PWANI UNIVERSITY

MGE B 211.URBAN AND REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF URBAN CENTERS
- Urban centers exist becomes certain activities can be ccarried out most efficiently if
they are clustered together rather than dispersal.
- Since urban centers are spatially separated from one another, linkage between them is
essential and the best framework for studying them is to view them as nodes or focal
points in transport network.
- Locational arrangement of urban centers can be studied in two ways:
i. Their horizontal arrangement where the concern is on trying to understand their
spatial distribution.
ii. Their vertical arrangement where the concern is on their organizational
components without looking at their spatial parameters.
- Although all towns provide a variety of goods and services to their local surrounding
areas, this is subordinate to other specialized roles that they perform to the wider
regional market.
- Towns are formed from a primaary function from where they usually grow and provide
a wide range of other function.

METHODS USED TO CLASSIFY TOWNS

a) Qualitative methods

This involves emphirical observations of the features of towns such as the type of the building
or the road network or the major activity. One of the of the earliest efforts to use this method
of general observation we done by M. Aurusseaus and recognized six classes of active towns i.e.

Class I administrative, Capital cities/revenue towns

Class II Defense/ Fortress/garrison/Naval towns

Class III Culture / University/ Cathedral/ art / pilgrimage religious towns

Class IV Production / manufacturing towns

Class V Communication – collection (mining, fishing, forest, depot towns), Distribution – export

Import,Supply towns

QUANTITATIVE METHODS

Involves use of precise quantitative information to classify urban centers. They mostly use
employment data. On this basis, a town is considered a specialising in a given activity when its
employment level in this activity exceeds the natural average. The population of the labour
fierce employed in a given activity in an urban centre varies directly with the size of the town.

ECONOMIC BASE THEORY

This refers to the proportiontion of a town’s economy that markets its outputs outside the
town and thus obtains funds needed for its further development.

The theory suggests that urban economy is composed of two distinct classes of productive
effort i.e.

I. Basic activities – which produce and distribute goods and services to a market
outside the defined local economic area i.e. city towns
II. Non-basic activities – whose goods and services are consumed by the local
popuration i.e. city serving

The basic activities are city forming functions becauseefforts have bring money into the town
thereby enabling the purchase of raw materials and manufacturing goods. The non- basic
activities are city seserving functions since their primary role in the towns economy is to service
the basic sector.

THEORIES OF CITY SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS

THE LAW OF THE PRIMATE CITY

-It based upon the observation that a countrys leading city or settlement is usually
disproportionately larger than any others in the system. The law argues that in the early stages
of a county’s urban development the city which emerges as larger than the rest for whatever
reasons develops an impetus for self-sustained growth and emerges as a Centre of
Economic opportunity and attracts to it the most energetic individuals and active minds from
other parts of the country.
Primate cities (the dominant one) have paralytic effect on the development of smaller cities.
-They are the national capitals (political, culture and economic centers)
-Once a particular urban center has by virtue of some initial advantages moved ahead of others
new investments of activity and growth will tend to be concentrated in the already expanding
center due to its derived advantage rather than the remaining areas.
-The growth of the primate city results in a differential growth between the primate city and
the remaining regions.
- Negative effects ofof a growth region on the remaining stagnating regions istermed as
backwash effects .
These effects are not felt in all cases since there are certain centrifugal spread effects (positive
effects) of expansionary momentum from the centers of economic expansion to other areas. If
the impact is strong enough to overcome local backwash effects, a process of cumulative
causation may well begin leading to the development of new centers of self-sustaining
economic growth. Such spread effects are however strongest in economies which have already
achieved a fairly high level of economic development since this is normally a companied by –
improved transportation and communication, high levels of education and more dynamic
communication of ideas and values
The urban rank size rule by George k spit (1941)

-The rule states that if the population of a town is multiplied by its rank then this will be equal
in the population of the largest and highest ranked city. The general relationship is experienced
in the formula
Pr = P1/R
Where Pr = population of the center r
Pi = population of the largest and highest ranked center
R = Rank size of center r
When the population is plotted against the rank on a graph paper the hypothetical rank size
rule curve is a straight line at an angle of 45
When the real world patterns are plotted against the theoretical rank size distribution 4
patterns can be identified namely
1) Log normal patterns where the real world patterns closely fits into the hypothetical
pattern or where the lines run parallel.
2) Primate pattern - where the lines forms a concave slope or where the fall-off from the
countries with high levels of primary.
3) Binary pattern – where a convex curve is formed above the theoretical rank-size slope.
This is characteristics of regions where urban centers are approximately the same size
dominate and its characteristic of developed economies.
4) Intermediate pattern – where either a concave or convex slope intersects with the
theoretical rank size slope at one or many points
STAGES FOR A DEVELOPMENTAL MODEL FOR CITY SIZE DISTRIBUTION
a. The early stage of urban development where there are few large primate cities
but there are no intermediate sized or smaller sized cities. In this stage the
urban system is embryonic.
b. The gradual emergence of a fewer smaller centres but where a few large cities
are still dominant.
 c. Where the urban hierarchy begins to emerge and there is a growth of
intermediate sized cities leading to the straightening of the size distribution
curve.
d. The mature urban system emerges where there is a well-developed hierarchy of
cities with all size classes represented.

THE HORIZONTAL ARRANGEMENT OF URBAN CENTRES THE CENTRAL PLACE THEORY.

The concept of hierarchies
This represents an extension of the central place theory and attempt to explain the functional
relationship between settlements of different sizes.
-There are fewer larger central places than smaller ones in any region and that the larger
central places promote a greater variety of goods than the smaller ones .As a result, the larger
centres are fractionally more complex and have a larger complementary region.
According Walter christaller central places belong to one or another of the existing class
subsets.
Each class has a specific group of central functions and is characterised by a discrete population
level.
-Classes of central places are arranged one to another in a hierarchy such that central places of
functionality more complex classes have all the groups of function of the less complex classes.ie
-The higher order central places will always perform all the functions performed by a lower
order central in addition to other functions not performed by the lower order central place.
-Each class of central places also has a discrete population level which it serves
because the incomes which supports the population of the central place is brought to the
centre by the activities which promote goods and services for the surrounding consumers.
The relation between settlements of different orders is a hierarchy can be represented by a K –
value which indicates that each high order centre is addition to its own christaller noted that 6
of the lower order centres tend to lie at the edge of the hexagonal complimentary region of the
order centre.
-In order to explain this relationship, he assumed that in any ideal situation each higher order
centre. This can be experienced by the formula,
K =1+1/3 of 6 =3
K=3
-Hence he concluded that a given level in the hierarchy of centre places, each of the higher
order centre will serve an equivalent of 3 smaller centres of the next lower order.eg each village
will serve an equivalent of 3 hamlets, while a town will serve an equivalent of 3 villages which is
equivalent to 9 hamlets in a regular progression.
The traffic principle
In developing this pattern, christaller realized that even in an isotopic surface where movement
is possible in all directions, some movement paths are likely to develop.
-The traffic principle states that the distribution of central places is more favorable when in
many lower order centres as possible lie on one traffic route between two higher order centres.
-The route has to be established as straight and as cheaply as possible to minimize costs and
maximize profits.
-According to this principle, the lower order centres will be located at the midpoint of each side
at the hexagonal complementary region of the higher order centres rather than the edges. Each
of the larger centres will therefore serve 1+6=7.
-Factors influencing the relationship between centres of different size categories.
a) The availability of goods and services in the higher order centres which are not
available in the lower order center.
b) The availability of transportation links which enhances accessibility and increases
the level of functional relationships between higher order centre and lower
order centres.
c) The existence of administrative boundaries which subordinates the lower order
centres to higher order centres hence increasing their relationship further.

URBAN LAND USE MODELS

-The internal structure of any city is unique is its particular combination of details but there is
always a genuine degree of order underlying the land use patterns in individual cities.
Dynamics of the internal structure of urban centres.

-Competition – park a journalist noted that within a city, man competes for the most desirable
site for business and other activities in just the same way it happens in animals and plant
ecosystem.
-Competitive sites command high land values such as the CBD .
Dominance:
The most activity will influence all other activities at any site in location eg competition for
commercial activites located in the highly accessible CBD give rise to high land values there
which in turn influence the location to other elements in the city.
Invasion and succession
-This can be seen in the invasion of residential areas by commercial and business concern.
The concept of gradient – in growth of a city : the gradient of land values declines outwards
from the peak at the city centre. Owing to the sitting and sorting effect of land values, many
other social phenomena such as low income levels, rates of social disorder and crime around
the same gradient in which the intensity increases with distance from the city centre.
-Related to this decline in the land values, as one moves away from the city centre, is the
decrease in the intensity of land use and population density.
The concentric zone models – by E.W.Burgess
It’s based on the assumption that land values and accessibility decline in an equal regularity in
all direction from a common central point in the city.
-The model states that at any given moment in time, land values in the city are organized into
zones differing in age and character and located in a definite order in the city centre.
Burgess identified 6 main land zones : ie
1. An inner central zone that forms the heart of the cities commercial, social, cultural and
industrial life (CBD)
2. A transitional zone of mixed land uses which is dominated by deteroriating residential
property and wholesale light manufacturing activities that have spilled over from the
CBD
3. A working clan residential zone which in which second generation immigrants form an
important element of the population centre.
4. A zone of better housing characterized by single family dwelling interspersed with
pockets of exclusive housing.
5. A fringe or outer zone of suburban and satellite communities forming dormitory suburbs
for working in the city centre.
6.Commuter Zone which is predominantly an affluent suburban area with a very high level
of private automobile ownership.

According to Walter Isard (1956) the fact that accessibility is assumed to decrease uniformly in
all directions from the city centre implies that the rent an activity is prepared to pay for the use
of a site also decreases from the central point.

The sector models (Homer Hoyt 1939)

It’s based on the assumption that the internal structure of the city is conditioned by the
disposition of routes radiating outwards from the city centre.

Due to this, there is sectoral variation in the land values depending on their accessibility to the
radial routes and to the city centre. As a result, similar land uses tend to concentrate along
partition radial routes from the city to form different sectors.

Multiple nuclei models (C.D Hams and Ullman E.L.1945)

It assumes that cities do not grow from one central nucleus but from an integration of several
central points like airports, railway station, industrial trading centres etc.
-The number and location of the nuclei within any urban centre depends on
i. The size of the city
 ii. Its overall structure
iii. Its historical background.
Hence larger cities tend to have a greater number of central points which are more specialized
than the smaller and more recent ones.

The basic reasons given for the existence of their separate zones are:
I. The specialized requirements of certain activities such as the heavy manufacturing areas
which require proximity to a railway station or where there is space for future
expansion.
II. The tendency of certain activities to agglomerate e.g. in situation where an industry
uses the output another (interdependency)
III. He repulsion of some activities by others
IV. The difference in rent paying ability which forces some activities to claster in separate
districts within the city.

DYNAMIC PROCESSES WHICH AFFECT URBAN LAND USE PATTERNS

The concept of centrifugal and centripetal forces
This represents an attempt to explain the combination of forces which affect the growth and
development of urban land use pattern.

Centrifugal forces are manifested by a combination of uprooting impulses in the central zone
and the attractive qualities of the peripheral screen. The uprooting impulses of the inner core
may include congestion, expressive land shortages, pollination etc. the attractive qualities of
the peripheral zones may include; generally pleasant air, plenty of cheap law and access to
circumferential exile transport. The uprooting qualities act part factors where the attractive
factor acts as pull factors.

The combinations of these two factors are creating the centrifugal movement of people and
function. Centripetal force-lead to a movement toward the core due to the operation or part
factors existing in the periphery and the pull factors existing in the central part of the city. The
pull factor may include low access to the rest of the city, leak or many service and facilities and
pull factor in the love include high access to the rest of the city.

HOUSING MARKET

- It is a complex market-The location of jobs determines housing option. Charges in

employment have significant charges in housing pattern.
 - There is a very high correlation between the quality of neighbourhood housing stock,
prevailing units’ price and income of neighborhood occupants.
- Human market rates in the supply and demand for houses including mortgage market
and human price.

HODONIC PRICE MODEL

- It identifies the price factors of housing as internal external characteristics of the home
on sale.
- Prices of a housing property are determined by the characteristics of the house such as
size, features, appearance and also the condition of the cure and the neighborhood
(access roads, Schools, Shopping, Medical facilities, Seek lives, Water, Electricity etc.)

Advantages

- It is used to estimate values burned on acuter choices

- It gives good indication of value of property
- It considers several possible interraction between market good and environmental
market.

Disadvantage

- Environmental benefits that can be measured are limited to things that featured in that
housing.
- It only captured the people willingness to pay and perceive environmental attributes
and direct courageous.
- It requires high degree of satistical expertise in implement and interprets.

AFFORDABLE HOUSING

Housing is affordable when a family can spend specified level of rent burden usually 30% of
their income to live in per month and their families at the middle or low level of the income.

- The government calculates the income limits for affordable housing using the medium
family income.
- It is the sole responsibility of the government and in collaborating with other
stakeholders over affordable to its citizens.
- PRINCIPLES OF HEALTH HOUSING
- I should be clean to protect against communicable disease. There must be safe
adequate drinking water, good sanitation, personal hygiene and safe food preparation.
- Safety- protection against injuries, chronic disease and poisoning. The human should
have safe structures, feature and furniture’s. Reducing Biological and social stress to a
minimum.
- It should be well ventilated- To regulate temperature of the home.
- The surrounding of the home should be in a good sanitary condition to improve the
house environment.
- It should be dry to prevent the growth of mound/algae.
- It should be pest free- pests are diseases vectors and they damage food stocks.