Education 3-13

International Journal of Primary, Elementary and Early Years Education

ISSN: (Print) (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rett20

Using social networks in school crisis

management: evidence from middle school
principals in Kuwait

Ahmad Alanezi

To cite this article: Ahmad Alanezi (2020): Using social networks in school crisis
management: evidence from middle school principals in Kuwait, Education 3-13, DOI:
10.1080/03004279.2020.1817964

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2020.1817964

Published online: 28 Oct 2020.

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EDUCATION 3-13
https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2020.1817964

Using social networks in school crisis management: evidence from

middle school principals in Kuwait
Ahmad Alanezi
Department of Educational Administration and Planning, College of Education, Kuwait University, Kuwait

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

This study aims to identify the extent to which middle school principals use Received 26 March 2020
social networks in managing a school crisis. It used a descriptive survey Accepted 27 May 2020
approach and employed a questionnaire to examine a sample
KEYWORDS
comprising 66 middle school principals. The study found a low degree Social networks; crisis
of dependence by principals on social networks in general and across management; school
the all stages of a crisis. The most commonly used social networks principals; middle stage;
included WhatsApp (69.7%), Twitter (24.2%), and Facebook and Kuwait
Instagram (up to 3%). Further, the study presents some
recommendations for the development and improvement of the
response mechanisms deployed by principals during a school crisis.

Introduction
Crises have existed since ancient times. It is a natural component of human life and history. The term
‘crisis’ is derived from the ancient Greek word ‘krishs’, which stemmed from the root verb ‘krinv’,
meaning ‘to judge’ (Patrona 2018). The term was first used in the field of medicine before it was incor-
porated into politics, economics, history, and psychology (Koselleck and Richter 2006). In the context
of medicine, it meant ‘vital moment’, before it was generalised to into a term for critical danger
(Kamei 2019). It became a common term in modern language and came to be used to denote econ-
omic, financial, social, political, and educational crises, among others (Chedli 2016). In theory, the
term crisis is often used interchangeably with other terms such as emergency, disaster, or calamity,
although with slight differences among these terms (Hiltz, Van de Walle, and Turoff 2014).
A crisis, in short, is ‘the time when a moderate disease condition is making a big change’ (Kamei
2019, 141). It is said to occur when pressures and stresses resulting from certain situations exceed an
individual’s ability to deal with it (Flannery and Everly 2000). A crisis can take different forms, and all
forms share four common features: threat to the survival of the system, time pressure, an unorganised
situation, and insufficient resources to address the need (Sutherland 2017). Crises range from unex-
pected major events such as natural disasters, physical injury, or death, to emotional crises that come
with the transitional stages in an individual’s life, such as divorce, or children leaving home (Hoff, Hal-
lisey, and Hoff 2011).
Organisations are not immune to crises, which may be instigated by different reasons and may
vary in terms of severity. However, managing a crisis requires effective and firm management dedi-
cated to preparing for the crisis in a systematic manner in order to emerge from it with the minimal
possible loss. Not preparing for a crisis in a suitable manner can result in a failure to manage its critical
consequences (Bilgin and Oznacar 2017). Crises management is defined as ‘a systematic process in
which the organisation tries to identify and predict potential crises and then to take preventive
measures against them in order to minimise their impact’ (Chafjiri and Mahmoudabadi 2018, 32).

CONTACT Ahmad Alanezi ahmad.alanezi@ku.edu.kw

© 2020 ASPE
2 A. ALANEZI

It can also be defined as alertness to the precursory signals of an impending crisis, the management,
coordination, and organisation during the crisis, and the oversight of post-crisis procedures to protect
the system and restore it to its previous balance (Williams et al. 2017). A successful crisis management
team should develop practical and functional plans that are constantly updated based on experience,
research, and recognition of the points of weakness as well as imbalances while ensuring that the
safety of individuals and property is maintained as far as possible (Adams and Kritsonis 2006).
The literature presents several crisis management models including Fink’s Crisis Life Cycle model.
Fink’s model (1986) comprises four key crisis phases for the crises management teams to deal with:
(1) the pre-crisis phase or the Prodromal Crisis Stage, in which the crisis occurs suddenly without clear
and predictable precursors, and there may likely be warning signs before the onset and exacerbation
of the crisis; (2) the occurrence of the crisis or the Acute Crisis Stage, in which the damage and losses
caused by the crisis have already materialised and the crisis has moved from the stage of occurrence
to the stage of its impact on the organisation; (3) the Chronic Crisis Stage, in which the crisis manage-
ment team responds in an effective manner and mitigates the degree of chaos caused by the crisis
and suppresses the rate of deterioration caused by the crisis; and (4) the Crisis Resolution Stage,
which is the crisis management team develops its capacity to manage the crisis more objectively, suc-
cessfully, and confidently through self-regulation (Ghareb 2018; Liou 2015; Kara 2018). Pearson and
Mitroff (1993) also drew up a model that comprises five phases to effectively manage the crisis: signal
detection, preparation/prevention, containment/damage limitation, recovery, and learning.
There is no doubt that the importance of communication increases during a crisis (Fischer,
Posegga, and Fischbach 2016). The objectives of communication during a crisis are multiple, includ-
ing protecting the lives of those who are affected by the crisis, maintaining the reputation of the
organisation, and mitigating the negative repercussions of the crisis (Coombs 2019). The first and
most important response from any organisation in times of a crisis comes from the communication
cell that is responsible for managing the crisis. It is the most important tool within the reach of the
crisis management team. Rapid and accurate communications during a crisis can reduce losses and
help build trust between the organisation and those concerned (Javed and Niazi 2015).
Social networks are considered the lifeblood of our modern era. The number of social network
users worldwide grew from 0.97 billion in 2010–2.77 billion in 2019 and is expected to reach 3.02
billion in 2021 (Statista 2019). There are several social network platforms such as WhatsApp,
Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, YouTube, and Facebook, among others. People engaging on these net-
works can share information and communicate with each other through the platform (Dong et al.
2018). A social network can be defined as a set of interactive connections or networks serving
those associated through social relationships with common interests. These networks operate at mul-
tiple levels ranging from the individual and organisational levels to the non-governmental, regional,
and national levels (Dashti, Schwartz, and Pines 2008). Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) defined a social
network as a set of Internet-based applications based on the ideological and technological foun-
dations of Web 2.0, that allow the creation and exchange of user-generated content. Khoshnood,
Nouhi, and Sabzevari (2016), defined a social network as a tool that supports at least two of the fol-
lowing environments: enables people to communicate, collaborate, and share information on the
Internet; enable the user to synchronise, share, reuse, and redistribute information, facilitate
sharing, and help people learn easily and benefit from others. The user can create groups with
their friends, leave comments instantly, share conversations, respond as soon as they receive an
inquiry, and offer a compliment or give advice, irrespective of whether the respondent is an insti-
tution or a person (Ariff et al. 2018).
These networks are effective and serve as an important source of information in times of crises
(Potts 2006). During a crisis, social networks can work to resolve several communication obstacles,
both natural and manmade. Traditional means of communication are often obstructed during a
crisis, while social networks remain active and effective (Zin et al. 2013). These networks rank
fourth among the most popular sources of communication during times of crises (Lindsay 2011).
There are many advantages to using social networks in the course of crisis management: providing
 EDUCATION 3–13 3

a means for real-time communication; preventing individuals from approaching the crisis location;
arranging for necessary resources; improving the transparency of crisis management decisions;
and increasing the probability of accepting the consequences of the crisis (Hashem 2016).
Schools are among the most important organisations on which societies are built and developed,
however, their environment is prone to crises and emergencies. Several events may lead a school into
a state of deep crisis, such as the sudden death of a student or teacher, shootings, stabbings, murders,
suicide, terrorism, rape, school-gang rages, assaults on teachers by students, quarrels among students
with sharp objects, fires, natural disasters, chemical leaks, collapse of school walls, electric shocks, or
rocket fires, which may lead to death or serious harm to the students or the staff (MacNeil and
Topping 2009; Jones 2015). Some studies have indicated that unintentional injuries are widespread
in schools and constitute the major cause of student deaths (Daughtry 2015).
School crises are characterised by the following: they do not develop overnight, but rather mate-
rialise because of an accumulation of past events. Therefore, a crisis is a process and not an event. The
circumstances of a crisis place the events beyond the control of the school administration for a
certain period because it threatens the stability of the school environment and the entire school com-
munity, and places all of them at serious risk (Waters-Johnson 2013; Williams et al. 2017). A specialised
and qualified crisis management team that can help manage school crises is a significant means of
overcoming crises at schools. The team helps manage the consequences of the crisis, restore it, and
allocate the required resources in dealing with the crisis (Alawawdeh 2016).
The Ministry of Education (MOE) in Kuwait has become alert to the importance of the formation of
crisis management teams in all Kuwaiti schools (including middle schools), and has named these
teams ‘Rapid Intervention Teams (RIT)’. These teams are headed by school principals and comprise
three faculty members, a social worker, and a psychologist in addition to a teacher who has under-
gone a first-aid training course. The team primarily aims to develop a clear plan of action on how to
react appropriately in the event of a school crisis and ensure the restoration of order within the school
(MOE 2013). Further, they are responsible for the issuance of an annual school bulletin outlining the
importance of the team, its objectives, and the names of its members. Moreover, it is the primary
authority that communicates and coordinates with the relevant bodies outside the school during
the crisis (Mousawi and Shanan 2013).
The middle school administration represented by its principal constitutes the frontline responders
who confront and deal with a crisis when it occurs. They are supposed to take all measures and
actions that contribute towards addressing school crises, including the employment of social net-
works to manage the crisis, whether before, during, or after an event. In Kuwait, employing social net-
works to address crises in middle schools by the principals is vague and unclear. This study aims to
clarify and understand the use of social media by principals handling middle schools while managing
school crises.

The sample
The study population comprised 208 middle school principals who handled crises, across 6 edu-
cational districts (MOE 2016). The sample included 66 middle school principals, which is equivalent
to 37.1% of the total study population. They were selected via simple random sampling. Table 1
shows the sample description and demographic data.

Methodology
This study utilised the descriptive method, which is one of the most common methods for such
research. The use of the questionnaire as a tool for collecting information is the preferred method
in studies that aim to detect the attitudes, wishes, and/or needs of the individuals examined
(degree of adoption of social network use among middle school principals) (Creswell and Guetterman
2018). The researcher constructed the study tool after reading the literature and reviewing related
4 A. ALANEZI

Table 1. Distribution of the study sample demographic variables.

Variable Category n %
Gender Male 35 53
Female 31 47
Academic degree Bachelor’s degree 46 69.7
Postgraduate degree 20 30.3
Years of experience Less than 5 years 28 42.4
5–10 years 12 18.2
More than 10 years 26 39.4
Number of courses on crisis management None 30 45.5
1–3 courses 22 33.3
More than 3 courses 14 21.2

studies (Zafairi 2015). The questionnaire comprised two parts: the first part focused on demographic
data; and the second comprised 26 items divided into two sections, each of which focused on the
degree of adoption of social media among middle school principals for school crisis management,
and that of social networks before, during, and after a school crisis, respectively. Each item was
rated by the respondent on a five-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (‘1’) to Strongly
Agree (‘5’).
To measure the validity of the questionnaire, it was presented to six professors and assistant pro-
fessors working in the field of educational administration for them to express their opinions about the
appropriateness of the items. Some items were amended based on these experts’ panel comments
and suggestions. The internal consistency of the questionnaire was calculated with Cronbach’s alpha
coefficient, which showed ‘relatively high’ values (Taber 2018, 1278) for all the questionnaire items
(0.732), the 13 items regarding relying on social networks (0.753), and the 13 items regarding adopt-
ing social networks before, during, and after a crisis (0.744). The questionnaire was designed electro-
nically using Google Forms and distributed to the sample with an electronic link sent via WhatsApp
messages to the sample; the data was then collected using the Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences (SPSS) 21.0 software.
To analyse the sample response, the means were divided into three levels (Low – Medium – High),
through the equation (Highest value of alternatives – Lowest value) / number of levels, that is (5-1) / 3
= 1.33. This value expresses the distance among the three levels. Therefore, a low mean ranged
between 1 and 2.33, a medium mean ranged between 2.34 and 3.67, and a high mean ranged
between 3.68 and 5.

Results
The first research question was, ‘To what extent do middle school principals adopt and rely on social
networks to manage school crises?’ The means, standard deviations, and ranks were employed to
answer this question. Table 2 shows that all axis items were low excluding item number 12 ‘we
use social media to maintain the trust of all parties’, which is at a medium level with its means
ranging from 1.82–2.45, and a standard deviation ranging from 0.98 to 1.30.
The second research question was, ‘To what extent do middle school principals adopt social net-
works before, during, and after a crisis?’ The means, standard deviations, and ranks were extracted to
answer this question. The results are presented in Table 3 and show that all axis items were low, with
their weighted means ranging from 1.94 to 2.15 and standard deviations ranging from 0.86 to 1.14.
The third research question was, ‘Which social networks do middle school principals use in mana-
ging school crises?’ The analysis demonstrated that school principals mostly used the following social
networks for school crisis management: WhatsApp (69.7%), Twitter (24.2%), and Instagram and Face-
book (3%). The results are presented in Table 4.
The fourth research question was, ‘Are there statistically significant differences in the extent of
social network use in managing school crises based on gender, academic degree, years of experience,
 EDUCATION 3–13 5

Table 2. Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranks.

No. Item Rank M SD Level
1 I use social media continuously even before a crisis. 7 2.09 1.30 Low
2 I use social media to take preventive actions and measures to prevent crises. 4 2.18 1.23 Low
3 I use social media to enable the team to take control of a potentially crisis-prone situation. 3 2.21 1.27 Low
4 I communicate through social media with all those related to the crisis. 9 2.06 1.24 Low
5 I inform officials through social media when there is cause for concern that an existing 5 2.15 1.24 Low
situation may turn into a crisis
6 I employ appropriate social media tools during a crisis. 2 2.27 1.23 Low
7 I continue to use social networks even after a crisis is over. 6 2.12 1.27 Low
8 I employ social media to try to uncover the main source behind / cause for the crisis. 3 2.21 1.26 Low
9 I use social media to build a crisis-related information database for whenever necessary. 9 2.00 1.25 Low
10 I follow specialists, individuals, and organisations who have information that can help deal 10 1.97 1.17 Low
with a crisis, through social media.
11 I collect information through social media that helps manage a crisis when it occurs. 8 2.06 0.90 Low
12 I use social media to maintain the trust of all parties. 1 2.45 1.10 Medium
13 Through social media, I obtain important information for inclusion in crisis management 11 1.82 0.98 Low
plans.
Note: Low mean = 1–2.33; Medium mean = 2.34–3.67; High mean = 3.68–5.

and number of crisis management courses undertaken by middle school principal?’ An independent-
samples T-test revealed no statistically significant differences in the gender mean scores, that is,
males [M = 2.21, SD = 0.74] and females [M = 2.13, SD = 0.69] t(64) = 0.85, p = 0.33. The results for
the academic degree variable showed similar results, and both variables showed similar mean
scores, that is, Bachelor [M = 2.16, SD = 0.65], and Postgraduate [M = 1.88, SD = 0.71] t(64) = 0.91, p
= 098. Table 5 presents the results.
On the other hand, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) test revealed statistically significant
differences (α = 0.05) for both variables – the number of years of experience [F(2, 63) = 3.26, p =
0.04 ] and the number of crisis management courses completed [F(2, 63) = 9.42, p = 0.00 ]. To draw
post hoc comparisons between the groups, a Tukey test was employed. The test illustrated that
there were no significant differences in the mean scores for all groups except the group with five
to ten years’ experience. Therefore, the variance in the variable of years of experience was in
favour of the latter group. Further, the Tukey test revealed a significant difference in the variable
of number of crisis management courses in favour to the group with more than 3 courses. The
results are presented in Table 6.

Table 3. Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranks.

No Item Rank M SD Level
14 I employ social media to discover and correct errors before a crisis occurs. 5 2.06 0.91 Low
15 I use social media to plan and develop appropriate school policies to manage a crisis. 9 1.97 0.94 Low
16 I use social media to update and review the crisis management plan. 2 2.12 0.86 Low
17 I use social media to learn the right procedures to follow in order to handle a crisis. 1 2.15 1.07 Low
18 Through social media, I consider the responses of those concerned beyond the school walls to 11 1.94 1.14 Low
ensure that a crisis is avoided.
19 I use social media to prepare the necessary and important materials in accordance with the 1 2.15 1.03 Low
type of crisis.
20 I employ social media to apply the concept of community participation in school crisis 4 2.09 1.12 Low
management.
21 While using social media, I rely on trusted sources. 4 2.06 1.07 Low
22 I use social networks to acquire all the necessary and accurate information in its preliminary 5 2.03 1.06 Low
form without distortion when necessary.
23 I interact through social media with members of the rapid intervention team. 6 2.00 0.92 Low
24 I follow dubious events that lead to a crisis through social media. 8 1.94 0.86 Low
25 Through social media, I share past and similar experiences of crisis with other school principals. 8 1.94 0.90 Low
26 I seek advice on crisis decision-making through social media. 3 2.08 1.01 Low
Note: Low mean = 1–2.33; Medium mean = 2.34–3.67; High mean = 3.68–5.
6 A. ALANEZI

Table 4. Frequencies and percentages of social network use among middle school principals.
Network Frequency %
Social Networks WhatsApp 46 69.7
Twitter 16 24.2
Instagram 2 3.0
Facebook 2 3.0

Discussion
The results for the first question revealed a general weakness in the degree of reliance on social
media among middle school principals. This may explain the slow and weak handling of school
crises by some school principals in Kuwait (Abulwahab and Almursy 2014). In Table 2, item 12 has
the highest mean, which may be attributed to the sensitivity of all stakeholders to the crisis, and
to the fact that such matters require effective and rapid communication to reassure all stakeholders
regarding the crisis and the way in which a crisis unfolds.
The second question revealed a general decrease in all items, indicating middle school principals
relied on social media during a crisis was poor. This result may be attributed to several factors, such as
employing traditional or outdated means to address a school crisis, which is surprising at a time when
social media is available to everyone on the team, and there are no difficulties encountered while
using it. It may, as well, be attributed to the ages of the school principals as well – they were aged
between 30 and 50 years (MOE 2016). Age is strongly associated with the use of social networks.
Those aged between 18 and 29 years constitute the largest number (90%) of users of social media
(Perrin 2015). The higher the age, the lesser they use social networks (Smith and Anderson 2018).
They probably do not feel comfortable using social media and trust their traditional communication
skills. Further, school principals may favour what is documented, formal, and signed (Ajah and
Kaegon 2019), particularly when an official inquiry occurs as a result of the weak handling of a
school crisis.
The results showed that the most common networks used by middle school principals were What-
sApp (69.7%), Twitter (24.2%), and Facebook and Instagram (up to 3%), in that order. These results can
be interpreted as a reflection of the percentage of Kuwaiti society’s use of social networks. Studies
found that almost 60% Kuwaitis use WhatsApp more than other networks, followed by Twitter, at
45.3% and finally, Facebook, at 5.9% (Almoyazry 2017; Al-Kandari et al. 2015).
The popularity of WhatsApp in Kuwait may be attributed to its unique characteristics. A user can
download it onto their smartphone or PC, and the programme can accommodate up to 256 individ-
uals in one group. Further, it allows the creation of an unlimited number of groups. Users can share
files and attachments up to 100 MB. The network is distinct in terms of security and privacy in both,
written and audio conversations, and can be used for both international and domestic calls (Singh
2018).
Only a small proportion of middle school principals used Instagram, which is different from the
number of users in Kuwaiti society at large. For example, almost one-third of university students in
Kuwait use Instagram (Al-Kandari, Melkote, and Sharif 2016). This may be because of the belief
among school principals that the use of WhatsApp and Twitter is sufficient during a school crisis

Table 5. T-test Table: gender and academic degree variables.

Variable M SD t p
Gender
Male 2.21 0.74 0.85 0.33
Female 2.13 0.69
Academic degree
Bachelor 2.16 0.65 0.91 0.98
Postgraduate degree 1.88 0.71
 EDUCATION 3–13 7

Table 6. ANOVA test table: years of experience and the number of courses undertaken by the middle school principals.
Source SS df MS F p
Years of Experience
Between groups 2.83 2 1.41 3.26 *0.04
Within groups 27.37 63 0.43
Total 30.21 65
Number of courses
Between groups 6.95 2 3.47 9.42 *0.00
Within groups 23.25 63 0.36
Total 30.21 65
* p > 0.05.

and that the use of several networks while managing a crisis may hinder or disrupt its management.
The low percentage of Facebook use may be attributable to the low number of users in Kuwait in
general (Al-Kandari et al. 2015; Reyaee and Ahmed 2015).
The results for the fourth question show similarities in the perspectives among male and female
middle school principals in terms of the degree of dependence on social media. Male and female
school principals’ views may be similar regarding crisis management, as their academic experiences
are similar. They all follow the same professional preparation approach. Most school principals post-
graduate from one of the only two public educational institutions in Kuwait, and the curriculum in
both institutions are not different for men and women (Kuwait University A 2019).
The results of middle school principals who held postgraduate or bachelor degree demonstrated
similar views, which may be attributed to the same reason. The researcher is currently the director of
Management and Educational Planning at Kuwait University. It is the only programme in Kuwait that
provides a Masters’ degree in this area. After a comprehensive review of all subjects taught as part of
the programme he manages, the researcher concluded that the concept of crisis management is
taught as part of the course of Educational Management Science (Kuwait University B 2019). The
methodology of the course focuses on the concept in general without going into details. It looks
at the concept from a purely theoretical perspective and pays almost no attention to how it can
be applied in the field of education.
The results revealed that middle school principals with five to ten years’ experience had a different
perspective when compared to their colleagues from other groups. This may be because of the sim-
ultaneous spread of social networks during their principalship. Social networks dramatically
expanded in popularity around their position as principal (Jin et al. 2013). Therefore, it is possible
that they may have relied on social networks several times in the past which may have led them
to gain familiarity and experience in managing school crises through them.
Further, the results revealed that school principals who had taken more than three courses in crisis
management tended to use social media in school crisis management more than others. The
researcher reviewed the curricula of some of these training courses and concluded that the approach
followed in those courses focused, in part, on activating the role of social networks, and encouraging
the course participants to employ them in school crisis management. Therefore, the number of train-
ing courses taken may also increase awareness of the importance of social networking while mana-
ging school crises.

Conclusion
The crisis management process is difficult and complex for school principals. It is often intricately tied
to several other factors, parties, and regulations within the community and beyond. The more mys-
terious, tense, and aggravating the events surrounding a school crisis are, the more school principals
tend to depend on social networks to clarify ambiguities and identify ways to deal with the crisis (Wil-
liamson and Johnston 2013). The use of social networks has proven beneficial in handling educational
crises (Wenting 2019). If used appropriately in school crisis management, they can contribute towards
8 A. ALANEZI

the alleviation of the crisis and even towards addressing it radically. This study aimed to determine
the extent of reliance to which school principals at middle schools rely on social networks in mana-
ging such crises. It drew several interesting conclusions, of which the most significant was the low
degree of adoption of social networks among principals.
Social networks play a significant role in supporting school crisis management at each stage
(before, during, and after the crisis). Before the crisis, school principals, through social networks,
can spread information on ways to deal with the crisis when it occurs. The networks, however, con-
tribute towards mitigating the cost of the crisis. Social networks make it possible to possess knowl-
edge of the potential crisis’ dimensions through warning signals, indicators, and symptoms. Further,
they contribute towards monitoring and analysing the overall crisis and operate as a proactive step
towards supporting the crisis management team in developing appropriate perceptions of the
potential crisis. Social networks can also be employed as databases to analyse and convert infor-
mation into internal knowledge in the school.
During the school crisis, however, these networks enable principals to manage the crisis by asses-
sing their assumptions and presenting them with scenarios so that they can formulate effective crisis
management strategies. They help contain the crisis and reassure stakeholders by spreading positive
values and mobilising support to restore equilibrium within and outside the school. These networks
also facilitate dialogue and enhance participation in the decision-making process associated with the
crisis.
After the crisis, principals can use social networks to formulate a precise, clear, and stable discourse
to preserve the school’s image as a respected and trusted educational institute in the community,
and also help restore the situation to a state of normality. Social networks can also increase the
capacity of the school community to handle recovery in the post-crisis stage. Further, they can
help principals by calling upon volunteers to support relief, reconstruction, and aid-distribution
efforts.
The study proposes some recommendations that may contribute towards incorporating the use of
social networks among middle school principals. First, the MOE should review, and update its policies
and procedures to encourage middle school principals to adopt the latest developments in the com-
munications means. The ministry should reconsider the current training programmes for principals
and including training courses or specialised workshops on how to employ social networks in
crisis management most effectively. Second, the training programmes should focus on the practical
aspects rather than theoretical ones, as school principals need practical, quick, and clear procedures
to assist them in dealing with a crisis as quickly as possible and with minimal loss.
This study revealed that middle school principals in Kuwait rely on only two social networks in
crisis management: WhatsApp and Twitter. There are several other networks that are equally impor-
tant, both in terms of usefulness and effectiveness, and may enable access for more people, such as
Instagram and Snapchat. The use of several networks may benefit the school principals in terms of
the exchange of information and may facilitate a wider discussion of the latest developments pertain-
ing to the crisis. This can help them reassure the community by updating them on the latest devel-
opments. Further, this study focused on the degree of adoption of social networks by school
principals of middle schools. However, it is necessary to study the adoption of social networks in con-
nection with different stages of education, such as the primary and secondary school levels.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

ORCID
Ahmad Alanezi http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0612-4592
 EDUCATION 3–13 9

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