Aircraft Materials and Processes ♦ Malleability - ability to deform under

compressive stress without developing

defects.

Physical and Chemical Properties of Metals ❖ TOUGHNESS - The property of a metal

Physical properties:
❖ HARDNESS - The property of a material that
enables it to resist penetration, wear, or
cutting action.
❖ STRENGTH - The ability of a material to
withstand forces which tend to deform the
metal in any direction, or the ability of a
material to resist stress without breaking.
♦ Compressive strength – maximum
stress a material can withstand before
compressive failure (MPa)
♦ Tensile strength – maximum stress a
material can withstand before tensile
failure (MPa)
♦ Fatigue Limit - Maximum stress a
material can withstand under repeated
loading (MPa)
❖ ELASTICITY - Ability of a body to resist a
distorting influence or stress and to return
to its original size and shape when the
stress is removed
❖ PLASTICITY - Ability of a material to
undergo irreversible or permanent
deformations without breaking or
rupturing; opposite of brittleness.
which allows it to be deformed without
breaking.
❖ BRITTLENESS - The property of a metal to
break when, deformed, or hammered. It is
the resistance to change in the relative
position of the molecules within the
material.
❖ CONDUCTIVITY - The characteristic of a
material which makes it possible for it to
transmit heat or electrical conduction.
❖ DURABILITY - The property of metal that
enables it to withstand force over a period
of time.
❖ DENSITY – the weight of a unit volume of
the materials.
❖ FUSIBILITY – the ability of a metal to
become liquid by the application of heat.
❖ THERMAL EXPANSION
♦ Expansion – expand upon the
application of heat.
♦ Contraction – ability of metals to shrink
when subjected to cooling.

♦ Ductility - The property which allows

metal to be drawn into thinner sections
without breaking.

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 Aircraft Metals Sheets of such material are clad with a thin
layer of pure aluminum with 1 % zinc on both
Metals used in Aircraft construction should be sides as a means of corrosion protection. These
light-weight and strong. layers are permanently welded to the base
material in a rolling process at high
Two Main Group of Aircraft Metals
temperature. Other than electroplated stock,
▪ NON-FERROUS –metals which have clad material can be formed. The thickness of
elements other than Iron as their base. the clad layers is about 3 or 5 % of the material
Aluminum, Copper, Titanium, and thickness.
Magnesium are some of the common non-
ferrous metals used in Aircraft
Construction, Repair and modification. Advantages of Aluminum Alloy
▪ FERROUS – any alloy containing iron as its  Maximum Design Flexibility
chief constituent, most common ferrous
metal in aircraft structure is steel, an alloy  Good corrosion resistance
of iron with a controlled amount of carbon
 Extensively used in the basic airframe
added.
structure
NON-FERROUS METALS
 Relatively inexpensive
✓ Aluminum
✓ Magnesium  Low density
✓ Titanium
 Good specific properties (strength to weight
✓ Nickel
✓ Copper ratio)

TYPES OF ALUMINUM ALLOYS

ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Pure aluminum lacks sufficient strength to be
used in Aircraft Construction. However, its
strength increases considerably when it is
ALLOYED, or mixed with compatible metals.
Used for cladding; application of surface layers
of pure aluminum on top of the base metal by
extrusion.
• Cast Alloys – those suitable for casting in
sand, permanent mold or die casting.
• Wrought Alloys – those which may be
shaped by rolling, drawing or forging. These
are the most widely used in aircraft
construction, used for stringers, bulkheads,
skin panels, rivets, and extruded sections.

Aluminum Cladding

Several aluminum alloys as for example 2024

and 7075 are very susceptible to corrosion.

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 General classes of WROUGHT aluminum alloy Aluminum Association Numbering System

o Non-Heat Treatable Alloy – the mechanical

properties obtained by cold working are
destroyed and any subsequent heating
cannot restore it except by additional cold
working.

o Heat Treatable Alloy – alloy which responds

readily to heat treatment which results in
considerable improvement of the strength
characteristics. Greater strength is obtained
and used for structural purposes.

Basic Designation for Wrought Aluminum Alloys Basic Designation Cast Aluminum Alloys
(AA-Numbering System) (AA-Numbering System)
Cast Alloys
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
Alloy Number Major Identifying Elements
▪ 1XXX Pure Aluminum (99.00% minimum
▪ 1XXX 99.00 % minimum aluminum
aluminum)
▪ 2XXX Copper
▪ 2XXX Copper
▪ 3XXX Silicon with added copper and/or
▪ 3XXX Manganese
magnesium
▪ 4XXX Silicon
▪ 4XXX Silicon
▪ 5XXX Magnesium
▪ 5XXX Magnesium
▪ 6XXX Magnesium and Silicon
▪ 6XXX Unused series
▪ 7XXX Zinc
▪ 7XXX Zinc
▪ 8XXX Other elements
▪ 8XXX Tin
▪ 9XXX Unused series
▪ 9XXX Other elements

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 Hardening of Aluminum Alloys  Alloying – process in which two or more
metal elements are melted together in
a precise combination to form a specific
material, or alloy.

MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

➢ Used for cast and wrought form

available in sheets, bars, tubing, and
extrusions. Magnesium is one of the
lightest metals having sufficient
strength and suitable working
characteristics for use in aircraft
hardware. However, it is susceptible to
corrosion and tends to crack.

TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Definition of terms
➢ Are light metals with very high strength.
 Strain hardening or cold working- the It has excellent corrosion-resistance
strengthening of a metal by plastic characteristics, particularly to the
deformation. effects of salt water.

 Peening - the process of working a

metal's surface to improve its material
Advantages of Titanium Alloy
properties, usually by mechanical
means, such as hammer blows, by ✓ Relatively lightweight metal
blasting with shot (shot peening), or
blasts of light beams with laser peening. ✓ Excellent corrosion resistance

 Sheet metal embossing is a stamping ✓ High strength-to-weight ratio

process for producing raised or sunken ✓ Good high temperature properties
designs or relief in sheet metals. (
✓ Good compatibility with CFRP
 Rolling is a metal forming process in
which metal stock is passed through
one or more pairs of rolls to reduce the
thickness and to make the thickness
uniform.

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 Disadvantages of Titanium Alloy
x Relatively high price
x Difficult to form at room temperature
x Expensive to machine
x Brittles at roughly 450degC due to the
Oxygen and Nitrogen pick ups
x Low stiffness
x Low wear resistance
NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS
➢ is the base element for most of the
higher temperature heat-resistant
alloys. While it is much more expensive
than iron, nickel provides an austenitic
structure that has greater toughness
and workability than ferrous alloys of
the same strength.
TYPES OF NICKEL ALLOY
➢ MONEL - Contains about 68 % nickel
and 29% copper, along with iron and
manganese. It works well in gears and
parts that require high strength and
corrosion resistance at elevated
temperature.
➢ INCONEL - high strength, high
temperature alloys containing
approximately about 80% nickel, 14 %
chromium, and small amounts of iron
and other elements.
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COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS
 It is easily identified by its reddish color
and by the green and blue colors of its
oxides and salt. Copper has excellent
electrical and thermal conductivity and
it is primary metal used for electrical
wiring.
TYPES OF COPPER ALLOY
➢ BRASS - an alloy of copper and zinc.
➢ BRONZE - an alloy of copper and
tin.
Aircraft materials uses in Aircraft
ALUMINUM ALLOY
✓ Wing skins,
✓ Ribs, Stringers,
✓ Spars,
✓ Fuselage.
COMPOSITES
✓ Vertical and horizontal stabilizers,
✓ Wing Access panels,
✓ Control surface,
✓ Radome.
STEELS
✓ Pylon – Spars/Fittings,
✓ Wing – Slat tracks
✓ Undercarriage.
TITANIUM ALLOY
✓ Pylon – ribs/panels/fittings,
✓ Hot air ducts
✓ Undercarriage: Pintle pin,
✓ Skin panels above and under windshield
 HEAT TREATMENT Methods of Heat Treatment

➢ Is a series of operations involving the

heating and cooling of metals in their solid
state. Its purpose is to make the metal
more useful, serviceable and safe for a
definite purpose.

HEAT TREATMENT PROCESS

 SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT – is the

process of heating certain aluminum
alloys to allow the alloying elements to
mix with the base metal.
 QUENCHING – rapid cooling by means Temper Designation System
of water, oil, brine, etc. • F – As fabricated
 SOAKING or HOLDING – held the • O – Annealed
temperature within about plus or minus • H – Strain hardened (Non heat treatable
10 degrees Fahrenheit of this products only)
temperature and the base metal until • W – Solution heat treated
the alloying elements is uniform • T – Heat treated to produce stable
throughout. tempers other than F, O, or H
 NATURAL AGING – when an alloy is
allowed to cool at room temperature Temper Designation for Non Heat Treatable
and can take several hours or weeks. Alloys
 ARTIFICIAL AGING – accelerating the • H1 – Strain hardened produced by cold
aging process by cooling at an elevated working the metal to the desired
temperature. dimension.
 ANNEALING – is the process that • H2 – Strain hardened, and then partially
softens a metal and decrease internal annealed to remove some of the
stresses. hardness.
➢ Normalizing is a technique used to • H3 – Strain hardened, then stabilized.
provide uniformity in grain size and
composition throughout an alloy. The degree of hardening is indicated by a
➢ Stress relieving is a technique to second digit following one of the above
remove or reduce the internal designations:
stresses created in a metal. 2- 1/4 hard
4- 1/2 hard
Steps of Heat Treatment 6- 3/4 hard
8- Full hard
The heat treatment takes place in three steps. 9- Extra hard
♦ Step 1: Solution heat treat, which is heating
of the material to a specified temperature Note: A third digit may be used to indicate a
and holding it there for a specified time. variation of a two digit number.
♦ Step 2: Quenching
♦ Step 3: Age hardening (precipitation) at
room temperature or elevated temperature

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Temper Designation for Heat Treatable Alloys
 T1 – Cooled from an elevated
temperature shaping process and
naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition
 T2 – Annealed
 T3 – Solution heat treated and cold
worked.
 T4 – Solution heat treated and naturally
aged.
 T42 – Solution heat treated from 0
temper to demonstrate response to
heat treatment by the user, and
naturally aged to a substantially stable
condition
 T5 – Cooled from an elevated
temperature shaping process and
artificially aged
 T6 – Solution heat treated and
artificially aged.
 T62 – Solution heat treated from 0 F
temper to demonstrate response to
heat treatment by the user, and
artificially aged
 T7 – Solution heat treated and
stabilized
 T8 – Solution heat treated, cold worked,
and artificially aged
 T9 – Solution heat treated, artificially
aged, and cold worked
 T10 – Cooled from an elevated
temperature shaping process, cold
worked, and artificially aged
FERROUS METALS
▪ IRON - Is like a chemical which is fairy
soft, malleable and ductile in its pure
form. It is silvery white in color and is
quite heavy, having a density of 7.9
grams per cubic centimeter.
▪ STEEL - To make steel, pig iron is re-
melted in a special furnace. Pure
oxygen is the forced through the
molten where it combines with carbon
and burns. A control amount of carbon
is then put back into the molten. The
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molten steel is then poured into molds
where it solidifies into ingots. The
ingots are then placed in a soaking pit
where they are heated to a uniform
temperature of about 2200 degrees F.
They are then taken from the soaking
pit and passed through steel rollers to
form late or sheet metal.
STEEL AND ITS ALLOYS
1. Carbon - Most common alloying
element found in steel. When mixed
with iron core compounds of iron
carbides called CEMETITE form. It is the
carbon in steel that allows the steel to
be heat treated to obtain varying
degrees of hardness, strength and
toughness. The greater the carbon
content, the more receptive steel is to
heat treatment and therefore, the
higher its tensile strength, and
hardness. However, higher carbon
content decreases the malleability and
weldability of steel.
CARBON STEELS
a. LOW CARBON STEELS – contains
between 0.10 and 0.30 percent
carbon. Primarily used in safety
wire, cable bushing, and threaded
rod ends.
b. MEDIUM CARBON STEELS –
contains between 0.30 and 0.50
percent carbon.
c. HIGH CARBON STEELS – contains
between 0.50 to 1.05 percent
carbon and are very hard.
Primarily used in springs, files, and
some cutting tools.
2. SILICON - When it is alloyed with steel it
acts as a hardener. When used in small
quantities, it also improves ductility.
3. PHOSPHOROUS - Raises the yield
strength of steel and improves low
carbon steel’s resistance of atmospheric
condition. However, no more than 0.05
 percent is normally used in steel, since
higher amounts cause the alloy to
become brittle when cold.
4. NICKEL - Adds strength and hardness to
steel and increase yield strength. It also
slows the rate of hardening when steel
is heat treated, which increases the
steels contains 3% nickel and 0.30%
carbon.
5. CHROMIUM - Alloyed with steel to
increase strength and hardness as well
as improve its wear and corrosion
resistance.
Stainless steel (CRES)
➢ Is a classification of Corrosion Resistant
Steel that contain large amount of
chromium and nickel. Their strength
and resistant to corrosion make it well
suited for high-temperature
applications such as firewalls and
exhaust system components. The most
widely used stainless steels for general
use are those in the 300 series, called
18-8 because they contain
approximately 18 percent chromium
and 8 percent nickel.
Advantages
✓ Ability to heal itself
✓ Stain and corrosion resistant
✓ Strength-to-weight advantage
✓ Can withstand extensive deformation
without failure under high tensile stresses.
Disadvantages
x More difficult to cut and form than many
materials.
x Have much greater expansion coefficient
than other steels which means they
conduct heat at lower rate making it more
difficult to weld.
x It loses its corrosion resistance under high
temperature.
x Reduced strength when subjected to cyclic
loading.
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6. CHROME – MOLYBDENUM (chrome-
moly) STEELS - Commonly used alloy in
aircraft. Making it an ideal choice for
landing gear structures and engine
mounts.
7. VANADIUM - When combined with
chromium, vanadium produces a
strong, tough, ductile steel alloys.
8. TUNGSTEN- Has an extremely high
melting point and adds this
characteristic to steel when it is alloyed.
Typically used for breaker contacts in
magnetos and for high speed cutting
tools.
Chromium Steels
 Austenitic Steel - are chromium-nickel
and chromium-nickel-manganese alloys.
They can be hardened only by cold
working and heat treatment serves only
to anneal them. They are formed by
heating the steel mixture above the
critical range and holding to form a
structure called Austenite. A controlled
period of partial cooling is allowed
followed by a rapid quench just above
the critical range.
 Ferritic Steel - contains NO carbon, they
do not respond to heat treatment. It
contains substantial amount of
chromium and many have small
amount of aluminum.
 Martensitic Steels - are straight
chromium. Alloys that harden intensely
if they can cool rapidly from high
temperatures. They differ from the two
preceding groups because they can be
hardened by heat treatment.
 Steel Numbering System
HEAT TREATMENT FOR STEELS
 ANNEALING – is a form of heat
treatment that softens steel and
relieves internal stress. It is heated
about 50 degrees F above its critical
temperature, soaked for specified time
then cooled.
 NORMALIZING – the process of forging,
welding, or machining usually leave
stresses to the steel that could lead to
failure. To normalize, it is heated about
100 degrees F above its critical
temperature and held there until the
metal is uniformly heat soaked, then
removed from the furnace and allowed
to cool in still air.
 HARDENING – is heated above its
critical temperature so carbon can
disperse uniformly in the iron matrix.
 TEMPERING – reduces the undesirable
qualities of martensitic steel. It is
heated to a level considerable below its
critical temperature and held there
until it becomes heat soaked, then
allowed to cool to room temperature in
still air.
 Case-hardening is the process of
hardening the surface of a metal object
while allowing the metal deeper
underneath to remain soft, thus
forming a thin layer of harder metal
(called the "case") at the surface.
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CASE HARDENING TREATMENTS
1. CARBURIZING – forms a thin layer of
high carbon steel on the exterior of low
carbon steel.
➢ PACK CARBURIZING – is done by
enclosing the metal in a fire-clay
container and packing it with a
carbon-rich material such as
charcoal. The container is then
sealed, placed in furnace, and
heated.
➢ GAS CARBURIZING – is similar to
pack carburizing except the carbon
monoxide gas combines with
gamma iron and forms a high-
carbon surface.
➢ LIQUID CARBURIZING – produces a
high-carbon surface when a part is
heated in a molten salt bath of
sodium cyanide or barium cyanide.
2. NITRIDING – differs from carburizing in
that a part is first hardened, tempered
and then ground to its finished
dimensions before it is case hardened.
3. CYANIDING – is a fast method of
producing surface hardness on an iron-
based alloy of low carbon content.
Hardness Testing
➢ Is a method of determining the results
of heat treatment as well as the state of
a metal prior to heat treatment since
hardness values can be tied in with
tensile strength values and, in part, with
wear resistance, hardness tests are a
valuable check of heat treat control and
of material properties. Practically all
hardness testing equipment now uses
the resistance to penetration as a
measure of hardness.
 Brinell Tester
➢ Uses a hardened spherical ball, which is
forced into the surface of the metal.
➢ To determine the Brinell hardness
number for a metal, measure the
diameter of the impression, using the
calibrated microscope furnished with
the tester. Then convert the
measurement into the Brinell hardness
number on the conversion table
furnished with the tester.
Rockwell Hardness Tester
➢ Measures the depth and the hardness
are indicated directly on a dial attached
to the machine.
➢ Rockwell hardness numbers are based
on the difference between the depth of
penetration at major and minor loads.
The greater this difference, the lower
the hardness number and the softer the
material.
Barcol Tester
➢ Is a portable unit designed for
testing aluminum alloys, copper,
brass, or other relatively soft
materials.
➢ It should not be used on aircraft
steels.
➢ The unit can be used in any position
and in any space that will allow for
the operator’s hand.
➢ It is of great value in the hardness
testing of assembled or installed
parts, especially to check for proper
heat treatment.
AIRCRAFT HARDWARE
➢ The term used to describe the various
types of fasteners and miscellaneous
small items used in the manufacture
and repair of aircraft. The importance
of aircraft hardware is often overlooked
because of its small size; however, the
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safe and efficient operation of any
aircraft is greatly dependent upon the
correct selection and use of aircraft
hardware.
METHODS OF FASTENING
1. RIVETING - passing through holes in
two or more plates or pieces to hold
them together, usually made with a
head at one end, the other end being
hammered into a head after insertion.
2. BOLTING - Connecting structure using a
bolt and a nut.
3. BRAZING - is a metal-joining process in
which two or more metal items are
joined together by melting and flowing
a filler metal into the joint, the filler
metal having a lower melting point than
the adjoining metal.
4. WELDING - a fabrication or sculptural
process that joins materials, usually
metals or thermoplastics, by causing
fusion, which is distinct from lower
temperature metal-joining techniques
such as brazing and soldering, which do
not melt the base metal.
MECHANICAL FASTENERS
• HI-LITE / HI-LOK – Intermediate head
point drive bolt standard. Driven by
Allen wrench. Hi-lok is longer than hi-
lite due 1st thread of hi-lite is already
load bearing. Blue means sulfur-
anodized.
• TAPER-LOK – a tapered fastener bolt
with a threaded end and a self-locking
nut. Use mainly for Wing rib foot and
bottom skin panel.
• BOLT - a form of threaded fastener with
an external male thread. Bolts are thus
closely related to, and often confused
with, screws.
• LOCK-BOLT - consist of two parts: a pin
and a collar thus, providing a
 permanent and vibration resistant
fastening.
• SOLID RIVET – consist simply of a shaft
and head that are deformed with a
hammer or rivet gun.
• BLIND RIVET – commonly known as the
pop rivets.
• BLIND BOLT - are revolutionary
fastening devices used in steel
applications where there is no backside
access.
RIVET HEAD TYPES AND MARKINGS
Composite
➢ Most important material to be adapted
for aviation since the use of aluminum
in 1920s.
➢ Are materials that are combinations of
two or more organic or inorganic
components (Core, Reinforcing
material, Matrix).
➢ Making composite structures is more
complex than manufacturing most
metal structures.
➢ The composition of composite materials
is a combination of reinforcement, such
as a fiber, or particle, surrounded &
held in place by a resin, forming a
structure.
➢ Can be made with or without an inner
core of material.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Composite materials are generally not
isotropic in nature but rather are
typically anisotropic.
• Panel stiffness is dependent on the
design of the panel.

Advantages
✓ Light Weight - Composite materials are
mainly used to reduce weight, that means if
weight can be saved, more cargo, fuel or
passengers can be carried.
✓ High strength to weight ratio.
✓ Reducing of parts and fasteners.
✓ Reducing wear.
✓ Corrosion resistance.
✓ Less machining.
✓ Taper sections and contours easily
accomplished.
✓ They can orientate the fiber in the direction
of the stiffness as needed.
✓ Reduced number of assemblies and
fasteners count.
✓ Low thermal expansion.

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 Disadvantages
x General expensive (labor intensive and
often requires complex and expensive
fabrication machines).
x Not easy to repair; that means you need
well trained staff, tools, equipment and
facilities to repair composite components
(some composites absorb moisture).
x Hard to inspect for flaws.
x A limited established design allowable.
x They can cause corrosion problems with
metals.
x Prone to impact damage.
x Requires lightning strike protection.
x Complicated inspection methods.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
• ARAMID FIBRE REINFORCED PLASTIC (AFRP)
• QUARTZ FIBRE REINFORCES POLYMER
(QFRP)
• CARBON FABRIC REINFORCED PLASTIC
(CFRP)
• GLASS FABRIC REINFORCED PLASTIC
• HONEY COMB CORE
• RESIN
• WOOD
ELEMENTS OF COMPOSITE STRUCTURE
o CORE MATERIAL
o REINFORCING MATERIAL
o FIBERS
CORE
▪ Is the central member of the assembly,
when the core is bonded between thin
face sheets it provides a rigid,
lightweight component.
CORE MATERIALS
o Foam
o Honeycomb
o Styrofoam
o Urethane
o Wood
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HONEYCOMB FABRICATION PROCESS
▪ Corrugation process – essentially a one-
layer at a time operation. Materials
which can be converted using this
process include plastics, plastic
reinforced glass and paper.
▪ Expansion process – all bonds are made
simultaneously.
REINFORCING MATERIALS
➢ When combined with matrix, is what
gives major strength to the composite
core.
➢ Fiber reinforced materials are the
common reinforcing material used in
Aircraft construction.
FIBERS
➢ Are single filaments that are much
longer than they are wide.
➢ Is the base for most composites.
➢ Provide a mechanical resistance to the
composite material.
➢ Depending on fiber type, mechanical
properties are strength-driven or strain-
driven.
AFRP - Aramide Fiber Reinforced Plastic - Used
for areas prone to bird strikes due impact
damage resistant. Disadvantages are:
x Difficult to machine
x Weak in compression
QFRP – Quartz Fiber Reinforced Polymer
• Used for radome construction.
• Good radar transparency property.
• Good mechanical properties at high
temperature.
CFRP - Carbon Fibre Reinforced Plastic
• Used for structural application.
• Highest specific stiffness of any
commercially available fiber.
• High modulus compared with metallic.
• High resistance to corrosion, creep and
fatigue.
 GFRP - Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic
• Used for fairings, leading edge (erosion
prone areas) and interiors.
• High strength to weight ratio
• Dielectric property
• Corrosion resistant
FIBER MATERIALS
i. FILAMENTS - Simply known as thread.
ii. TOW - Untwisted bundle of continuous
filaments.
iii. TAPES - Lengthwise filament orientation.
Always on pre-preg form. Usually low resin
content.
iv. WEAVE – (woven fabrics) Are combination
of fiber tow in a single ply.
a. PLAIN WEAVE - The most basic of three
fundamental types of textile weaves (along
with satin weave and twill). It is strong and
hard-wearing, used for fashion and
furnishing fabrics.
b. TWILL - a fabric so woven as to have a
surface of diagonal parallel ridges
c. SATIN WEAVE - A weave that typically has a
glossy surface and a dull back. The satin
weave is characterized by four or more fill
or weft yarns floating over a warp yarn or
vice versa, four warp yarns floating over a
single weft yarn.
v. FIBRE ORIENTATION
a. FILL OR WEFT - the transverse thread.
Drawn through the warp yarns to create
fabric.
b. WARP OR LENGTH - The lengthwise or
longitudinal thread in a roll.
MATRIX
➢ The bonding material that completely
surrounds the fiber to give strength and
transfer the stress to the fiber. The newer
materials have good stress distributing,
heat resistance, chemical resistance, and
durability properties. Most of the newer
matrix materials are Epoxy Resins.
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Resin Matrix - Are two part systems consisting
of a resin and a hardener or catalyst which acts
as a curing agent. A type of plastic.
Two categories of Matrix
1. THERMOPLASTIC - will soften when heated
and harden when cooled. These materials can
be heated until soft, and then formed into the
desired shape. When cooled, they will retain
this shape. The same piece of plastic can be
reheated and reshaped any number of times
without changing the chemical composition of
the materials.
a. Acrylic Resins - identified by trade
names as Lucite or Plexiglas or in Britain
Perspex. It is stiffer than cellulose
acetate. More transparent and for all
purpose is colorless. It burns with a
clear flame and produces a fairly
pleasant odor.
b. Plexiglass
c. Teflon
d. Cellulose Acetate - transparent and
lightweight. It has a tendency to shrink
and turn yellow. When applied with
acetone it softens.
e. Vinyl – used in aircraft electrical
insulation and tubing.
2. THERMOSETTING - harden upon heating, and
reheating has no softening effect. These
plastics cannot be reshaped once being fully
cured by the application of heat.
a. Epoxy Resins – one type of
thermosetting plastic resin which has
good adhesion, strength, and resistance
to moisture and chemical properties.
They are used to bond non porous and
dissimilar materials, like metal and
composite components.
b. Pre-preg – abbreviation for pre-
impregnated fabrics that have resin
already impregnated into the fabric.
ADHESIVE
➢ A material which when applied to the
surfaces of materials can join them
together and resist separation.
 ➢ Used as matrix-resins, surface coatings,
honeycomb core fillers, liquid shims and
for structural bonding in both film and
paste forms.
Advantages:
✓ Ability to distribute stresses more
uniformly than mechanical fasteners.
✓ Improves resistance to local buckling.
✓ Performs best in compression or shear.
LAMINATED STRUCTURE
1. Sandwich structure - The purpose of
sandwich structure is to achieve a stiff
and simultaneously light component.
2. Monolithic structure – method where a
structure is built using homogenous
materials or continuous fibre reinforced
thermoplastics.
WOOD
Wood structures require a great deal of
handwork and therefore, are extremely
expensive.
WOOD STRUCTURES
▪ SOLID WOOD – used for some aircraft
wing spars and is made of solid pie cut
from a log. Most solid cut by quarter
sawing to prevent war page.
▪ LAMINATED WOOD – made up of two
or three pieces of thin wood glued
together with the same direction.
▪ PLY WOOD – consist of three or more
layers of thin veneer glued together so
the grain of each successive layer
crosses the others at an angle of 45
degrees of 90 degrees.
BASIC SPECIES OF WOOD USED IN AIRCRAFT
CONSTRUCTION
1. HARDWOOD – come from deciduous
trees having broad leaves.
Prepared by: Engr. Fadul
♦ MAHOGANY – this hardwood is heavier
and stronger than spruce. Primary use
in aircraft construction is for face sheets
of plywood used in aircraft skin.
♦ BIRCH – a heavy hardwood with very
good shock resistant characteristics. It is
recommended for the face plies of
plywood used as reinforcement plates
on wing spars and in the construction of
wooden propellers.
♦ BALSA – an extremely light wood. Balsa
lacks of structural strength, it is often
sliced across its grain for use as a core
material for sandwich-type panels that
requires lightweight and rigidity.
2. SOFTWOOD – come from coniferous
trees with needle like or scale like leaves.
♦ SITKA SPRUCE – most common wood
used in aircraft structures. It is relatively
free from defects, has a high strength to
weight ration and available in large size.
FAA chosen Sitka Spruce as the
reference wood for aircraft
construction.
♦ DOUGLAS FIR – the strength properties
exceed those of spruce; however, it is
much heavier. Furthermore, it is more
difficult to work than spruce, and has a
tendency to split.
♦ NOBLE FIR – slightly lighter than spruce
and is equal or superior to spruce in all
properties except hardness and shock
resistance. It is often used for structural
parts that are subject to heavy bending
and compression loads such as spars,
spar flange, and has tendency to split.
QUALITY OF WOOD
Some of the categories a woods quality is based
on include how straight the grain is, the number
of knots, pitch pockets, splits and presence of
decay.
• GRAIN DEVIATION – regardless of the
species of wood used aircraft
construction, it must have a straight
grain. This means all of the woods fiber
 must be oriented parallel to the
materials longitudinal axis. A maximum
of deviation of 1:15 is allowed. In other
words, the grain must not slope more
than 1 inch in 15 inches.
• KNOTS – it identifies where a branch
grew from the tree trunk.
• PITCH POCKETS – small opening within
the annual rings of a tree can fill resin
and form pitch pocket. It slightly
weakens the piece of wood.
• CHECKS, SHAKE AND SPLITS
▪ CHECKS – a crack that runs across
the annual rings of a board and
occurs during the seasoning
process.
▪ SHAKE – a crack or separation that
occurs when two annual rings
separates along their boundary.
▪ SPLITS – a lengthwise separation of
the wood caused by the wood
fibers tearing apart.
• STRAINS AND DECAY
▪ STRAINS – It is caused by decay
usually appears streaks in the grain.
Strains that uniformly discolor the
annual rings are evidence of decay.
▪ DECAY – is caused by fungi that
grow in damp wood, and is
prevented by proper seasoning and
dry storage. A simple way of
identifying decayed wood is to pick
at a suspected area with the point
of a knife. Sound wood will splinter,
while a knife point will bring up a
chunk of decayed wood.

Prepared by: Engr. Fadul