Unit four

Electricity

Mohammed Allam
 Unit four: Electricity PHYSICS IGCSE

Chapter 1: Electrostatics
Properties of charged body
 A body becomes positively charged when it loses electrons and it
becomes negatively charge when it gains electrons.
 Charged bodies attract light objects like dust, small pieces of paper.
 Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Conductors
Materials which contain a lot of free electrons that flow through them,
metals are the best conductors as they have free electrons.

Insulators
Materials which contain no free electrons, insulator should be perfectly dry,
moisture can destroy the insulation by conducting electric charges.

Methods of charging a body

1- Charging conduction
 When a charged body touches an uncharged body, the two bodies
share the same type of charge.
2- Charging by rubbing
• Polythene and Perspex are both materials which become charged
when rubbed will a dry wool cloth.
• When a polythene rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, free electrons
transfer from the dry cloth to the polythene making rod negative
charge & the dry cloth become positive charge.
• When Perspex rod is rubbed with a dry cloth, free electrons from the
rod to the dry cloth making rod positive charge & dry cloth negative
charge.

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3- Charging by induction
i) Bring negative changed rod to a conductor, the
conductor becomes polarized.
ii) Connect the conductor to the earth, negative
charges escapes to earth.
iii) Disconnect the connection to earth.
iv) Remove charged rod, the conductor become
positive charged.

N.B: Amount of electric charge carried by charged body is calculated by

quantity (Q) measured in coulomb (c).
Q = ne
 Q: amount of charge (c).
 n: number of charges (electrons)
 e: charge of each electron

Electric field
It is region in space where an electric charge experiences an electrostatics
force.

• Electric field strength is proportional to the electric

field lines.
• Field lines come out from (+) to (-).
• Field lines never intersect.
• When (+) charged particle enters an electric field, it
attracts to the (-) Plate and repelled by the (+) plate.
• For (-) charged particle, it attracts to the (+) plate and repelled by the
(-) Plate.

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CH2: Electric current & Circuits

Components

The electric current

 Electrons flow from the negative pole of the battery to the positive pole.
 Conventional current is assumed as if (+) charges are moving in the
conductor so it always opposite to the direction of flow of electrons.
Electric current: amount of charge flowing in the
circuit per unit time, measured in amperes.
 I: electric current (A)
 Q: amount of charge (c)
 t: time (s)

E.m.f. (electromotive force) & potential difference

 When charges pass inside the battery the gain electrical energy & store
them.
 When charges pass in the external circuit, they lose their energy in form
of heat & light energies.

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E.m.f. is: electric energy gained by each coulomb of charge as it is
pushed by the battery through the whole circuit.
Potential difference: electric energy lost by each coulomb of charge as it
passes in certain component & appears as heat or light.

 E.m.f. and potential difference are measured in volts

1 volt=joule/coulomb

Ammeters & voltmeters

Ammeters

 Used to measure electric current (I)

 Connected in series.
 Have very low internal resistance as not to affect the circuit.

Voltmeters

 Used to measure potential difference between two points in a circuit.

 Connected in parallel.
 Voltmeters have very high internal resistance to take a small current
so not affect the circuit.

The resistance of a metal wire

R: resistance of the component, measured in Ohms (Ω)

i) Directly proportional to it is length.
ii) Inversely proportional to it is cross section area.
iii) Increase uniformly with temperature.
iv) Dependent on the material of the wire.

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 Variable resistance (Rheostat) is such an example of using idea of
changing the length of resistance to control the current flowing in the
circuit.

Ohm’s law
At constant temperature the potential difference across any Ohmic resistor
is directly proportional to the current passing through it

V = IR
 V: voltage (E.M.F OR P.d) (V)
 I: electric current (A)
 R: electrical resistance (Ω)
Series connections
• Current is the same in series connections.
• Voltage (P.d) is different across the resistances.
• Connecting more resistances increase total resistances.

Parallel connections:
 Current is different across the resistances.
 Voltage (P.d) is the same in parallel connections
 Connecting more resistances decrease total resistances.

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Advantage of parallel circuit over series circuit

 Make all appliances get same voltage.

 Make each appliances operate independent.

Determination resistances of metal wire

 Connect the circuit as shown

 Adjust variable resistances to the maximum to
avoid large currents.
 Change the value of the variable resistances and
take the readings from the ammeter & voltmeter.
 Plot a graph ( V – I )
 We found that voltage and current of a resistor are
directly proportional of a resistor, slope gives
resistor value.
Precautions:

 Positive pole of ammeter & voltmeter should be connected to

the positive pole of the battery.
 All the apparatus should placed on horizontal bench to make
the pointer move freely.
 The reading should be taken with eye perpendicular to the
scale to avoid parallax error.
 Switched off the circuit immediately after take the readings
 Each reading should be repeated and take the average.
 The ends of the connecting wires should be clean & not rusty
to avoid bad connections due to increased resistance.

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Electric energy
It is work done to move charge Q through potential difference.

Electrical installations

 Live wire: carries electrical energy from the power

station, switches, fuses & circuit breakers must be
connected in that wire ( brown) .
 Neutral wire: completes the circuit to the station
(blue).
 Earth wire: connected to the metal case of an
appliance ( Yellow/ green).

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Fuses
 Small glass tube containing a thin wire
 If large current passes a through the fuse, tin wire melts and move
the appliance safe unit the fault corrected & fuse replaced.
 Connected to the live wire
 Fuse value should be below the maximum current can be carried by
a wire.

N.B.

Circuit breakers : make use of an electromagnet to open switch in the

circuit when the current exceeds a certain value.

Sources of dangers of electricity

 Electric shocks can be produced due to damaged insulation.
 A fire can be produced if extremely high current pass in the wires,
producing over heating of wires.
 Humidity & wet weather reduce resistance of insulators causing to
break its insulation.
 Electrical devices which have metal case (Ex: refrigerators and
washing machines) will cause an electric shock if a bare (not
covered) wire makes contact with its metal case.

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Chapter 3: Magnetism
Properties of a magnet
 It consists of 2 poles (north & south) it attract iron parts or filings from
both poles.
 When a magnet is suspended freely, the north pole of the magnet
points to the north direction of earth (compass idea)
 Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
Magnetic substances (ferrous): materials which can magnetized or attracted
to magnet (iron-steel-cobalt-nickel).
Non-magnetic materials (non-ferrous): materials which can't be attracted
to magnet, ex (copper, brass, aluminum, wood, plastic, glass…..)
Methods of magnetization

1-Induction
 When a bar of iron or steel is brought near to
strong magnet, it becomes magnetized by
induction.
 End of bar acquires a polarity opposite to that
of the magnet.
 The induced magnetism in iron is greater
than that of steel, but when the magnetizing
poleis is removed, steel only retains it is
magnets.
 Soft iron is used to control it is magnetization.
2-Stroking
 The steel bar is strokes by a strong magnet in
the same direction many times.
 The pole produced at the end of the stroke is
opposite to the magnet pole.

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3-Electrical method

 Place steel bar inside a long solenoid with direct current

from batteries flowing Ii, the solenoid, steel becomes
magnetized.
 Strength of magnetization increase when:
1. Increase the current.
2. Increase number of turns of the solenoid.

• Polarity produced can be found by right hand grip rule

when the fingers of the right hand turn in the direction
of the current, the thumb will points towards the North
Pole. (Right hand rule)

Some applications in which electromagnet is used

1-Electric bell

 Press on the switch, circuit is closed.

 Current passes and electromagnet magnetized.
 It will attract iron armature making the hammer hits the
gong.
 When you release the switch, no more current will flow
and armature returns to its original position.

2-Relay

It's a switching device which makes use of an electromagnet in

one circuit (with small current) to close a switch in another
circuit (with large current).

 Small current flows in first circuit, electromagnet

magnetized.
 It attracts iron armature. As a result, the second
switch will be closed and current passes in second
circuit.
 This method is used in circuit breakers.

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Magnetic field

It is the region around a magnet in which a magnetic force is exerted.

 Magnetic field lines (flux lines) represent magnitude & direction of

magnetic field.
 Flux lines are close together where the field strong.
 Flux lines go from north to south.
 Flux lines never cross each other.

To find magnetic field lines

1-Using plotting compass
 Compass needle shows the direction of flux lines if you placed it in
different positions around the magnet.
2-Using iron filings

 Place a strong magnet beneath a

sheet of paper.
 Put some iron filings on the paper.
 Tap the paper, iron filings move and
turn in the direction in the magnetic
field.

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Demagnetization of a magnet
 Place the magnet inside a solenoid AC current and directed in east-
west direction, then withdraw the magnet slowly from the solenoid to
a far distance.
 Hammer the magnet strongly (in east – west direction).
 Heat the magnet excessively to redness.

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Chapter 4: Magnetic effects of a current

& Magnetic force
When a current passes in wire it produces a magnetic field in the region
around the wire.

Magnetic field patterns due to

1- Straight wire
 Magnetic field lines take a form of
concentric circles around the wire.
 Direction of magnetic field lines is given by
right grip rule, the thumb point to the
direction of magnetic field lines (flux).
 Magnitude of the field can be increased by:
i. Increase current in the wire.
ii. Getting closer to the wire

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2- Circular coil

 The field around each section of

the coil appears circular.
 At the center of the coil the field
is straight and is perpendicular to
the plane of the coil.

3-Solenoid
 Magnetic field is similar to a bar magnet
with north and south poles, inside solenoid
field intensity is uniform.
 Direction of magnetic field is given by right
grip rule when the fingers of the right hand
turn in the direction of the current, the
thumb will points towards the North Pole.
 Magnitude of the field can be increased by:
1. Increase the current.
2. Increase number of turns.
3. Close turns of solenoid together.
4. Insert soft iron bar inside the solenoid.

Force acted on charged Particles in a magnetic field

1-Conductor placed in a magnetic field

 The wire moves in a direction always
perpendicular to both current and magnetic
field.
 The wire moves due to interacting two
magnetic fields, one because of the
permanent magnet & the other from the
electric wire, producing magnetic force on the
wire.


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 Direction of force given by Fleming's left hand rule:
1. First finger points to the direction of magnetic field.
2. Second finger points to the direction of the electric current.
3. Thumb points to the direction of motion ( force).
 Force on the wire increased by:
1. Increase current in the conductor.
2. Increase the length of the wire.
3. Use stronger magnet

2-Charged particles moving in a magnetic field

 When a beam of positive or negative charged

particles enters a magnetic field, a force acts
on the particle perpendicular to both
magnetic field and the conventional current.
 Direction of motion is given by Fleming's left
hand rule.

The simple D.C. motor

 As the current passes through the
coil, magnetic force experienced
on the wire making the coil to
rotates in a direction directed by
F.L.H.R.
 There is a time where the coil will
not touch the rings (at vertical
position) in this time there in no
current pass through the coil but it
will keep rotating due to its inertia.
 The coil will keep rotating in same direction because the
commutator will be reversed, reversing current direction in the coil
and the forces acted on it.

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 Components:
1. Cells (battery): source of DC.
2. Rectangular coil: wire which current passes through.
3. Permanent magnet: source of magnetic field.
4. Split-ring commutator: make the coil rotates in one
direction by reversing the current in the coil each half cycle.
 To increase turning effect of the coil:
1. Increase current in the coil.
2. Use stronger magnet (or concave poles).
3. Increase number of turns of the coil.
4. Closing turns together.
5. Insert soft iron core inside the coil.

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Chapter 5 : Electromagnetic Induction

It is phenomena when a wire cuts perpendicularly a strong magnetic field,

E.m.f. and current induced a cross the wire.

Moving a wire across a magnet

 When the wire is moving in the direction
shown, emf & current induced in the wire
because it is cutting magnetic field
perpendicularly ( there is change in magnetic
flux cutting the wire) .
 Direction of the current is detected by
Fleming's right hand rule.
1. First finger points to the direction of
magnetic field.
2. Second finger points to the direction of the
electric induced current.
3. Thumb points to the direction of motion.

 If the wire is stationary or moving parallel to the direction of

magnetic field , no emf induced , because there is no change in flux
cutting the wire.
 Magnitude of the current can be increased by
1. Using stronger magnet.
2. Move the wire faster
3. Using longer wire

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Moving a magnet moved near a solenoid
 If a bar magnet moved near a solenoid,
emf induced across the solenoid &
current flows.
 If the magnet motion is reversed,
direction of induced current is also
reversed.

 Direction of the induced current will flow in direction to create a

magnetic field opposes the magnetic field causing it (Lenz’s law).

 Magnitude of the induced current in the coil can be increased by:

1. Use stronger magnet.
2. Move the magnet faster.
3. Increasing number of turns of the solenoid.

Ac generator (alternative current)

 As the coil rotates ( mainly from rotation
of external turbine ) across magnetic
field, e.m.f. induced and current flows
through the coil.
 Current is fed to slip rings fixed to the
end of the coils; it used to feed any
external appliance with induced current.

 When the coil at vertical position, no current flows because the

directions of motion of coils are parallel to flux lines and no change in
flux lines cutting the coil at this moment.
 As the coil return to horizontal, current will flow but in the opposite
direction to that of initial position, because sides of the coil reverse its
direction of motion every half cycle.

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 Value of current always changes as the coil rotates because the rate of
change in flux lines cutting the coil increases to maximum at horizontal
position and minimum at vertical position.
 To increase the induced emf or current:
1. Use stronger magnet.
2. Use coil of more turns.
3. Rotate the coil faster.
4. Winding the coil on a soft iron core.
Eddy current: they are induced electric
currents within a conductor by changing
magnetic field on the conductor; these
currents tend to slow motion of the
rotation, reduce induced current and
cause heating effect.
Transformers

 Components (how the transformer works).

1. Primary coil: is connected to AC supply, the alternating current passes
through primary coil produces an alternating magnetic field.
2. Iron core: iron core is magnetic substance through which magnetic flux
is transmitted form primary to secondary coil.
3. Secondary coil: an e.m.f. induced across the terminals the of the
secondary coil due to change in magnetic flux cutting the secondary
coil.
 Ratio between primary & secondary voltage equal to ratio between
number of turns of primary & secondary coils

Vp: primary voltage.

V s: secondary voltage.
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Np: number of turns in primary coil.
Ns: number of turns in secondary coil.
Step up transformer Step down transformer
Vp< Vs Vp > Vs
Np <Ns Np >Ns
It's used to increase voltage. It’s used to decrease voltage.
 As the primary input power = secondary output power (100% efficient)
Pp =Ps
Vp Ip = Vs Is
 Some electric energy is lost as heat energy resistance of copper wire &
induced current in the iron core (eddy currents).

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Uses of transformers

 Electrical power is transmitted from a power station to consumer

circuits through cables which travel long distance, sum of power is lost
due to the resistance of the cables, the greater current intensity which
transmits or electricity through the cables, the greater amount of
electrical energy lost as heat in cables, so we use step up transformer
to decrease the current intensity, electrical energy transmitted at high
voltages (to reduce energy loss & to use thinner cables).
 High voltage are dangerous to use in our houses, so voltage should be
dropped down to a suitable value so we can use it safely (step down
transformer are used).
 Power lost due to heat = I2R

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Chapter 6 :- Electronic Devices

1-Diode (Rectifier)

 It is device that allows the current flow in one direction only.

 It is made of semiconductors material like germanium or silicon.
 Rectification: changing of alternating current (A.C) to direct current
(D.C) in the circuit by using diode.

 Bridge

3-Potential divider (Potentiometer)

 Its idea based on voltage V is divided among two series resistors.

 The e.m.f. is applied across the XY
 Slider S is moved to different position,
voltage across XS varies.
 If S at X, output= 0 ; if S at Y, output = V(max).

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4-Thermistors & light dependent resistors

Both are sensors ( transducers ) made of semiconductors.

It converts temperature changes

into electrical changes.
Thermistor When temperature increase,
thermistor resistance decrease
and current increase ( vice versa)
LDR It converts changes in light
intensity into electrical changes.
When light intensity increase,
LDR resistance decrease and
current increase. (vice versa)
Connecting LDR or thermistor to a circuit

 When temperature increase.

 Thermistor resistance decrease.
 Current increase.
 Alarm on.
5- logic circuits

 The analogue signal it's a signal which can

change & can have value between the lowest
& highest values.
Ex: any meter with pointer, dimmer switch
 The digital signal it's the signal which can
change only by certain values. (high1, low 0)
Ex: DVD ˈs discs, mobile phones, calculators

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Logic gates
Integrated circuits which consists of transistors switches & resistors,
works as a decision maker
 Types of logic gates:

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