Coordination Workbook

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Name……………………………………………………………..
CO-ORDINATION AND
RESPONSE
WORKBOOK.
Co-ordination is the way all the organs and systems of the body are made to work
efficiently together.
If, for example, the leg muscles are being used for running, they will need extra
supplies of glucose and oxygen. To meet this demand, the lungs breathe faster and
deeper to obtain the extra oxygen and the heart pumps more rapidly to get the
oxygen and glucose to the muscles more quickly.
Co-ordination of the systems is brought about by the nervous system and

Endocrine system.
The nervous system works by sending electrical impulses along nerves. The
endocrine system depends on the release of chemicals, called hormones, from
endocrine glands.
Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

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THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

In pairs and using the help of the text book, define the following key terms.
1. Nerve impulse……………………………………………………………………………
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2. Stimulus……………………………………………………………………………………
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3. Receptors……………………………………………………………………………………
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4. Effectors……………………………………………………………………………………
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5. Neurone……………………………………………………………………………………
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6. Reflex arc
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7. Reflex action ………………………………………………………………………………
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The human nervous system is made up of two parts:
• Central nervous system (CNS) - brain and spinal cord: role of coordination
• Peripheral nervous system - nerves: connect all parts of the body to the
CNS.
Together, they coordinate and regulate body functions.

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Draw a flow diagram of the two systems of Nervous system and describe each.

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Sense organs are linked to the peripheral nervous system.
They are groups of receptor cells responding to specific stimuli: light, sound,
touch, temperature and chemicals.
When exposed to a stimulus they generate an electrical impulse which passes along
peripheral nerves to the CNS, triggering a response.
Changes in an organisms’ environments are called Stimuli (singular: Stimulus)
These changes are received by specialised cells in our bodies called Receptors.
Name the five senses we have on our bodies and their stimuli.
Effectors are the opposite of receptors.
Receptors are to detect the stimuli while effectors are to respond to it.
Effectors are usually:
❖ muscles and
❖ glands

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Make a summary of the above discussion.
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The fastest means of relaying information from receptors to the effectors is through the
Nerves
THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEURONE.
(Nerve cell)
Describe a Nerve Cell …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Neurones contain the same basic parts:

Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell membrane
Axon Dendrone/dendrites

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There are three types of neurone, each with a different function:
■ sensory neurones transmit impulses from receptors to the Central Nervous

System(CNS)
■ intermediate neurones (also known as relay or connector neurones) transmit impulses

from sensory neurones to motor neurones
■ motor neurones transmit impulses from the Central Nervous System (CNS) to effectors.

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Task.
Describe the three types of Neurons.

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Sample question
Question Figure above shows a type of neurone. Name this type of neurone and state a
reason for your choice. [ 2 marks]
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Simple reflex arc

Define a Reflex Action …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
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Define a Reflex Arc …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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On the picture above, the stimulus is a drawing-pin sticking in the finger.
The response is the withdrawal of the arm due to contraction of the biceps.
The sequence of
events is:

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Relay neurones are found in the spinal cord, connecting sensosy neurons to motor
neurones.

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Synapses
Define a Synapse.
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Describing the structure of a synapse.
Task.
Draw and Label A synapse.

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Key terms.
❖ Pre-synaptic neurone
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❖ Post-synaptic neurone
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❖ synaptic cleft
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❖ neurotransmitters
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Neurotransmitter
◼ Neurotransmitter is made by the pre-synaptic neurone and is stored in
synaptic vesicles at the end of the axon.
◼ The membrane of the post-synaptic neurone has chemical-gated ion

channels called neuroreceptors. These have specific binding sites for
neurotransmitters
The Transmitter substances are:

- Noradrenaline
- Acetylcholine
Others found in the brain are like:-
- Dopamine
- Glutamic acid.
These two are not common to all.
The common one is Acetylcholine (ACh) and the synapses with this
substances are called CHOLINERGIC SYNAPSES.

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How a synapse transmits an electrical impulse

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When an impulse arrives at the synapse, vesicles in the cytoplasm release a tiny
amount of the neurotransmitter substance.
It rapidly diffuses across the gap (also known as the synaptic cleft) and binds with
neurotransmitter receptor molecules in the membrane of the neurone on the other
side of the synapse.
This then sets off an impulse in the neurone. Sometimes several impulses have to
arrive at the synapse before enough transmitter substance is released to cause an
impulse to be fired off in the next neurone.

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Synapses control the direction of impulses because neurotransmitter substances

are only synthesised on one side of the synapse, while receptor molecules are only
present on the other side.
They slow down the speed of nerve impulses slightly because of the time taken for
the chemical to diffuse across the synaptic gap.
Many drugs produce their effects by interacting with receptor molecules at

synapses.
Heroin, for example, stimulates receptor molecules in synapses in the brain,

triggering the release of dopamine (a neurotransmitter), which gives a short-lived
‘high’.

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S17p41

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SENSE ORGANS
Define a sense organ. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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Our senses make us aware of changes in our surroundings and in our own bodies.
We have sense cells that respond to stimuli (singular = stimulus).
A stimulus is a change in light, temperature, pressure, etc., which produces a

reaction in a living organism.
Structures that detect stimuli are called receptors.
Some of these receptors are scattered through the skin: this organ has a number
of different types of receptor, as shown in Figure 14.21.
Other receptors are concentrated into special sense organs such as the eye and
the ear.
Table 14.1 gives examples of these and their stimuli.

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The special property of sensory cells and sense organs is that they are able to
convert one form of energy to another.
TASK.
Complete the Table Below.
The Sense Organ/Receptors Energy Conversion.

The Eye
The Ears
The Tongue
The Nose
The Skin (Touch Receptors)
The Skin (Temperature receptors)
When a receptor responds to a stimulus, it sends a nerve impulse to the brain,

which makes us aware of the sensation.

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THE HUMAN EYE.

Structure and function of the eye, rods and
cones
You need to be able to label parts of the
eye on diagrams.
The eyebrow stops sweat running down

into the eye.
Eyelashes help to stop dust blowing on

to the eye.
Eyelids can close automatically (blinking

is a reflex) to prevent dust and other
particles getting ton to the surface of
the cornea.
Blinking also helps to keep the surface moist by moving liquid secretions
(tears) over the exposed surface. Tears also contain enzymes that have an
antibacterial function.

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Internal Structure of human Eye.
Note: details of conjunctiva, humours, choroid and tear glands are not a syllabus
requirement, but are
included here to put parts
seen in a diagram of the
eye in context.
These are the main parts

you need to know as per
the syllabus.
❖ Cornea
❖ Iris
❖ Lens
❖ Retina
❖ Optic nerve

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Task.
Complete the Table.
Structure Function
Cornea
Iris
Pupil
Lens
Retina
Optic Nerve
Fovea

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Tear glands under the top eyelid produce tear fluid. This is a dilute solution of
sodium chloride and sodium hydrogen carbonate.
The fluid is spread over the eye surface by the blinking of the eyelids, keeping the
surface moist and washing away any dust particles or foreign bodies.
Tear fluid also contains an enzyme, lysozyme, which attacks bacteria.

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S18p32

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HOW THE EYE FUNCTIONS.
Light from an object produces a focused image on the retina (like a ‘picture’ on a
cinema screen).
The curved surfaces of the cornea and lens both refract (‘bend’) the light rays
that enter the eye, in such a way that each ‘point of light’ from the object forms a
‘point of light’ on the retina.
These points of light will form an image, upside-down and smaller than the object.
The pattern of sensory cells stimulated by the image will produce a pattern of
nerve impulses sent to the brain.
The brain interprets this pattern, using past experience and learning, and forms an
impression of the size, distance and upright nature of the object.

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TASK.
Sketch a diagram of the eye and an object and show how image is formed at the
retina?

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THE EYE RECEPTORS.

The retina is full of light sensitive cells called photoreceptors.
There are two types photoreceptors,
They are rods and cones.
Rods and cones are specialised types of neurons. They look alike but they are a
little different in function.
Rods are sensitive to dim light. At night or in dark places, most light detection
electrical impulses transmission is done by rods.
Vitamin A is essential for proper functioning of rods, if Vitamin A lacks it can lead
to night blindness. Rods are spread all over the retina.
Cones are sensitive to bright and coloured light. All cones are packed in one area,
the fovea.

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Rods and cones are light-sensitive cells in the retina. When stimulated they
generate electrical impulses, which pass to the brain along the optic nerve.
The normal retina has rods that see only black, white, and shades of grey and tones
and three forms of color cones, red, green, and blue.
THE LOCATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF RODES AND CONES.
The Rods and Cones are found distributed on the Retina.
N.B For every Three Rodes, There is One Cone.
Also Most Cones are found in the FOVEA.

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S05 P3 Qs.2

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S10 P31 qs.

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FUNCTIONING OF HUMAN EYE.

The eye has 2 aspects: i.e
▪ Accommodation and
▪ Pupil reflex
Eye accommodation
(focusing on objects far and near)
- refers to the change of the lens, in order to focus
on objects at different distances.
The amount of focusing needed by the lens depends on

the distance of the object being viewed – light from near
objects requires a more convex lens than light from
a distant objects.
The shape of the lens needed to accommodate the image is
controlled by the ciliary body - this contains a ring of muscle around the lens.
TASK.
Draw a diagram to show the parts of the eye that are involved in accommodation.

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Describe how the eye focusses on Near objects.
Close objects:
Light rays are likely to be diverging, so need more refraction to focus them onto
the retina. The lens therefore needs to be thick (i.e. have a short focal length).
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Describe how the eye focusses on Distance/Far objects.
Distant objects:
Light rays are almost parallel so do not need much refraction to focus onto the
retina.
The lens therefore needs to be thin (i.e. have a long focal length).
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S09 P2

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Pupil reflex
This explains how the iris adjusts the pupil to control the amount of light to get
into the eye.
Hence it is also referred to as iris reflex.
The reflex changes the size of the

pupil to control the amount of light
entering the eye.
In bright light, pupil size is reduced

as too much light falling on the retina
could damage it.
In dim light, pupil size is increased to

allow as much light as possible to
enter the eye.
The retina detects the brightness of

light entering the eye.
An impulse passes to the brain along
sensory neurones and travels back to
the muscles of the iris along motor
neurones, triggering a response - the
change in size of the pupil due to
contraction of radial or circular
muscles.

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Describe what happens in Dim light.
Describe what happens in Bright light.

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Common misconceptions
Students often confuse circular muscles and ciliary mucles.
Remember that circular muscles affect the size of the iris, ciliary muscles affect
the shape of the lens.

S05 P3

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HORMONES IN HUMANS
You have previously learned that messages are delivered around body as electrical
impulses by the nervous system.
Another way messages are transported around the body is by chemicals called
hormones secreted by the endocrine system.
Define A Hormone. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
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The hormones circulate around the body in the blood and eventually reach certain
organs, called target organs.
Hormones speed up, slow down or alter the activity of those organs.
After being secreted, hormones do not remain permanently in the blood but are
changed by the liver into inactive compounds and excreted by the kidneys.
Unlike the digestive glands, endocrine glands do not deliver their secretions
through ducts (tubes).
For this reason, the endocrine glands are sometimes called ‘ductless glands’.
The hormones are picked up directly from the glands by the blood circulation.
Responses of the body to hormones are much slower than responses to nerve
impulses.
They depend, in the first instance, on the speed of the circulatory system and then
on the time it takes for the cells to change their chemical activities.
Many hormones affect long-term changes such as growth rate, puberty and
pregnancy.
Hormones often affect many organ systems at once.

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Serious deficiencies or excesses of hormone production give rise to illnesses.
Small differences in hormone activity between individuals probably contribute to

differences of personality and temperament.
THE POSITION OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS IN THE BODY

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TASK.
Complete the Table below.
Gland Hormone produced Function of hormone
Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Testis
Ovary

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Extension work
Thyroid gland
The thyroid gland is situated in the front part of the neck and lies in front of the
windpipe.
It produces a hormone called thyroxine. This hormone has a stimulatory effect on

the metabolic rate of nearly all the body cells, such as the speed or rate of cell
respiration.
It controls our level of activity, promotes skeletal growth and is essential for the
normal development of the brain.
Pituitary gland
This gland is attached to the base of the brain.
It produces many hormones. For example, the pituitary releases into the blood
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which, when it reaches the ovaries, makes one
of the follicles start to mature and to produce oestrogen.
Luteinising hormone (LH), also known as lutropin, is also produced from the
pituitary and, together with FSH, induces ovulation.
The pancreas
The pancreas is a digestive gland that secretes enzymes into the duodenum
through the pancreatic duct.
It is also an endocrine (ductless) gland. Most of the pancreas cells produce

digestive enzymes but some of them produce hormones.
The hormone-producing cells are arranged in small isolated groups called islets and
secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream. One of the hormones is
called insulin.
Insulin controls the levels of glucose in the blood by instructing the liver to remove
the sugars and store them.

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Adrenal glands
These glands are attached to the back of the abdominal cavity, one above each
kidney.
One part of the adrenal gland is a zone called

the adrenal medulla.
The medulla receives nerves from the brain and

produces the hormone adrenaline.
Adrenaline is a hormone that is secreted from the adrenal glands to prepare the
body for situations that need lots of energy and fast reflex action, like fights or
running away for example.
Adrenaline’s main objective is to increase your metabolic rate so that you have
enough energy for fighting or running away etc.
This is why adrenaline is called the three F’s hormone
(Fight, fright, flight).
Adrenaline has obvious effects on the body:
❖ In response to a stressful situation, nerve impulses are sent from the brain
to the adrenal medulla, which releases adrenaline into the blood.
❖ Its presence causes breathing to become faster and deeper. This may be
particularly apparent as we pant for breath.
❖ The heart beats faster, resulting in an increase in pulse rate. This increase
in heart rate can be quite alarming, making us feel as if our heart is going to
burst out of our chest.
❖ The pupils of our eyes dilate, making them look much blacker.

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These effects all make us more able to react quickly and vigorously in dangerous
situations (known as ‘fight or flight situations’) that might require us to run away
or put up a struggle.
However, in many stressful situations, such as taking examinations or giving a public

performance, vigorous activity is not called for. So the extra adrenaline in our
bodies just makes us feel tense and anxious.

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S05 P2

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Comparison of nervous and hormonal control

systems
Features Nervous system Hormonal System.

(Endocrine)
Made up of...
Form of Transmission
Transmission pathway
Speed of Transmission
Duration of effect
Response

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COORDINATION IN PLANTS – TROPISM

Sensitivity is the ability of living organisms to respond to
stimuli.
Although plants do not respond by moving their whole

bodies, parts of them do respond to stimuli.
Some of these responses are described as tropic

responses or tropisms.
Define Tropisms
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In general, plants respond to stimuli by changing their rate or direction of

growth.
They may grow either towards or away from a stimulus. These responses
are called tropisms.
Tropism are responses by part of a plant toward or away from a stimulus

coming from one direction.
The movement is always a growth movement.
Like animals, plants are able to response to their environment, although

usually with much slower responses than those of animals.

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Two important stimuli for plants are light and gravity.

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PHOTOTROPISM
Define phototropism. …………………………………………………………………………………………
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Shoots normally grow towards
light. Roots do not usually respond to
light, but a few grow away from it.
Shoots tend to grow away from the

pull of gravity, while roots normally
grow towards it.
Define Positive phototropism.
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Define Negative phototropism.
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Role of Auxins in Phototropism.

Auxins are plant growth substances, produced by the shoot and root tips of
growing plants.
❖ - Auxins in the shoot → stimulate cell growth, by the absorption of

water.
❖ - Auxins in the root → slow down the cell growth.
Explain what happens for this occurrence.
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Explain what will happen to the roots.
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SUMMARY.
When exposed to light from one side
Investigating Phototropism.
◼ Select two potted seedlings, e.g. sunflower or runner bean, of similar

size and water them both.
◼ Place one of them under a cardboard box with a window cut in one side
so that light reaches the shoot from one direction only (Figure 14.28).
◼ Place the other plant in an identical situation but on a clinostat. This
will rotate the plant about four times per hour and expose each side of
the shoot equally to the source of light. This is the control
experiment.

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i) Identify the Independent variable in this investigation.
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ii) Why was one of the plant placed on a clinostat?
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iii) State and explain the results after 3 days.
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GEOTROPISM/GRAVITROPISM
Define geotropism.
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Using diagrams, explain Positive and negative Geotropism.
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Explain what happened for the shoot and root bend in the directions
shown above.
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INVESTIGATING GEOTROPISM.
Gravitropism in pea radicles
◼ Soak about 20 peas in water for a day and then let them germinate in
a vertical roll of moist blotting-paper.
◼ After 3 days, choose 12 seedlings with straight radicles and pin six of
these to the turntable of a clinostat so that the radicles are
horizontal.
◼ Pin another six seedlings to a cork that will fit in a wide mouthed jar.
Leave the jar on its side.
◼ A clinostat is a clockwork or electric turntable, which rotates the
seedlings slowly about four times an hour. Although gravity is pulling
sideways on their roots, it will pull equally on all sides as they rotate.
◼ Place the jar and the clinostat in the same conditions of lighting or
leave them in darkness for 2 days.

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Explain the results.
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70
Advantages of tropic responses

Positive phototropism of shoots
By growing towards the source of light, a shoot brings its leaves into the
best situation for photosynthesis.
Similarly, the flowers are brought into an exposed position where they are
most likely to be seen and pollinated by flying insects.
Negative gravitropism in shoots
Shoots that are negatively gravitropic grow vertically.
This lifts the leaves and flowers above the ground and helps the plant to
compete for light and carbon dioxide. The flowers are brought into an
advantageous position for insect or wind pollination.
Seed dispersal may be more effective from fruits on a long, vertical stem.
However, these advantages are a product of a tall shoot rather than
negative gravitropism.
SUMMARY

71

72

73
Darwin did the first experiments to study the effects of Auxin
Shoots and roots that have their tips removed will not respond to light or
gravity because the part that produces auxins has been cut off.
◼ Shoots that have their tips covered with opaque material grow
straight upwards when exposed to one-sided light, because the auxin
distribution is not influenced by the light.
Effects of weedkillers
Weedkillers (herbicide) are synthetic plant hormones, similar to auxins.
If these chemicals are sprayed on to plants they can cause rapid,

uncontrolled growth and respiration, resulting in the death of the plant.
Some plant species are more sensitive than others to synthetic plant
hormones, so weedkillers can be selective.

74
Many weedkillers kill only broad-leaved plants (dicotyledons), leaving
grasses (moncotyledons) unharmed.
TASK
In figure above, the left-hand side shows an experiment in which the

coleoptiles (shoots) of similar seedlings have been treated in different ways,
and the right-hand side shows the result in shoot D 24 hours later.
a) i) Name the response shown by shoot D. [2 marks]

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
ii) Explain what has caused this response. [3 marks]
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b) Copy and complete the right-hand side figure to show the likely results
for shoots A, B and C.

Coordination Workbook

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1

Co-ordination of the systems is brought about by the nervous system and

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

THE HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

7. Reflex action ………………………………………………………………………………

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

The human nervous system is made up of two parts:

Together, they coordinate and regulate body functions.

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Sense organs are linked to the peripheral nervous system.

Changes in an organisms’ environments are called Stimuli (singular: Stimulus)

Effectors are the opposite of receptors.

Effectors are usually:

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Make a summary of the above discussion.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE NEURONE.

Neurones contain the same basic parts:

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

There are three types of neurone, each with a different function:

■ sensory neurones transmit impulses from receptors to the Central Nervous

■ intermediate neurones (also known as relay or connector neurones) transmit impulses

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Describe the three types of Neurons.

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Simple reflex arc

Define a Reflex Arc …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

On the picture above, the stimulus is a drawing-pin sticking in the finger.

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Describing the structure of a synapse.

Draw and Label A synapse.

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

◼ The membrane of the post-synaptic neurone has chemical-gated ion

The Transmitter substances are:

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

How a synapse transmits an electrical impulse

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Synapses control the direction of impulses because neurotransmitter substances

Many drugs produce their effects by interacting with receptor molecules at

Heroin, for example, stimulates receptor molecules in synapses in the brain,

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

We have sense cells that respond to stimuli (singular = stimulus).

A stimulus is a change in light, temperature, pressure, etc., which produces a

Structures that detect stimuli are called receptors.

Table 14.1 gives examples of these and their stimuli.

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

Complete the Table Below.

The Sense Organ/Receptors Energy Conversion.

The Skin (Touch Receptors)

The Skin (Temperature receptors)

When a receptor responds to a stimulus, it sends a nerve impulse to the brain,

Tr Maurice IGCSE BIOLOGY

THE HUMAN EYE.

The eyebrow stops sweat running down