TRAINING MATERIAL

GAS TURBINE ENGINE

APB-M15

TABLE OF CONTENT

1. ENERGY ........................................................................................................................................ 3
1.1. Potential Energy .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.2. Kinetic Energy ............................................................................................................................. 4
1.3. Unit of Energy ............................................................................................................................. 4
2. WORK, POWER, FORCE and MOTION .................................................................................. 5
2.1. Work ........................................................................................................................................... 5
2.2. Power .......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.3. Force ........................................................................................................................................... 8
3. MOTION......................................................................................................................................... 8
3.1. Newton First Law ........................................................................................................................ 8
3.2. Newton Second Law .................................................................................................................... 9
3.3. Newton Third Law ....................................................................................................................... 9
3.4. Speed and Velocity .................................................................................................................... 10
3.5. Vectors ...................................................................................................................................... 10
3.6. Circular Motion ......................................................................................................................... 11
4. CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENT & OPERATION OF GTE ............................................ 12
4.1. Brayton Cycle ............................................................................................................................ 14
5. GAS TURBINE ENGINE TYPES ................................................................................................. 16
5.1. Turbojet engine .......................................................................................................................... 17
5.2. Turboprop engine :..................................................................................................................... 17
5.3. Turbofan engine : ....................................................................................................................... 18
5.4. Turboshaft engine ...................................................................................................................... 19

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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1. An aerial navigation problem is a form of vector addition. ..................................................... 11

Figure 2. A body in motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line. ................................................. 11
Figure 3. The Turbojet Principle ............................................................................................................ 13
Figure 4. Comparison of work cycles ..................................................................................................... 15
Figure 5. The flows of kinetic energy through the useful power .......................................................... 16
Figure 6. Turbojet engine....................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7. Turboprop engine schematic ................................................................................................... 18
Figure 8. Turbofan................................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 9. Turboshaft engine ................................................................................................................... 20

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MODULE 15.1

FUNDAMENTAL

1. ENERGY

Energy, in its practical form, is the capacity of an object to perform work. It is classified into
two rather broad types, potential and' kinetic.

1.1. Potential Energy

Potential energy is energy stored in a material. Even though an object is not doing work, it is
capable of doing work. Potential energy is divided into three groups:
(1) that due to position,
(2) that due to distortion of an elastic body, and
(3) that which produces work through chemical action.
The energy a body possesses by virtue of its position or configuration is potential energy.
This energy is stored in the body which retains it, until it is potentially able to release it.
Figure 1.1 shows When the book is at rest, it possesses potential energy because of its
position; but as it falls, it has kinetic energy because of its motion

Figure 1.1.. Potensial Energy and Kinetic Energy

The amount of potential energy possessed by an elevated weight is computed using the
following formula:

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Potential Energy = Weight x Height

When a spring is compressed or stretched from its normal condition, it possesses potential
energy which may be released when the spring is allowed to return to its at-rest condition.
Chemical energy is stored in an aircraft battery and is there to produce mechanical work
when the starter switch is pressed. Electrical energy can also be stored in a capacitor to
produce light when a strobe light tube is fired.

1.2. Kinetic Energy

When potential energy is released and causes motion, it is changed to kinetic energy. Kinetic
energy is known as "energy of motion."
When you raise a hammer above your head, the hammer gains potential energy because of
its position, or height. As you bring the hammer down, the potential energy stored in the
hammer, plus the kinetic energy your muscles put into the hammer, gives it a great deal of
kinetic energy. When the hammer strikes a nail, work is done forcing the nail into a piece of
wood. However, not all the kinetic energy does work. Some of the energy is dissipated as
heat caused by the friction between the nail and wood.

1.3. Unit of Energy

In order to better understand energy, you must recognize the units with which it is expressed.
The most common unit of measure of mechanical energy is the horsepower, and is equivalent
to 33,000 foot.pounds of work done in one minute.

1 HP = 33,000 Ft.Lb/minute

In the metric system the measure of mechanical energy is the Joule. For electrical energy the
typical unit of measure is the watt. These units are used extensively in the study of machines
and electricity.

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2. WORK, POWER, FORCE and MOTION

Work, power, force, and motion are important concepts of physics. As an aircraft
maintenance technician, you must understand these concepts and be able to use the associated
formulas to fully comprehend simple machines like the lever, pulley, or gear.

2.1. Work

If a force is applied to an object A d the object moves, work is done. The amount of work
done is directly proportional to the force applied and the distance the object moves. In
mathematical terms, work is defined as the product of force times distance.
For example, If an engine weighing 400 pounds is lifted 10 feet, 4,000 foot-pounds of work is
done. This is expressed by the equation:

Work = Force (F) x Distance (D)

Work = 400 lbs. x 10 ft.
Work = 4,000 footlpounds

If a force is applied to an object and the object does not move, no work is done. By the same
token, no work is done if an object moves with no force applied to it. In the English system,
work is typically measured in foot-pounds.
One foot-pound is equal to one pound of force applied to an object through the distance of
one foot. To convert foot-pounds to inch-pounds, multiply the number of foot-pounds by the
number of inches in a foot, or 12 inches. One foot-pound is equivalent to 12 inch-pounds.
In the metric system, the unit of work is the joule. One joule is the work done by a force of
one newton acting through a distance of one meter.
One pound is equal to 4.448 newtons. When using metric units of measure, the formula for
computing work remains the same algebraically, and only the units of measure change.

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2.2. Power

When determining the amount of work done, the time required to do the work is not
considered. Power, on the other hand, does take time into consideration.
For example, a low powered motor can be geared to lift a large weight if time is not a factor.
However, if it is important to lift the weight quickly, more power is required. Power is
calculated with the formula:

Power is defined as the time-rate of doing work. In the English system, power is expressed in
foot.pounds per second, whereas the unit of power in the metric system is joules per second. ,
Another unit of measure for power is the horsepower. Horsepower was first used by James
Watt to compare the performance of his steam engine with a typical English dray horse. One
horsepower is the amount of power required to do 33,000 foot-pounds of work in one minute
or 550 foot-pounds of work in one second.

Therefore, the formula used to calculate horsepower is:

Example:
Find the horsepower required to raise a 12,000
pound airplane six feet in one-half minute.

Given:
Aircraft Weight = 12,000 Pounds
Height = 6 Feet
Time = 112 Minute

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The electrical unit of measure for horsepower is the watt. One horsepower is equal to 746
watts. Therefore, in the example above, 3,252.56 watts of electrical power is required to
operate the 4.36 horsepower motor As mentioned earlier, the metric system utilizes joules per
second to measure power. To convert joules per second to watts use the relationship:

Based on this relationship, a motor with a power output of 5,000 watts is capable of doing
5,000 joules of work per second. Since one kilowatt (kw) is equal to 1,000 watts, the above
motor has a power output of 5 kw. Using a 5 kw motor, how much time does it take to hoist a
12,000 pound aircraft 30 meters?

To determine this, you must rewrite the formula for calculating power as:

Now substitute the given values.

Force = 53,376 newtons (12,000 Ibs. x 4.448 N)
Distance = 30 meters
Power = 5 kw

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2.3. Force

Work is the product of a force applied to an object, times the distance the object moves.
However, many practical machines use a mechanical advantage to change the amount of
force required to move an object. Some of the simplest mechanical advantage devices used
are: the lever, the inclined plane, the pulley, and gears.
Mechanical advantage is calculated by dividing the weight, or resistance (R) of an object by
the effort (E) used to move the object.
This is seen in the formula:

A mechanical advantage of 4 indicates that for every 1 pound of force applied, you are able to
move 4 pounds of resistance.

3. MOTION

An English physicist by the name of Sir Isaac Newton proposed three laws of motion that
explain the effect of force on matter. These laws are commonly referred to as Newton's Laws
of Motion.

3.1. Newton First Law

Newton's first law of motion explains the effect of inertia on a body. It states that a body at
rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain in uniform motion (straight
line], unless acted on by some outside force. Simply stated, an object at rest remains at rest
unless acted on by a force.

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By the same token, an object in motion on a frictionles~surfacec ontinues in a straig-h t line

at the same speed indefinitely. However, you know this does not happen because every object
in motion encounters friction.

3.2. Newton Second Law

Newton's second law states that the acceleration produced in a mass by the addition of a
given force is directly proportional to the force, and inversely proportional to the mass. When
all forces acting on a body are in balance, the object remains at a constant velocity. However,
if one force exceeds the other, the velocity of the object changes. Newton's second law is
expressed by the formula:

Force = mass x acceleration (F = ma)

An increase in velocity with time is measured in the metric system in centimeters per second
per second. In the English system it is measured in feet per second per second. This is an
important relationship when working with the acceleration of gravity.
For example,
if a body is allowed to fall freely under the effect of gravity,
it accelerates uniformly at
32.17 feet per second every second it falls.

3.3. Newton Third Law

Newton's third law states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. When
a gun is fired, expanding gases force a bullet out of the barel and exert exactly the same force
back against the shooter. This is felt as a familiar kick. The magnitudes of both forces are
exactly equal, however, their directions are opposite.
An application of Newton's third law is the turbojet engine. The action in a turbojet is the
exhaust as it rapidly leaves the engine while the reaction is the thrust propelling the aircraft
forward..

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3.4. Speed and Velocity

Speed and velocity are often used interchangeably, however, they are actually quite different.
Speed is simply a rate of motion, or the distance an object moves in a given time. It is usually
expressed in terms like miles per hour, feet per second, kilometers
per hour, or knots. Speed does not take into consideration any direction. Velocity, on the
other hand, is the rate of motion in a given direction, and is expressed in terms like five
hundred feet per minute downward, or 300 knots eastward.
An increase in the rate of motion is called acceleration and a decrease is called deceleration.
Both acceleration and deceleration are measured in terms such as feet per second per second,
or meters per second per second. Acceleration is calculated using the following formula:

Where:
A = Acceleration
Vf = the final velocity
Vi = the initial velocity
t = the elapsed time

3.5. Vectors

A vector quantity is a mathematical expression having both magnitude and direction.

Velocity is a vector quantity because it has both of these characteristics. Since all vector
quantities have magnitude and direction, they can be added to each other. One of the simplest
ways to add vectors is to draw them to scale. For example, vectors A and B have a known
velocity and direction. To add these two vectors Newton's third law states that for every
action, there begin by drawing vector A to the correct length and is an equal and opposite
reaction. When a gun is direction. Then, place the tail of vector B at the head fired, expanding
gases force a bullet out of the bar- of vector A and draw it to scale. Once both vectors are laid
out, draw the resultant vector from the starting point to the head of the last vector. The
resulting vector has the same velocity as the sum of the two vectors laid out. [Figure 1]

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For example, an airplane flies in a direction

and speed represented by vector A. However,
the wind, represented by vector B, blows in a
given direction and speed Therefore, the
airplane actually follows the ground track
illustrated by vector C whose magnitude and
direction are the sum of vectors A and B.

When the body is forced into a curved path,

Figure 1. An aerial navigation problem is a
form of vector addition.
centrifugal force tends to pull the body away
from the center of the curve. The force used to
counter centrifugal force is centripetal force
and is provided by the string or wire attached to
the body

3.6. Circular Motion

When an object moves in a uniformly curved path at a uniform rate, its velocity changes
because of its constant change in direction. If you tie a weight onto a string and swing it
around your head, it follows a circular path. The force that pulls the spinning object away
from the center of its rotation is called centrifugal force. The equal and opposite force
required to hold the weight in a circular path is called centripetal force. [Figure 2]

Figure 2. A body in motion tends to remain in motion in a straight line.

Centripetal force is directly proportional to the mass of the object in motion and inversely
proportional to the size of the circle in which the object travels.
Thus, if the mass of the object is doubled, the pull on the string must double to maintain the
circular path. By the same token, if the radius of the string is cut in half and the speed

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remains constant, the pull on the string must increase. The reason for this is that as the radius
decreases, the string must pull the object from its linear path more rapidly. Using the same
reasoning, the pull on the string must increase if the object is swung more rapidly in its orbit.
Centripetal force is thus directly proportional to the velocity of the object.
The formula used to calculate centripetal force is:

When working with most grinding wheels, notice that they are rated for a maximum rpm. The
reason for this is, if too much centrifugal force builds up, the binding materials within the
wheel can not hold the wheel together.

4. CONSTRUCTIONAL ARRANGEMENT & OPERATION OF GTE

All gas turbine engines used in aviation have a similar principle of functioning. A gas turbine
engine (GTE) is a form of heat engine using air as the working fluid. As an "air breathing"
engine, its use is limited to the earth's atmosphere, unlike the liquid-fueled rocket, which
carries its own oxygen required for combustion and can therefore operate outside of the
atmosphere.
The straightforward functioning of a GTE is shown in [figure 3] Atmospheric*a ir is taken
into the engine and compressed in an axial flow or centrifugal compressor (sometimes by a
sequenced combination of both).
Following compression, the air is directed into one or more combustion chambers, where a
fine spray of liquid fuel is added. This combustible mixture is ignited, sending hot gases onto
one or more turbine wheels to cause their rotation.

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Figure 3. The Turbojet Principle

Some energy is extracted from the hot gases to drive the turbine(s), which in turn power the
compressors so that the engine becomes "self sustaining." Hot gases are then expelled at high
speed into the atmosphere via the exhaust jet pipe. The difference between the momentum of
the exhaust gases and the momentum of the intake air provides the thrust in a "pure jet"
engine. Only a small proportion of supplied air is involved in the actual combustion process.
The remainder of the air provides cooling to acceptable values.
Both piston and jet aircraft engines work on air to accelerate it. The propeller of the piston
type gives a low acceleration to a large mass of air, while the jet engine gives a large
acceleration to a relatively small mass
of air. For the latter to happen, increasing the velocity of the working air means increasing its
energy; first by increasing the pressure energy, then by adding heat energy. Following some
energy extraction by the
turbine, residual energy is converted to kinetic energy in the high-velocity jet efflux.

Jet and four-stroke piston engines, having air as their working medium, both operate to
similar working cycles. However, in the GTE, combustion takes place at a near-constant
pressure. In the piston engine, combustion occurs at a constant volume.

Both GTEs and four-stroke piston engines work to a sequence of induction, compression,
combustion, and exhaust. In the piston engine, the working cycle is intermittent, with a single
component (the piston) being involved in all four actions. By contrast, the GTE has a
continuous work cycle involving separate components (i.e. the compressor, combustor
system, turbine, and exhaust).

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In the GTE, the absence of reciprocating parts, combined with the continuous working cycle,
produce a very smooth-running engine. Compared with a piston engine of any particular size,
the GTE allows more energy to be released from a given quantity of fuel. On a pound-for-
pound basis, the GTE is more efficient than the piston engine.

Because combustion in the GTE occurs at near-constant pressure with an increase in volume,
the high peak pressures of piston engines (1,000 psi or more) are avoided.
It therefore becomes possible to use low octane fuels and lightweight fabricated combustion
chambers. To take advantage of their less-robust component requirements and to ensure long
working lives, special materials are used in the GTE to withstand elevated temperatures.

4.1. Brayton Cycle

The working cycle of an ideal GTE in its simplest form is shown in the left-hand PV
(pressure - volume) diagram at the top of figure 4

The right-hand PV diagram shows the actual cycle resulting from inefficiencies in the intake
compressor, combustor, turbine, and exhaust. [Figure 4]

The sequence of events shown in the PV diagrams is known as the Brayton Cycle, named
after George Brayton who did a great deal of theoretical analysis on steam engine
performance in the United States in the 19" century. Sometimes referred to as Joule's Cycle, it
concerns a thermodynamic cycle made up of two adiabatic and two isobaric changes taking
place in alternate order. In GTEs, it is a continuous combustion cycle.

Hatched areas to the left of the line 1 - 2 represent work done on the air during compression,
and the areas between points 1 - 2 - 3 - 4 represent work produced by the engine during the
cycle. Point 1 shows air, at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed along line 1 - 2. In
our engines, this takes place across the compressor.

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Figure 4. Comparison of work cycles

Point 1 shows air, at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed along line 1 - 2. In our
engines, this takes place across the compressor
From point 2 to 3, heat is added to the air by the introduction and combustion of fuel in the
combustor at almost-constant pressure; the volume is increased. In the actual case, the small
drop in pressure between 2 and 3 is due to necessary combustion-chamber construction
practices.
From point 3 to 4, combustion products expand back to atmospheric pressure via the turbine
and jet pipe. Some of the energy of the expanding gases is converted to mechanical energy in
the turbine, and the remaining energy provides the propulsive jet when discharged into the
atmosphere.

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Figure 5. The flows of kinetic energy through the useful power

5. GAS TURBINE ENGINE TYPES

The actual flow path through a GTE varies according to requirements. The straight through
flow, as in figure 1.3, is the basic design, providing a small frontal area combined with a
suitability for bypass arrangements. Various forms of GTE have evolved as different
requirements have been met.
Gas turbine engines are considered to be of two types:
1. Thrust providing engines
2. Torque producing engines
The two classifications of thrust producing turbine engine are
1. Turbojet
2. Turbofan

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The two classifications of torque producing turbine engine are

3. Turboprop
4. Turboshaft

5.1. Turbojet engine

Turbojet engine derives its thrust by highly accelerating a mass of air , all of which goes
through the engine. Since a high " jet " velocity is required to obtain an acceptable of thrust,
the turbine of turbo jet is designed to extract only enough power from the hot gas stream to
drive the compressor and accessories . All of the propulsive force (100% of thrust ) produced
by a jet engine derived from exhaust gas.

Figure 6. Turbojet engine

5.2. Turboprop engine :

Turboprop engine derives its propulsion by the conversion of the majority of gas stream
energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor , accessories , and the propeller load.
The shaft on which the turbine is mounted drives the propeller through the propeller
reduction gear system Approximately 90% of thrust comes from propeller and about only
10% comes from exhaust gas.

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Figure 7. Turboprop engine schematic

5.3. Turbofan engine :

Turbofan engine has a duct enclosed fan mounted at the front of the engine and driven either
mechanically at the same speed as the compressor , or by an independent turbine located to
the rear of the compressor drive turbine . The fan air can exit seperately from the primary
engine air , or it can be ducted back to mix with the primary's air at the rear . Approximately
morethan 75% of thrust comes from fan and less than 25% comes from exhaust gas.

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Figure 8. Turbofan

5.4. Turboshaft engine

Turboshaft engine derives its propulsion by the conversion of the majority of gas stream
energy into mechanical power to drive the compressor , accessories , just like the turboprop
engine but The shaft on which the turbine is mounted drives something other than an aircraft
propeller such as the rotor of a helicopter through the reduction gearbox .

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Figure 9. Turboshaft engine

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