The Fe-C and TTT diagrams

… of Pulse Laser Welding. Referring to the wonderful article about the Fe-C and TTT diagrams,
recently posted by Vikram Singh Nanda - in which he explained the essential for understanding the
phase transformations, predicting microstructure changes, optimising heat treatment processes,
designing alloys, and analysing material failures.**

This diagram - the affectionately called „MONO LISA“ of material science and welding society -
shows clearly, what happen exactly: How the heated metal act and change his microstructure at a
specific time and temperature; how the microstructure and therefore his mechanical and
technological performance changes.

To be honest and with the fully respect of the explanations in Vikrams article, even for me as an DSV
European Welding Specialist it was always a bit confusing, what’s going on deep inside the metal
structure, what those diagrams wanted to tell me. More or less I understood only one, but very
important point: Nobody who weld want any change of the metal. We want to keep its mechanical-
technological performance as it has original, prior to get welded. This is the silent dream of our
society, since human weld and first understood that there are changes going on; the dream to be
able to weld metal without negative side effects.

Because classical welding technologies can’t transfer this dream into truth, we have to deal with the
changing, explained with the Fe-C and TTT diagrams.

Back to Vikram's diagrams. Looking at them more closely, we notice a very narrow, hardly noticeable,
but extremely exciting zone. Starting at the "zero degree" and "zero time" of the coordinate cross
where all transformation seems to begin. - Only in the enlargement and with a closer look we
recognise that within this very first second no transformation takes place. Starts only from the tip of
the "nose", so beautifully described by Vikram.

And its precisely this range, running parallel to the temperature axis to the right - up to about one
second, all the way to the tip of the nose - that is the tiny GIANT playground of pulse laser welding
technology. Pulsed welding within a few milliseconds. Much faster than the duration of a single
second, which in the world of pulse laser welding is the equivalent of an eternity. Pulse- after pulse-
after pulse-welding before the metal notices and begins to transform**. "Quick and Painless" but
that's another exciting story, from DSI Laser Service (Thailand) Co.,Ltd. day-to-day professional life,
but told elsewhere.

I am aware of it, it may sounds like a fairytale from One Thousand and one World. But it’s true!
Carefully investigated at DSI Laser-Welding-Academy, examined at TGI by Arun jeangsrijaroen and
finally confirmed by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Gerd Kusche
Title
High strength steel weld metal properties: metallurgical criteria and computational tools
Journal
Welding in the World
DOI
10.1007/s40194-023-01551-1

Abstract
High-strength steel (HSS) welding electrode specifications based on Fe–C–Mn alloy system offer two
sets of tables for com- pliance, one on specified electrode chemical composition requirements and
the other on specified minimum weld mechanical properties requirements. These sets of tables may
appear mutually exclusive but underlying metallurgical principles, particularly the interactive effects
of various alloy elements in the weld metal (WM), keep them inter-dependent. The interactive effects
sup- press austenite transformation-start (TS) temperature, thereby simultaneously increasing both
strength and low-temperature impact toughness of HSS WM. The metallurgical criteria require
control of calculated TS temperatures such as Ar3, BS, or MS, besides C content, Yurioka’s carbon
equivalent number (CEN), and balanced Ti (and/or Zr), B, Al, N, O additions that correlate identified
WM chemical composition with desired high-performance microstructures to meet or exceed
minimum WM tensile and Charpy V-notch (CVN) impact toughness property requirements.
Specifically, two computational tools are useful in implementing the above metallurgical criteria in
high-performance electrodes and resulting WMs. The first tool uses constraints-based model (CBM),
a set of constitutive (statistical/regression) equations to control the amounts of C, Mn, Cr, Ni, Mo,
and Cu so CEN and the relevant calculated TS temperatures such as Ar3, BS, or MS stay in a desirable
range relative to the base metals being joined. While doing so, one also needs to ascertain that the
common progression of calculated TS temperatures wherein Ar3 > BS > MS remains valid. The
second tool ensures balanced Ti (and/or Zr), B, Al, N, O additions to further lower the actual TS
temperature compared to the calculated TS temperature. The balanced Ti (and/or Zr), B, Al, N, O
content is ascertained using an artificial neural network (ANN) model offered by the Japan Welding
Engineering Society (JWES) at its website. The JWES ANN model allows one to manipulate 16
elements of the WM compositions, each within a specified range and seek a predictive temperature
lower than − 60 °C for achieving 28 J absorbed energy (T28J/°C) during CVN impact testing. Both a
lower TS temperature and a narrow start-to-finish (TS–TF) temperature range ensure a WM with a
superior combination of high strength and exceptional CVN impact toughness.

Base metal crack due to arc strike.

The material is SA 240 TYPE 304L

As per my knowledge😊

Yes, welding arc strikes can potentially cause base metal cracks. When an arc strike occurs, it creates
a concentrated heat source that rapidly heats and cools a localized area of the base metal. This rapid
heating and subsequent cooling can lead to thermal stress and potential cracking.

Several factors contribute to the likelihood of base metal cracking from an arc strike, including:

1. Material properties: Some materials are more susceptible to cracking than others. For example,
high carbon steels and certain alloys may be more prone to cracking due to their composition and
metallurgical properties.

2. Base metal thickness: Thicker base metals are generally more resistant to cracking because they
have a higher heat capacity and can dissipate heat more effectively. Thinner materials are more
susceptible to rapid heating and cooling, increasing the risk of cracking.

3. Welding process and parameters: The welding process and parameters, such as current, voltage,
travel speed, and preheating, can affect the heat input and the potential for cracking. Proper
selection and control of welding parameters are crucial to minimizing the risk of cracking.

4. Arc strike location: The location of the arc strike on the base metal also plays a role. If the arc strike
is near an existing crack or stress concentration point, it can act as a starting point for crack
propagation.

To prevent base metal cracking from arc strikes, welders should follow good welding practices, such
as:

1. Ensuring proper grounding and electrical connections to minimize the occurrence of arc strikes.

2. Positioning the arc strike away from critical areas or stress concentration points.

3. Controlling welding parameters and heat input within the recommended range for the specific
material and thickness being welded.

4. Inspecting the base metal for cracks or defects before welding and addressing any issues before
proceeding.

5. Using suitable preheating techniques for thicker materials or materials prone to cracking.

By implementing these measures and maintaining good welding practices, the risk of base metal
cracking from arc strikes can be significantly reduced.
 TANK FABRICATION

𝐖𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐰𝐞𝐥𝐝 𝐬𝐞𝐚𝐦𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐤 𝐛𝐨𝐭𝐭𝐨𝐦 𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐬?

There are some general guidelines that can be followed to ensure a strong and secure weld.

Here are a few tips:

1- 𝗦𝘁𝗮𝗿𝘁 𝘄𝗶𝘁𝗵 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗰𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿 𝘀𝗲𝗮𝗺: When welding the longitudinal and transverse seams, it's often best to
start with the center seam and work your way outward. This helps to ensure that the tank is aligned
properly and that the seams are straight and even.

2- 𝗪𝗲𝗹𝗱 𝗶𝗻 𝘀𝗲𝗰𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀: To minimize the risk of distortion or warping, it's often best to weld the
longitudinal and transverse seams in smaller sections.

This allows you to apply heat and weld each section more evenly, reducing the risk of distortion.
3- 𝗔𝗹𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗲 𝗯𝗲𝘁𝘄𝗲𝗲𝗻 𝗹𝗼𝗻𝗴𝗶𝘁𝘂𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘀𝘃𝗲𝗿𝘀𝗲 𝘀𝗲𝗮𝗺𝘀: When welding tank bottom plates, it's
important to alternate between welding the longitudinal and transverse seams. This helps to distribute
the heat evenly and reduces the risk of warping.

4- 𝗨𝘀𝗲 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗮𝗽𝗽𝗿𝗼𝗽𝗿𝗶𝗮𝘁𝗲 𝘄𝗲𝗹𝗱𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘁𝗲𝗰𝗵𝗻𝗶𝗾𝘂𝗲: The welding technique that's best for the longitudinal

𝗣𝗔𝗦𝗦𝗜𝗩𝗔𝗧𝗜𝗢𝗡
This process is recommended where the surface has been contaminated by “free iron”. The presence
of any iron, cast iron, mild steel, carbon steel or low alloy steel particles on the surface of stainless
steel will promote pitting corrosion at the cells set up between the "free" iron and stainless steel. This
potentially very serious (and certainly unsightly) problem most often occurs due to contamination by
scraping with carbon steel tools or fixtures, or from grinding swarf. “Passivation” is a chemical
process of removal of this contamination. Passivation also aids in the rapid development of
the passive surface layer on the steel.

The removal of the iron can be readily carried out by the procedures in the table below.

Ref.: Technical Handbook of Stainless Steels by The Atlas Specialty Metals.

𝗚𝗠𝗔𝗪 𝗱𝗶𝗳𝗳𝗲𝗿𝗲𝗻𝘁 𝗺𝗼𝗱𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗿𝗮𝗻𝘀𝗳𝗲𝗿𝘀:
1- 𝑺𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒕-𝒄𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 is a type of metal transfer that occurs when the electrode touches or
short-circuits to the weld puddle. This causes the arc to extinguish and the current to neck down and
melt off the electrode. The cycle then repeats itself.
2- 𝑮𝒍𝒐𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 is a mode of metal transfer across the arc where a molten ball larger than the
electrode diameter forms at the tip of the electrode. Globular transfer produces large and irregular
droplets (globs) which are pulled down towards the weld puddle by gravity.
3- 𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒚 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒆 is a process that uses high voltage and amperage to transfer molten
metal droplets from the electrode or wire to the weld joint. The droplets are smaller than the
electrode diameter and are axially directed to the weld puddle. The arc is continuous and burns
hotter than other types of welds. The shielding gas should have at least 80% argon.
𝘼𝙥𝙥𝙡𝙞𝙘𝙖𝙩𝙞𝙤𝙣: It is used in applications where a high deposition rate is needed, such as in heavy
equipment manufacturing.
４- 𝑷𝒖𝒍𝒔𝒆-𝑺𝒑𝒓𝒂𝒚 𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒇𝒆𝒓 is a modified spray transfer process that uses a pulsing current to
produce droplets of molten metal that are smaller than those produced in the spray transfer process.
The droplets are transferred across the arc in a spray-like pattern and are directed to the weld
puddle. The pulse-spray transfer process produces less spatter than the spray transfer process and is
used for welding thin materials.
IoT in welding

Welding of alloys is like casting small small droplets 💧 in the weld area and allow it cool as we
proceed in the direction of welding. While we are welding edges of the plates, pipes, Forgings the
surrounding area undergoes heat treatment due to temp gradient it creates from melting point plus
super heat to ambient temp or PRE heat temp.
Thus welding is a combination of casting and heat treatment. Like any other expansion and
contraction leads to stresses welding also has stresses associated with it and more over as heating
and cooling is non uniform and entire job does not see uniform heating or cooling as it happens in
furnace it further aggravates stress levels and makes it highly non uniform leading to distortion.
A variation in set up or PRE cleaning, environmental conditions or variation in welding parameters
will make more difficult to predict, what kind of micro structure and physical properties we will
achieve.
NDT can find gross level defects or discontinuities but micro level changes which makes huge impact
on physical properties like, impact, corrosion, creep will be very difficult to predict and then we see
failures in use which can be some times catastrophic and shakes designers confidence.
We always stress on process control and to weld right we must set right and to set right we must cut
right and use well qualified materials, but this is very difficult to monitor and maintain in real life.
Hence we develop lot of trust with the team and ensure as much audits as possible.
With automation coming in large way and improvements in IoT that can sense and record few critical
parameters like size and movement of weld puddle and the way solidification or ripple formation is
taking place which use to be monitored by human eye and brain now needs a back up of AI and
computer system.
IoT sensors will capture at what ever frequency you are intending to but processing such large data
and taking corrective or preventive actions and build confidence with QA team will be easy. A
systematic recording of the changes each of the more than 64 variables in weld joint can lead to AI
and online alert and prediction of weld joint.
In today’s world where we are trying to optimise every design or process aspect to improve delivery
dates and reduce on cost while no compromise on quality I think IoT and AI will play very important
role in complex process of welding for all sectors. You will find lot of such data and usage.
Happy reading and hope to get your comments for me to improve this further.

Sample questions and answers about heat exchangers:

Slide 1:

 Title: Heat Exchangers

 Subtitle: A PowerPoint Presentation with Sample Questions and Answers

Slide 2:

 What is a heat exchanger?

  A heat exchanger is a device that transfers heat from one medium to
another.
 The two media can be either fluids or solids.
 Heat exchangers are used in a wide variety of applications, including
power plants, HVAC systems, and industrial processes.

Slide 3:

 What are the different types of heat exchangers?

 There are many different types of heat exchangers, but the most common
are:
o Shell and tube heat exchangers
o Plate heat exchangers
o Air-to-air heat exchangers
o Water-to-water heat exchangers

Slide 4:

 How do heat exchangers work?

 Heat exchangers work by transferring heat through a physical barrier.
 The two media are separated by a wall, and the heat is transferred
through conduction or convection.
 The efficiency of a heat exchanger depends on the design of the
exchanger and the properties of the media.

Slide 5:

 What are some of the advantages of heat exchangers?

 Heat exchangers are very efficient at transferring heat.
 They are also relatively simple to operate and maintain.
 Heat exchangers can be used in a wide variety of applications.

Slide 6:

 What are some of the disadvantages of heat exchangers?

 Heat exchangers can be expensive to purchase and install.
 They can also be a source of leaks.
 Heat exchangers can be difficult to clean and maintain.

Slide 7:

 What are some of the common questions about heat exchangers?

 Here are some of the most common questions about heat exchangers:
 o What is the difference between a shell and tube heat exchanger
and a plate heat exchanger?
o How do I choose the right heat exchanger for my application?
o How do I calculate the efficiency of a heat exchanger?
o How do I clean and maintain a heat exchanger?

Slide 8:

 Here are some of the answers to the common questions about heat
exchangers:
o The main difference between a shell and tube heat exchanger and
a plate heat exchanger is the way in which the two media are
separated.
 In a shell and tube heat exchanger, the two media are
separated by a wall of tubes.
 In a plate heat exchanger, the two media are separated by a
series of plates.
o The right heat exchanger for your application depends on the
specific requirements of your application.
o The efficiency of a heat exchanger can be calculated using the
following equation:
 Efficiency = (Heat Transferred)/(Heat Input)
o To clean and maintain a heat exchanger, you should follow the
manufacturer's instructions.

Slide 9:

 Conclusion
 Heat exchangers are a valuable tool for transferring heat from one
medium to another.
 They are used in a wide variety of applications, and they can be very
efficient.
 If you are considering using a heat exchanger in your application, be sure
to do your research to choose the right type of heat exchanger for your
needs.

I hope this helps!

Why is 6010 used for root pass welding instead of 7010 or 8010?

E6010 or E6011 are commonly used for root passes for these reasons :
Scavenging and aggressive arc, which is helpful to cut through scale, contaminants, etc.
on the surface.
Fast freeze of the puddle, which is helpful in root passes, or dealing with any gaps.
Better ductility than the higher tensile strength rods.
A bit easier to deal with in out of position work than the Lo-Hydrogen rods.
Not such a need to store the rod in ovens, or to preheat & post-heat welds as with Lo-
Hi rods.
Activate to view larger image,

I am trying to provide you with a general overview of the acceptance criteria for weld defects
according to the specified codes.

ASME B31.3:

ASME B31.3 is the code for process piping systems. The acceptance criteria for weld defects in this
code are typically based on the category of the defect and the specific requirements for the type of
joint and material being used. Some common acceptance criteria include:

* Surface discontinuities, such as cracks and lack of fusion, should not exceed the limits specified in
the code for the specific joint type and material.

* Welds should be free from excessive porosity, undercut, and overlap, as per the requirements of
the code.

* The maximum allowable size and length of defects like cracks and lack of penetration are defined in
the code, based on the intended service and pressure rating of the system.

ASME Section VIII Division 1 (UW-52):

ASME Section VIII Division 1 provides the design rules for pressure vessels. UW-52 specifically
addresses the acceptance criteria for welds in pressure vessels. The acceptance criteria may include:

* For welds, the code specifies the allowed size and length of cracks, lack of fusion, porosity, and
other discontinuities, depending on the service conditions and material used.

* Welds should undergo visual and/or non-destructive examination methods to ensure compliance
with the code's acceptance criteria.

API 1104:
API 1104 is the code for welding of pipelines and related facilities. The acceptance criteria for weld
defects in this code are designed to ensure the integrity and safety of pipelines. Some key points
include:

* Welds should be free from cracks, lack of fusion, and incomplete penetration beyond the limits
specified in the code.

* The code defines the acceptable limits for various types of defects based on the size, location, and
material of the pipeline being welded.

It's important to note that these codes are subject to updates, and the specific requirements might
have changed, Always refer to the latest editions of the codes and any applicable addenda for the
most current acceptance criteria. Additionally, proper inspection and evaluation by qualified
personnel are crucial to ensure compliance with these codes.

Technical Sharing #1: WHY Do We Need

to Measure the Amount of Ferrite for
Austenitic Stainless Steel Weld? HOW to
Measure?
The WHY:

 Fully austenitic alloys tend to be hot short, and welds in these materials show fine
cracking or microfissuring, also known as liquation cracking, either in the weld metal
itself or in the HAZ, while those that solidify with delta ferrite as the primary
solidification mode are the least susceptible to hot cracking.
  Avoiding liquation cracking is the most important issue in fusion-welding of austenitic
SS. In general, alloys that solidified with ferrite as the primary phase and containing 4%–
11% by volume of ferrite in the as-welded condition were more resistant to cracking than
alloys solidified as austenite.
 In order to control microfissuring in stainless welding, the alloying elements are balanced
in such a way as to attempt to produce a weld deposit containing ferrite. Following are
the minimum recommended levels of weld metal ferrite content for various types of
austenitic SS:
 Type 308/308L: 3 FN
 Type 309/309L: 5 FN
 Type 316/316L: 3 FN
 Type 347: 6 FN
 The FN is a magnetically determined scale of ferrite measurement. This provides
sufficient control in most applications where minimum ferrite content or a ferrite range is
specified.

The HOW:

4 Methods for the determination of ferrite at room temperature:

(1) Metallographic examination:

 The ferrite content is determined by microscopic analysis. This method provides a

STATISTICAL determination of the amount of ferrite.
 One of the common statistical methods of metallographic examination is by POINT-
COUNT analysis, where evenly spaced points are superimposed on a field on the
specimen and the points found on a constituent are counted. A large number of fields are
sampled to ensure statistical accuracy.
 The drawbacks associated with this method include the following: Examination is
DESTRUCTIVE in nature, interpretation is subject to error, and due to variations in
etching, lab-to-lab reproducibility is sometimes poor.

(2) Constitution diagrams:

 Schaeffler, DeLong & WRC 1992 diagram

 Used as GUIDANCE to choosing a particular consumable or for an approximation of
ferrite content and NEVER as a final word regarding weld metal ferrite content. Where
accurate, ferrite measurement is required, magnetic instruments should be used, and the
consumable manufacturer’s recommendations followed.

(3) Magnetic measuring instruments:

 Ferrite is ferromagnetic, while austenite is not; Ferrite determinations by magnetic

means using FERRITE GAUGES are reproducible, and this is a non-destructive test.
 Standard methods of ferrite determination by magnetic methods for industrial use are
discussed in ANSI/AWS A4.2 and ISO 8249.
  Portable ferrite gauges designed for on-site use. Various trade names for magnetic
measuring instruments are Magne-Gage, Ferritescope, Severn gauge, Foerster gauge, and
Elcometer.
 Methods of measuring ferrite as per magnetic properties of steels and their principles are
given as follows:
 a. Ferrite indicator: comparing the magnetic attraction between a standard ferrite percent
insert and a test specimen
 b. Ferrite scope: measuring the change of magnetic induction affected by the ferrite
content of a test specimen
 c. Magne-Gage: measuring the pull-off force necessary to detach a standard permanent
magnet from a test specimen.

(4) X-rays:

 Relies on the fact that all materials consist of different crystal structures.
 The intensities of DIFFRACTION LINES of the different phases allow the
determination and measurement of their presence.
 Only possible on the surface thickness (approximately 2 mils) and can only measure
amounts of ferrite in excess of 3 FN.
 Costly, complicated, and not always practical.

References:

1. AWS Standards & publications

2. API RP 577

3. API RP 582

4. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook-Kuppan Thulukkanam

LPG is a Liquified Petroleum Gas having a certain ratio of Propane and Butane.

Whenever you release "Vapour" from LPG Cylinder at your home, the liquid in it vaporizes.

This creates enough vapor to keep the vapor pressure similar to the saturation Pressure at the given
temperature.

This lets the pressure remain constant until all the liquid is vaporized.

However, for gas cylinders like Nitrogen, Argon, Helium, Hydrogen, etc, the gas is highly
"Compressed" but not Liquified.

Upon removing the "Gas", the moles of the gas within the cylinder decrease which exerts lower
pressure than their initial state.

Therefore in such cylinders, the pressure keeps decreasing.

𝐑𝐞𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐡𝐢𝐩 𝐁𝐞𝐭𝐰𝐞𝐞𝐧 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭 𝐈𝐧𝐩𝐮𝐭, 𝐌𝐞𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐇𝐚𝐫𝐝𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬, 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐓𝐨𝐮𝐠𝐡𝐧𝐞𝐬𝐬 𝐢𝐧 𝐖𝐞𝐥𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠

🔹 𝗛𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗜𝗻𝗽𝘂𝘁:
The amount of energy applied to the weld during the welding process.
It is influenced by various factors such as voltage, current, arc length, and welding speed.
Heat input = [Voltage (V) X Current (I)] / [Travel Speed]

🔹 𝗠𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗛𝗮𝗿𝗱𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀:
A measure of a material's resistance to deformation, indentation, or penetration.

🔹 𝗠𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗧𝗼𝘂𝗴𝗵𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀:
The ability of a material to absorb energy and deform plastically without fracturing. It combines
strength and ductility, indicating how well a metal can resist cracking or fracturing under impact or
dynamic loading conditions.

𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝗲𝗹𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀𝗵𝗶𝗽 𝗯𝗲𝘁𝘄𝗲𝗲𝗻 𝗵𝗲𝗮𝘁 𝗶𝗻𝗽𝘂𝘁, 𝗺𝗲𝘁𝗮𝗹 𝗵𝗮𝗿𝗱𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀, 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗼𝘂𝗴𝗵𝗻𝗲𝘀𝘀:

1️⃣ Heat Input and Metal Hardness:
Lower heat input during welding generally leads to faster cooling rates, resulting in increased metal
hardness.
This is because lower heat input means less energy is being transferred to the weld, leading to
quicker dissipation of heat to the surrounding base metal and faster solidification of the weld.
Rapid cooling can promote the formation of harder microstructures, such as martensite, in the heat-
affected zone (HAZ), thereby increasing the metal's overall hardness.

2️⃣ Heat Input and Metal Toughness:

The relationship between heat input and metal toughness is more complex. Excessive heat input can
lead to reduced toughness due to coarser microstructures and potential grain growth.
This is particularly true when welding high-strength steels. The excessive heat input can cause larger
grain sizes, which reduce the material's ability to absorb energy and increase its susceptibility to
fracture.

Conversely, optimizing the heat input within an appropriate range can enhance toughness by
promoting finer microstructures and minimizing the presence of brittle phases.

By understanding the relationship between heat input, metal hardness, and toughness, we can make
informed decisions to achieve the desired mechanical properties in welded structures.
Balancing these factors is crucial to ensure weld integrity and meet the required performance
standards.
0ne of the most common questions is why we use water for quenching in steel rolling rather than
using oil ?

Water quenching typically results in higher mechanical properties, such as hardness, than oil
quenching due to the faster cooling rate. The cooling rate during quenching significantly affects the
transformation of the steel's microstructure, which in turn impacts its mechanical properties.

Water has a higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity than oil, which allows it to absorb heat
from the steel more quickly. When steel is rapidly cooled in water, the transformation from austenite
(a high-temperature phase) to martensite (a very hard phase) occurs rapidly. This rapid
transformation leads to a fine-grained microstructure with high hardness.

On the other hand, oil quenching provides a slower cooling rate because oil has lower heat capacity
and thermal conductivity compared to water. The slower cooling rate allows for a more controlled
transformation, which can result in a microstructure with slightly larger grains and potentially less
hardness. However, the slower cooling also allows for some reduction in internal stresses, which can
improve toughness to some extent.

It's important to note that the choice of quenching medium should be based on careful
consideration of the steel's composition, the desired mechanical properties, and the specific
requirements of the application.