generation. ...
 Step 2: AV Node Impulse Conduction. ...
 Step 3: AV Bundle Impulse Conduction. ...
 Step 4: Purkinje Fibers Impulse Conduction

2. Define the waves and QRS complex of an ECG tracing.

- the electrical impulse as it spreads through the ventricles and indicates

ventricular depolarization

-The rule is: if the wave immediately after the P wave is an upward deflection, it is
an R wave; if it is a downward deflection, it is a Q wave: small Q waves correspond
to depolarization of the interventricular septum. Q waves can also relate to breathing
and are generally small and thin

3. Trace the mechanical events of the heart including the opening and closing of
the valves starting with the onset of ventricular diastole.

- At the start of the cycle, during ventricular diastole–early, the heart relaxes and
expands while receiving blood into both ventricles through both atria; then, near
the end of ventricular diastole–late, the two atria begin to contract (atrial systole), and
each atrium pumps blood into the ventricle below it

5. Define cardiac output and list the factors that affect it.

- Cardiac output is the amount of blood the heart pumps in 1 minute, and it is dependent
on the heart rate, contractility, preload, and afterload. Understanding of the
applicability and practical relevance of each of these four components is important when
interpreting cardiac output values
- sympathetic stimulation, the catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine,
thyroid hormones, and increased calcium ion levels. Conversely, any factor that
decreases cardiac output, by decreasing heart rate or stroke volume or both, will
decrease arterial pressure and blood flow.

6. List the factors that affect blood pressure.

 Cardiac output.
 Peripheral vascular resistance.
 Volume of circulating blood.
 Viscosity of blood.
 Elasticity of vessels walls.

7. Define pulse pressure and mean arterial pressure.

- Pulse pressure (PP), defined as the difference between systolic blood pressure (SBP)
and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), is a pulsatile component of the blood pressure (BP)
curve as opposed to mean arterial pressure (MAP), which is a steady component

Body defences

1. What is the first line of defence?

- outside defence system, includes physical and chemical barriers that
are always ready and prepared to defend the body from infection.

2. What is the purpose of inflammation? Discuss the function of histamine.

3. Indicate the function of the B cells and the different types of T cells.

4. Discuss the difference between the primary and secondary immune response.

5. State the difference between active and passive immunity.