General Construction level 2

FORM WORK

Most structural concrete is made by placing or "casting" plastic concrete into spaces enclosed by
previously constructed forms. The plastic concrete hardens into the shape outlined by the forms.
The size and shape of the formwork are always based on the project plans and specifications.

Forms for all concrete structures must be tight, rigid, and strong. If the forms are not tight, there
will be excessive leakage at the time the concrete is placed. This leakage can result in unsightly
surface ridges, honeycombing, and sand streaks after the concrete has set. The forms must be
able to safely withstand the pressure of the concrete at the time of placement. No shortcuts
should be taken. Proper form construction material and adequate bracing in place prevent the
forms from collapsing or shifting during the placement of the concrete.

Forms or form parts are often omitted when a firm earth surface exists that is capable of
supporting or molding the concrete. In most footings, the bottom of the footing is cast directly
against the earth and only the sides are molded informs. Many footings are cast with both the
bottom and the sides against the natural earth. In these cases, however, the specifications usually
call for larger footings. A foundation wall is often cast between a form on the inner side and the
natural earth surface on the outer side.

FORM MATERIALS

Forms are generally constructed from either earth, metal, wood, fiber, or fabric.

Earth

Earthen forms are used in subsurface construction where the soil is stable enough to retain the
desired shape of the concrete. The advantages of earthen forms are that less excavation is
required and there is better settling resistance. The obvious disadvantage is a rough surface
finish, so the use of earthen forms is generally restricted to footings and foundations. Precautions
must be taken to avoid collapse of the sides of trenches.

Metal

Metal forms are used where high strength is required or where the construction is duplicated at
more than one location. They are initially more expensive than wood forms, but may be more
economical if they can be reused repeatedly. Originally, all prefabricated metal forms were made
of steel. These forms were heavy and hard to handle. Currently, aluminium forms, which are
lightweight and easier to handle, are replacing steel.

Prefabricated metal forms are easy to erect and strip. The frame on each panel is designed so that
the panels can be easily and quickly fastened and unfastened. Metal forms provide a smooth
surface finish so that little concrete finishing is required after the forms are stripped. They are
easily cleaned, and maintenance is minimal.

Metal-wood forms are just like metal forms except for the face. It is made with a sheet of B-
grade exterior plywood with waterproof glue.

Wood

Wooden forms are by far the most common type used in building construction. They have the
advantage of economy, ease in handling, ease of production, and adaptability to many desired
shapes. Added economy may result from reusing form lumber later for roofing, bracing, or
similar purposes. Lumber should be straight, structurally sound, strong, and only partially
seasoned. Kiln-dried timber has a tendency to swell when soaked with water from the concrete.
If the boards are tight-jointed, the swelling will cause bulging and distortion. When green lumber
is used, an allowance should be made for shrinkage, or the forms should be kept wet until the
concrete is in place. Soft woods, such as pine, fir, and spruce, make the best and most
economical form lumber since they are light, easy to work with, and available in almost every
region.

Lumber that comes in contact with concrete should be surfaced at least on one side and both
edges. The surfaced side is turned toward the concrete. The edges of the lumber may be square,
shiplap, or tongue and groove. The latter makes a more watertight joint and tends to prevent
warping.

Plywood can be used economically for wall and floor forms if it is made with waterproof glue
and is identified for use in concrete forms. Plywood is more warp resistant and can be reused
more often than lumber. Plywood is made in 1/4-, 3/8-, 1/2-, 9/16-, 5/8- and 3/4-inch thicknesses
and in widths up to 48 inches. Although longer lengths are manufactured, 8-foot lengths are the
most common. The 5/8- and 3/4-inch thicknesses are most economical; thinner sections require
additional solid backing to prevent bulging. However, the 1/4-inch thickness is useful for
forming curved surfaces.

Fiber

Fiber forms are prefabricated from impregnated waterproofed cardboard and other fiber
materials. Successive layers of fiber are first glued together and then molded in the desired
shape. Fiber forms are ideal for round concrete columns and other applications where preformed
shapes are feasible since they require no form fabrication at the job site. This saves considerable
time and money.

Fabric

Fabric forming is made of two layers of nylon fabric. These layers are woven together, forming
an envelope. Structural mortar is injected into these envelopes, forming nylon-encased concrete

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"pillows." These are used to protect the shorelines of waterways, lakes and reservoirs, and as
drainage channel linings.

Fabric forming offers exceptional advantages in the structural restoration of bearing piles under
waterfront structures. A fabric sleeve with a zipper closure is suspended around the pile to be
repaired, and mortar is pumped into the sleeve. This forms a strong concrete jacket.

FORM DESIGN

Forms for concrete construction must support the plastic concrete until it has hardened. Stiffness
is an important feature in forms. Failure to provide form stiffness may cause unfortunate results.
Forms must be designed for all the weight to which they are likely to be subjected. This includes
the dead load of the forms, the plastic concrete in the forms, the weight of the workmen, the
weight of equipment and materials, and the impact due to vibration. These factors vary with each
project, but none should be ignored. The ease of erection and removal is also an important factor
in the economical design of forms. Platform and ramp structures independent of formwork are
sometimes preferred to avoid displacement of forms due to loading and impact shock from
workmen and equipment.

When concrete is placed in forms, it is in a plastic state and exerts hydrostatic pressure on the
forms. The basis of form design, therefore, is the maximum pressure developed by concrete
during placing. The maximum pressure developed depends on the placing rate and the
temperature. The rate at which concrete is placed affects the pressure because it determines how
much hydrostatic head builds up in the form. The hydrostatic head continues to increase until the
concrete takes its initial set, usually in about 90 minutes. At low temperatures, however, the
initial set takes place much more slowly. This makes it necessary to consider the temperature at
the time of placing. By knowing these two factors and the type of form material to be used, you
can calculate a tentative design.

FORM CONSTRUCTION

Strictly speaking, it is only those parts of the form work that directly mold the concrete that are
correctly referred to as the "forms." The rest of the formwork consists of various bracing and
tying members. In the following discussion on forms, illustrations are provided to help you
understand the names of all the formwork members. You should study these illustrations
carefully so that you will understand the material in the next section.

Foundation Forms

The portion of a structure that extends above the ground level is called the superstructure. The
portion below the ground level is called the substructure. The parts of the substructure that
distribute building loads to the ground are called foundations. Footings are installed at the base
of foundations to spread the loads over a larger ground area. This prevents the structure from
sinking into the ground. It’s important to remember that the footings of any foundation system

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should always be placed below the frost line. Forms for large footings, such as bearing wall
footings, column footings, and pier footings, are called foundation forms. Footings, or
foundations, are relatively low in height since their primary function is to distribute building
loads. Because the concrete in a footing is shallow, pressure on the form is relatively low.
Therefore, a form design based on high strength and rigidity considerations is generally not
necessary.

SIMPLE FOUNDATION. — Whenever possible, excavate the earth and use it as a mold for
concrete footings. You should thoroughly moisten the earth before placing the concrete. If this is
not possible, you must construct a form. Because most footings are rectangular or square, you
can build and erect the four sides of the form in panels.

Make the first pair of opposing panels (figure 7-1 (a)) to exact footing width. Then, nail vertical
cleats to the exterior sides of the sheathing. Use at least 1-by-2-inch lumber for the cleats, and
space them 2 1/2 inches from each end of the exterior sides of the panels (a), and on 2-foot
centers between the ends. Next, nail two cleats to the ends of the interior sides of the second pair
of panels (figure 7-1 (b)). The space between these panels should equal the footing length plus
twice the sheathing thickness. Then, nail cleats on the exterior sides of the panels (b) spaced on
2-foot centers.

Figure 7-1.-Typical foundation form for a large footing.

Erect the panels into either a rectangle or square, and hold them in place with form nails. Make
sure that all reinforcing bars are in place. Now, drill small holes on each side of the center cleat
on each panel. These holes should be less than 1/2 inch in diameter to prevent paste leakage.
Pass No. 8 or No. 9 black annealed iron wire through these holes and wrap it around the center
cleats of the opposing panels to hold them together (see figure 7-1). Mark the top of the footing
on the interior side of the panels with grade nails.

For forms 4 feet square or larger, drive stakes against the sheathing, as shown in figure 7-1. Both
the stakes and the 1 by 6 tie braces nailed across the top of the form keep it from spreading apart.
If a footing is less than l-foot deep and 2-feet square, you can construct the form from 1-inch
sheathing without cleats. Simply make the side panels higher than the footing depth, and mark

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the top of the footing on the interior sides of the panels with grade nails. Cut and nail the lumber
for the sides of the form, as shown in figure 7-2.

Figure 7-2.-Typical small footing form.

FOUNDATION AND PIER FORMS COMBINED. — You can often place a footing and a
small pier at the same time. A pier is a vertical member that supports the concentrated loads of
an arch or bridge superstructure. It can be either rectangular or round. You build a pier form as
shown in figure 7-3. The footing form should look like the one in figure 7-1. You must provide
support for the pier form while not interfering with concrete placement in the footing form. You
can do this by first nailing 2-by-4s or 4-by-4s across the footing form, as shown in figure 7-3.
These serve as both supports and tie braces. Then, nail the pier form to these support pieces.

Figure 7-3.-Footing and pier form.

BEARING WALL FOOTINGS. — Figure 7-4 shows a typical footing formwork for a bearing
wall, and figure 7-5 shows bracing methods for a bearing wall footing. A bearing wall, also
called a load-bearing wall, is an exterior wall that serves as an enclosure and also transmits
structural loads to the foundation. The form sides are 2-inch lumber whose width equals the
footing depth. Stakes hold the sides in place while spreaders maintain the connect distance
between them. The short braces at each stake hold the form in line.

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 Figure 7-5.-Methods of bracing bearing
Figure 7-4.-Typical footing form. wall footing forms and placing a keyway.

A keyway is made in the wet concrete by placing a 2-by-2-inch board along the center of the
wall footing form. After the concrete is thy, the board is removed. This leaves an indentation, or
key, in the concrete. When you pour the foundation wall, the key provides a tie between the
footing and wall. Although not discussed in this training manual, there are several commercial
keyway systems available for construction projects.

Columns

Square column forms are made of wood. Round column forms are made of steel, or cardboard
impregnated with waterproofing compound. Figure 7-6 shows an assembled column and footing
form. After constructing the footing forms, build the column form sides, and then nail the yokes
to them.

Figure 7-7 shows a column form with two styles of yokes. View A shows a commercial type,
and view B shows yokes made of all-thread bolts and 2-by material. Since the rate of placing
concrete in a column form is very high and the bursting pressure exerted on the form by the
concrete increases directly with the rate of placing, a column form must be securely braced, as
shown by the yokes in the figure. Because the bursting pressure is greater at the bottom of the
form than it is at the top, yokes are placed closer together at the bottom.

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Figure 7-6.-Form for a concrete column.

Figure 7-7.-Column form with scissor

clamp (View A), and yolk and wedge (View
B).

The column form should have a clean-out hole cut in the bottom from which to remove
construction debris. Be sure to nail the pieces that you cut to make the clean-out hole to the form.
This way, you can replace them exactly before placing concrete in the column. The intention of
the clean-out is to ensure that the surface which bonds with the new concrete is clear of all
debris.

Walls

Wall forms (figure 7-8) may be built in place or prefabricated, depending on shape and
desirability of form reuse. Some of the elements that make up wooden forms are sheathing,
studs, wales, braces, shoe plates, spreaders, and tie wires.

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Figure 7-8.-Form for a concrete wall.

CONSTRUCTION.— Sheathing forms the surfaces of the concrete. It should be as smooth as

possible, especially if the finished surfaces are to be exposed. Since the concrete is in a plastic
state when placed in the form, the sheathing should be watertight. Tongue-and-groove sheathing
gives a smooth, watertight surface. Plywood or hardboard can also be used and is the most
widely accepted construction method.

The weight of the plastic concrete causes sheathing to bulge if it is not reinforced. As a result,
studs are run vertically to add rigidity to the wall form. Studs are generally made from 2-by-4 or
3-by-6 material.

Studs also require reinforcing when they extend over 4 or 5 feet. This reinforcing is supplied by
double wales. Double wales also serve to tie prefabricated panels together and keep them in a
straight line. They run horizontally and are lapped at the corners of the forms to add rigidty.
Wales are usually made of the same material as the studs.

The shoe plate is nailed into the foundation or footing. It is carefully placed to maintain the
correct wall dimension and alignment. The studs are tied into the shoe and spaced according to
the correct design.

Small pieces of wood are cut the same length as the thickness of the wall and are placed between
the forms to maintain proper distance between forms. These pieces are known as spreaders. The
spreaders are not nailed but are held in place by friction and must be removed before the
concrete covers them. A wire should be securely attached to each spreader so that the spreaders
can be pulled out after the concrete has exerted enough pressure on the walls to allow them to be
easily removed.

Tie wire is designed to hold the forms securely against the lateral pressure of unhardened
concrete. A double strand of tie wire is always used.

BRACING.— Many types of braces can be used to add stability and bracing to the forms. The
most common type is a diagonal member and horizontal member nailed to a stake and to a stud
or wale, as shown in figure 7-8. The diagonal member should make a 30° angle with the
horizontal member.

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Additional bracing may be added to the form by placing vertical members (strongbacks) behind
the wiles or by placing vertical members in the corner formed by intersecting wales. Braces are
not part of the form design and are not considered as providing any additional strength.

REINFORCEMENT.— Wall forms are usually reinforced against displacement by the use of
ties. Two types of simple wire ties, used with wood spreaders, are shown in figure 7-9. The wire
is passed around the studs, the wales, and through small holes bored in the sheathing. Each
spreader is placed as close as possible to the studs, and the tie is set taut by the wedge, as shown
in view A of figure 7-9, or by twisting with a small toggle, as shown in view B. As the concrete
reaches the level of each spreader, the spreader is knocked out and removed. Figure 7-10 shows
you an easy way to remove the spreaders by drilling holes and placing a wire through them. The
parts of the wire that are inside the forms remain in the concrete; the outside surplus is cut off
after the forms are removed.

Figure 7-9.-Wire ties for wall forms.

Figure 7-10.-Removing wood spreaders.

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Wire ties and wooden spreaders have been largely replaced by various manufactured devices in
which the function of the tie and the function of the spreader are combined. Figure 7-11 shows
one of these. It is called a snap tie. These ties are made in various sizes to tit various wall
thicknesses. The tie holders can be removed from the tie rod. The rod goes through small holes
bored in the sheathing, and also through the wales, which are usually doubled for that purpose.
Tapping the tie holders down on the ends of the rod brings the sheathing to bear solidly against
the spreader washers. You can prevent the tie holder from coming loose by driving a duplex nail
in the provided hole. After the concrete has hardened, the tie holders can be detached to strip the
forms. After the forms are stripped, a special wrench is used to break off the outer sections of
rods. The rods break off at the breaking points, located about 1-inch inside the surface of the
concrete. Small surface holes remain, which can be plugged with grout if necessary.

Figure 7-11.-Snap tie.

Another type of wall-form tie is the tie rod (figure 7-12). This rod consists of an inner section
that is threaded on both ends and two threaded outer sections. The inner section with the cone
nuts set to the thickness of the wall is placed between the forms, and the outer sections are
passed through the wales and sheathing and threaded into the cone nuts. The clamps are then
threaded on the outer sections to bring the forms to bear against the cone nuts. After the concrete
hardens, the clamps are loosened, and the outer sections of rod are removed by threading them
out of the cone nuts. After the forms are stripped, the cone nuts are removed from the concrete
by threading them off the inner sections of the rod with a special wrench. The cone-shaped
surface holes that remain can be plugged with grout. The inner sections of the rod remain in the
concrete. The outer sections and the cone nuts may be reused indefinitely.

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Figure 7-12.-Tie rod.

Wall forms are usually constructed as separate panels. Make the panels by first nailing sheathing
to the studs. Next, connect the panels, as shown in figure 7-13. Figure 7-14 shows the form
details at the wall corner. When placing concrete panel wails and columns at the same time,
construct the wall form, as shown in figure 7-15. Make the wall form shorter than the distance
between the column forms to allow for a wood strip that acts as a wedge. When stripping the
forms, remove the wedge first to aid in form removal.

Figure 7-13.-Joining wall form panels Figure 7-14.-Joining wall form panels at a
together in line. corner.

Figure 7-15.-Form for panel wall and columns.

Stair Forms

Concrete stairway forms require accurate layout to ensure accurate finish dimensions for the
stairway. Stairways should always be reinforced with rebars (reinforcing bars) that tie into the
floor and landing. They are formed monolithically or formed after the concrete for the floor slab
has set. Stairways formed after the slab has set must be anchored to a wall or beam by tying the
stairway rebars to rebars projecting from the walls or beams, or by providing a keyway in the
beam or wall. You can use various stair forms, including prefabricated forms. For moderate-
width stairs joining typical floors, a design based on strength considerations is generally not
necessary. Figure 7-16 shows one way to construct forms for stair widths up to and including 3

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feet. Make the sloping wood platform that serves as the form for the underside of the steps from
3/4-inch plywood. The platform should extend about 12 inches beyond each side of the stairs to
support the stringer bracing blocks. Shore up the back of the platform with 4-by-4 supports, as
shown in figure 7-16. The post supports should rest on wedges for easy adjustment and removal.
Cut 2-by-12 planks for the side stringers to fit the treads and risers. Bevel the bottom of the 2-by-
12 risers for easy form removal and finishing.

Figure 7-16.-Stairway form.

Beams and Girders

The type of construction used for beam and girder forms depends upon whether the forms are to
be removed in one piece or whether the sides are to be stripped and the bottom left in place until
the concrete has hardened enough to permit removal of the shoring. The latter type of form is
preferred, and details for this type are shown in figure 7-17. Although beam and girder forms are
subjected to very little bursting pressure, they must be shored up at frequent intervals to prevent
sagging under the weight of fresh concrete.

The bottom of the form should be the same width as the beam and should be in one piece for the
full width. The sides of the form should be 1-inch-thick tongue-and-groove sheathing and should
lap over the bottom as shown in figure 7-17. The sheathing is nailed to 2-by-4-inch studs placed
on 3-foot centers. A 1-by-4-inch piece is nailed along the studs. These pieces support the joist for
the floor panel, as shown in figure 7-18, detail E. The beam sides of the form are not nailed to
the bottom. They are held in position by continuous strips, as shown in detail E. The crosspieces
nailed on top serve as spreaders. After erection, the slab panel joists hold the beam sides in
position. Girder forms (figure 7-17) are the same as beam forms except that the sides are notched
to receive the beam forms. Temporary cleats should be nailed across the beam opening when the
girder form is being handled.

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Figure 7-18.-Assembly of beam and floor forms.

The entire method of assembling beam and girder forms is illustrated in figure 7-18. The
connection of the beam and girder is illustrated in detail D. The beam bottom butts up tightly
against the side of the girder form and rests on a 2-by- 4-inch cleat nailed to the girder side.
Detail C shows the joint between the beam and slab panel, and details A and B show the joint
between the girder and column. The clearances given in these details are needed for stripping and
also to allow for movement that occurs due to the weight of the fresh concrete. The 4-by-4 posts
(detail E) used for shoring the beams and girders should be spaced to provide support for the
concrete and forms. They should be wedged at the bottom to obtain proper elevation.

Figure 7-19 shows you how the same type of forming can be done by using quick beams,
scaffolding, and I-beams—if they are available. This type of system can be set up and taken
down in minimum time.

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Figure 7-19.-Beam and floor forms.

Oiling and Wetting Forms

You should never use oils or other form coatings that may soften or stain the concrete surface,
prevent the wet surfaces from water curing, or hinder the proper functioning of sealing
compounds used for curing. If you cannot obtain standard form oil or other form coating, you
can wet the forms to prevent sticking in an emergency.

OIL FOR WOOD FORMS.— Before placing concrete in wood forms, treat the forms with a
suitable form oil or other coating material to prevent the concrete from sticking to them. The oil
should penetrate the wood and prevent water absorption. Almost any light-bodied petroleum oil
meets these specifications. On plywood, shellac works better than oil in preventing moisture
from raising the grain and detracting from the finished concrete surface. Several commercial
lacquers and similar products are also available for this purpose. If you plan to reuse wood forms
repeatedly, a coat of paint or sealing compound will help preserve the wood. Sometimes lumber
contains enough tannin or other organic substance to soften the concrete surface. To prevent this,
treat the form surfaces with whitewash or limewater before applying the form oil or other
coating.

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OIL FOR STEEL FORMS.— Oil wall and steel column forms before erecting them. You can oil
all other steel forms when convenient, but they should be oiled before the reinforcing steel is
placed. Use specially compounded petroleum oils, not oils intended for wood forms. Synthetic
castor oil and some marine engine oils are examples of compound oils that give good results on
steel forms.

APPLYING OIL.— The successful use of form oil depends on how you apply it and the
condition of the forms. They should be clean and have smooth surfaces. Because of this, you
should not clean forms with wire brushes, which can mar their surfaces and cause concrete to
stick. Apply the oil or coating with a brush, spray, or swab. Cover the form surfaces evenly, but
do not allow the oil or coating to contact construction joint surfaces or any reinforcing steel in
the formwork. Remove all excess oil.

OTHER COATING MATERIALS.— Fuel oil, asphalt paint, varnish, and boiled linseed oil are
also suitable coatings for forms. Plain fuel oil is too thin to use during warm weather, but mixing
one part petroleum grease to three parts of fuel oil provides adequate thickness.

Form Failure

Even when all form work is adequately designed, many form failures occur because of human
error, improper supervision, or using damaged materials. The following list highlights some, but
not all, of the most common construction deficiencies that supervisory personnel should consider
when working with concrete:

 Inadequately tightened or secured form ties; Inadequate diagonal bracing of shores;

 Use of old, damaged, or weathered form materials;
 Use of undersized form material; Shoring not plumb;
 Failure to allow for lateral pressures on form work; and
 Failure to inspect form work during and after concrete placement to detect abnormal
deflections or other signs of imminent failure.

There are many reasons why forms fail. It is the responsibility of the Builder to ensure that the
forms are correctly constructed according to design, and that proper techniques are followed.

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 HEART TRUST/NTA

STEEL
FIXING
PART I

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 Steel fixing
Introduction
A steelfixer is the building construction worker who bends and places the steel bars and welded
wire fabric in reinforce concrete. In order that the steel may be place properly, the engineer
prepares a detailed drawing showing how the steel reinforcement must be placed in a particular
structure. This drawing is sometimes referred to as a “Bending Schedule”. This “Bending
Schedule” will be discussed later.
Steelfixer covers that area in building construction where steel rods and, or welded wire fabric
are placed in the concrete in such a way that the concrete and steel carry the imposed load.
Steelfixing is a highly specialized job, varying from country to country. In some countries
bending of rods is done by a fabricator in a shop. In other countries, like Jamaica, bending is
done mostly on a site.
The factors that might influence the fabrication and placement of steel reinforcement are the size
of the construction company, the convenience for setting-up bending equipment, space on the
site and the availability of steel-fixer in the area near the site. These and other conditions affect
the processing of reinforcement bar.
As there are factors limiting the processing of reinforcement bars so there are factors which limit
the practices. Some of the more outstanding ones are climate, type of soil, use of structure, type
of stresses to which the structure is subjected, height of structure, self-weight of structure and
live load, etc. All of the above factors have effects on the design of the reinforced concrete
structure.
When bending and placing reinforcement bars this must be done accurately, and every detailed
instruction must be observed if the design is to serve its purpose. The steel-fixer must have a
basic understanding of how steel in concrete helps to counter stresses.

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In order to do this, therefore it is suggested that he acquire books and periodicals which outline
steel placement practices. This is even more important in countries like ours which do not set out
its code of practices in manuals. The code of practice in European countries differs slightly from
those in North American countries. The Jamaican steel-fixer is influenced by both, some of the
differences can only be spotted in daily experiences of bending and placement; therefore, it
cannot be over emphasized how necessary it is to follow the instructions may also be issued from
time to time by the steelfixer- foreman and these instructions should never be ignored.
On small commercial and residential building sites a “Bending Schedule” is not always available
to the steelfixer. In this case he must interpret the working, drawing or consult his foreman on
matters of bending and placement.
The steelfixer must also have a basic knowledge of concrete, reinforced concrete, the type of
reinforced units, steel reinforcement- types and grades, stresses which affects structure, standard
bend for reinforced units, the type of ties used in bar placement and how reinforced bars are
arranged in reinforced units.
Concrete
Concrete is a synthetic construction material made by mixing cement, fine aggregate, (usually
sand), coarse aggregate, (usually gravel or crushed stone) and water. If good concrete is to be
made the cement must be of the right type, the fine and coarse aggregate must be properly
graded, and the water must be cleaned. All four (4) ingredients must be presented in order to
produce concrete.
By varying the proportions of the mixture concrete with different crushing strengths may be
obtained. These strengths can be varied
from about 14N/mm2 to 42N/mm2 . The concrete mix is plastic and in normal weather will set up
firm in hours (known as an initial set) will be self-supporting in a few days. Maximum strength
can be obtained in seven to twenty-eight (7-28) days depending on the type of cement used.
Concrete is strong in compression, but weak in tension and shear.
STEEL
Steel for reinforcement concrete is usually deformed bars. The sizes vary from 10mm to 57mm
in diameter. Plains bars are also used. Steel is strong in tension or pull resistance.
WELDED CONCRETE
Welded wire fabrics are also manufactured for use reinforced concrete. The types are varying
and these can be used in place of or in combination with bars.

REINFORECD CONCRETE
Reinforced concrete is a combination of both steel and concrete using the best properties of each,
namely; the crushing strength of the concrete and the tension or pull resistance of the steel.
adhesion of concrete to the surface or pull the resistance provided by the bars deformations or
lugs keep the bar from slipping through the concrete and make the two (2) materials act as one.
The gripping of the bars by concrete is known as bond.
Steel bars must be free from loose mill scale, loose rust, grease, oil, paint and mud, etc. which
impair its bond strength to the concrete. Steel bars are used in footing, foundation, slabs and
other concrete work to add strength and control stresses.
CONCRETE STRUCTURE
A structure may be defined as a system that has the sole function of transmitting load. The
structures maybe consist of a single element or a combination of several elements. Some
engineers use the “Structure” to denote a group of elements, and refer to the single elements as
“members” of the structure.
CLASSIFICATION OF STRUCTURES
1. A simple-support structure – one common example of a simple-supported structure is a
concrete beam resting on a block wall.

2. A Fixed-ended (or Buttin) Structure- the fix ends help to reduce the deflection within the
span. Fixity is often achieved in slabs cast monolithically with supporting reinforced
concrete beams.

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 3. Cantilevered Structure: A cantilever is a structure which is fixed at one end, but has either
a simple support called propped cantilever or unsupported at all at the other termed a
free-end cantilever

4. Continuous Structure: when a structure has more than two (2) supports it is referred to as
a continuous structure

This beam is said to be continuous over two (2) intermediate supports.

Beam: a beam is generally a horizontal member supporting a slab. All reinforced concrete beams
carry main bars in the tension zone, anchorage bars in the compression zone and a system of
links, stirrups, hoops or binders.
A Ground Beam rests directly on the ground and a trench is generally excavated to form this
beam.
A Suspended Beam could be a rectangular beam, a tee beam or an ell beam.

Note that the slab is monolite with the tee and ell beams and that the ell beam is the first or last
beam in a series.
The Belt Beam: for a one floor building (the most common building) a belt beam or belt- course
runs above the external block wall and is seated directly on it. This beam carriers holding down
bolts to hold down the wall plate which will ultimately secure the rafters, internal beams at the

18
top of walls
to stiffen them up are often called belt beams as well.

Lintels: a small beam over the opening of a doorway or window is called a lintel. The beam
should project a minimum distance equal to its depth into the wall supports it.
Unless otherwise stated for opening, not exceeding say 1.5 meters, use 150 x 200 mm section
reinforced with 4 no. ½ “ 0 bars ( 2 top and 2 bottom ) and ¼ “ 0 links at 130 mm centres.

Column: main beams are supported by columns which in turn carry the load to the foundation or
column base. The simple system carried four (4) bars (longitudinal reinforcement) and a simple
system of lateral ties. Which should not exceed the least of:
A. Least lateral dimension of the column.
B. Twelve (12) times the diameter of the smallest longitudinal bar.
C. Three hundred millimetre (300mm)

Column Bases: a column transfers its load to the soil via a base. The purpose of the base is to
spread out the load to be carried by the soil and to stabilize the column. A rebate called a
key-way is generally constructed just above the column base in the column. The height from
the base to the top of the key is sometimes called a kicker and facilitates the placing of the
formwork (or shuttering) for the column.

19
A typical detail of a base carrying a heavy load is shown below.

Blinding: this is a 50 to 75 mm of plain concrete 1:3:6 mix placed next to the ground. Its to
provide a flat, level base for:
1. Correct cover to be maintained.
2. Steelfixers to work accurately.
3. Protection of the steel from mud coatings.

For a normal one floor building small load are exerted at the column bases and hence, the
base are relatively small.

20
 Slabs: a slab forms the floor of a building. There are two types of slabs

Ground Floor Slabs: this rests directly on the ground, hardcore or blinding. Thickness is
multiples or 13mm up to 200mm, and may be reinforced with mesh reinforcement or
otherwise mild steel (M.S) bars as determined by the engineer. Thick ground floor slabs
(over 125mm) carrier heavy load such as: road traffic, aircraft traffic, floor
A typical detail of a base carrying a heavy load is shown below.
In factories used by fork lift, etc. for ordinary dwelling houses, sometimes apart from the car
Porte floor, no concrete slab is used at all, and tiling is carried out directly on the blinding or
tamped hardcore
2. Suspended Slab: these floor slabs are elevated and must carry reinforcement bars.
Thicknesses are in multiples of 13 mm from 100m up to200mm. Roof slabs sometimes as thin as
73 mm. these slab “span” from wall to wall, or beam to mean. A special kind of suspended slab
is the “CANTLEVER SLAB”
Types of reinforced concrete member
Reinforced concrete building usually consists of roof and floor systems support by bear walls
and column. Columns and walls are supported by foundation of varying types. Each particular
suited to the soil conditions. It will be helpful to have a general knowledge of the different kinds
of construction units that are part of each building. Not all of these are found in every building.
The architect or engineer chooses those units which work out best for the particular structure
from standpoint of strength and economy. The more commonly used unit are briefly described
on the following pages. In actual practice, many variation used.
Walls and wall footing (Strip footing)
A bearing wall rest upon a continuous wall footing at least twice as wide as the thickness of the
wall, but wider if necessary to spread the load from the soil.

Square column Footings

a column, which may be square, round or rectangular in the shape, generally rests upon a square
footing of sufficient size to spread the load from the column to the soil, rectangular footings are

21
sometimes used where the rectangular column dimension may require or where space is
restricted in one direction and not in the other.

Pile foundation
Piles are used where the sub- grade is too soft to provide adequate bearing for a normal footing.
They are driven to required depth and carry the load partly by end-bearing and partly by friction
of sub-grade material against surface of the pile (call skin friction). The common types or piles
are:
A) Reinforced concrete, precast and driven.
B) Reinforced concrete, precast pre-stressed.
C) Concrete casted in driven steel casing.
D) Concrete, caste in holes bore in the earth
E) Steel H-beam
F) Timber, plain or treated.

COMBINE FOOTING

22
A combine footing is often used for an exterior column along a property line where a square
column foot would extended beyond the building line or boundary. In this case the exterior
column is flush with the end the footing distributes the two (2) column loads over a uniform
bearing soil.

23
FOUNDATION MAT. OR RAFT FOOTING
A foundation or raft footing is similar to a combined footing. In this case several column
and/or walls rest upon mat. .or raft. Sometimes this type of foundation is used under the
entire building. This mat. Or footing is reinforced to distribute the column or wall load over a
uniform soil bearing.

24
SLAB-BEAM AND GIRDER FLOOR
In this system the slab, beam and girder are casted at the same time. A beam and girder are
really the same thing except that a girder is of considerably larger size and more heavily
reinforced because it is designed to carry load from the beam which frame into it, the beam
around the outside edges of the floor are called spandrel beam or merely spandrels.

25
CONCRETE JOIST FLOOR
The concrete joist floor shown is supported by concrete beam and column. The illustration
also shows the use of both square and round interior columns. The engineer may specify one
or the other on a particularly floor, reinforced concrete joist floor consist of a series of rinds,
similar to small beams with a top slab, all of which are cast at one time with the supporting
beams.
The joist are usually formed by short section standard steel from with deep, ribbed portion
between each row off from and with a tip on them to form the bottom of the slab over the
joists. The forms are shored from the floor below and after concrete has hardened
sufficiently, they are removed. After cleaning and oiling they may be reused. The joist may
be tapered ends by suing special width form, it is possible to obtain double or triple rib to
carry portion or similar load.

26
SOLID SLAB
This is a slab supported by a beam or walls. It is the simplest type most commonly used on
short spans.
One form of this slab, however, is used over structural steel beam in structural steel framed
buildings. The beam are fairly light weight, are spaced approximately 1 metre to 2.5 metres
(1m-2.5m) apart and frame into heavier steel girders, somewhat like the reinforced concrete

FLAT SLAB
In flat slab construction, no beams are used except spandrels. The slab is supported by round
or square columns. They may have a flared cone-shaped cap on top known as a column
capital. This in turn supports a thickened slab known as a drop panel which is usually square.
Such features help to reduce punching shear suffered by the slab slab-beam and girder floor
construction

FLAT PLATE SLAB

Flat plate slab construction resembles a flat slab except that there are no drop panels the
columns have no capitals.

27
Flat slab with drops and flared column heads are most suitable for huge industrial structures
(example, were house).

WAFFLE SLAB
This type of floor is simple a two-way reinforced concrete joist floor with ribs running in
both directions, but it also resembles a flat plate slab at the columns. The waffles are hollow
spaces between the joist and are formed by standard form or domes. They are removed after
the concrete has harden and may be re-used.

28
 HEART TRUST/NTA

STEEL FIXING
PART 2

REINFORCE STEEL USEAGE AND FUNCTION

As previously explained, concrete is strong in compression, but week in tension and sheer. When
tension is present, the concrete is reinforced with steel.
Quality control of both concrete and steel is important to assure the engineer or architect that
specified designs are met.
The compression strength of concrete is checked on almost every job by taking samples as the
concrete are being mixed.
Standard steel molds are used which form the concrete into test cylinders or cubes. In some
countries 150mm cubes are used, while in others, cylinders with a diameter of 130 mm and a
height of 300 mm are the standard size used.
The common practice is to make two (2) sets of three (3) standard blocks or cylinders and to test
one set after seven (7) days and the other after4 twenty-eight (28) days. These cubes or cylinders
are placed in laboratory testing machine and crushed in compression with gauge reading taken on
the machine to determine the crushing load. (N/mm2).

29
COMPRESSIVE STRENTH
Compressive strength is the ability of masonry unit or concrete to stand up under heavy weight
without crumbling.

SHEAR
The tendency of one part to (cutting effect) slide over another part, either horizontal or vertical.
TYPES OF SHEARS
SINGLE SHEAR
NB: Shear is more complex force than simple tension or compression. A common example is a
bolted lap joint in steel plates, producing what is called a single shear.
In concrete this is best illustrated by a load column bracket.

VERTICAL SHEAR
If a set of books were carried horizontally as shown below, they would have to be squeezed
tightly together or they would slip and fall. In a concrete beam, each imaginary vertical slice (as
in the case of a single book) with a load on top tend to slip down due to what is caked vertical
shear.

30
HORIZONTAL SHEAR
In the following illustration, several boards are laid flatly across two (20 support and loaded,
they will bend downward but will also slip along each other horizontally. This slippage is caused
by force a known as horizontal shear.

DIAGONAL TENSION
In a loaded beam or slab, both vertical and horizontal shears are present and the result of the
force is called diagonal tension. A crack resulting from these forces always occurs near the
support and extend upward and outward at an angle of approximately 45 degrees to the top. The
forces are also present in the floor slab around supporting columns and the result is called
punching shear.

31
CONCRET IN TENSION
Tension in concrete can be caused by bending or shearing the beam by drying shrinkage after
concrete hardens and by temperature changes. An example of bending tension is shown below.
As a beam is loaded, tension cracks will appear at the bottom of the beam. This could develop
rapidly in reinforced concrete beam with the crack developing near the mid-span. Plain concrete
would be weak and brittle and would fail suddenly without warning shortly after the first crack
appears.

REINFORCED-STEEL-EFFECTIVE LOCATION
Steel provides reinforcement to the concrete where force exists that the concrete cannot take, and
this is termed reinforced steel. The following paragraphs will illustrate in a general way the
locations in concrete, where the bars can be most effectively used.
LONGITUDINAL STEEL IN SIMPLE BEAM
Simple beams, also slabs joists, girder is in compression at the top and the bottom is in tension,
so the longitudinal steel is located near to the bottom to prevent the failure of concrete in tension.
SHEAR REINFORCEMENT IN BEAM
1. Stirrups or links
2. Reinforcement bent diagonally upward at least 300
3. Spacing of shear stirrup should not exceed lever arm of the beam.

STIRRUP IN BEAMS
When a beam deflects under a load, shear stresses are also present. To resist the diagonal tension,
small “U” shaped steel bars called stirrups are used and are placed vertically across the beam.

Since shear is usually at its maximum near the support and decreases towards the centre, the
stirrups are placed more closer near the support and the spacing toward the centre may be wider.
Stirrups are used to resist shear stresses. Stirrups should not be placed further apart than a
distance equal to the lever arm; otherwise, the concrete can fail in diagonal tension.
STEEL IN TRIPLE SUPPORTED BEAM
Continuous beam which extend over more than one span deflects downward between supports
and have upward thrust over the supports. This requires tension steel in the bottom and in the top
over the supports as illustrated on the next page.

32
CANTILEVER BEAMS
Cantilever beams loaded at the top deflect as shown, and the cantilever or (overhang) tension
bars must be placed in the top. This means that the load must be transmitted into the main span
whenever possible, otherwise they must be securely anchored by bend or hooks into outside
beam or column.

WALLS
Walls loaded at top and bottom by floor slabs and loaded with horizontal pressures on the outside
face, deflects inward. This requires bars on the inside face where there is tension. Sometimes
when specified by the engineer, bars may be required on the outside towards the top corner.

33
REINFORCEMENT AT CORNER
This condition is common at intersection of two walls or intersection of a wall with a beam or
slab. Bars are in tension and should never be bent around an inside corner as they would tend to
pull straight and could break out the concrete.
Instead they should extend pass the corner in each direction to the far face and be hooked if
possible, this permits greater anchorage. (See the illustration on the next page).

34
CORNER OF OPENINGS
Corner of openings in slabs and walls are particularly prone to cracking during the working life
of the structure and should be reinforced with bars at 450 to the main reinforcement.

This bar arrangement is shown by the engineer on his structural drawing and on the “Bending
Schedule” prepared for the steel fixer.

STAIR LANDING
For stair landing, a similar condition exists for the corner. The illustration show the wrong and
right way. The bars are in tension and should not be bent continuously around the “BREAK” in
the slab, but should contribute across this point and be bent into the stair and the landing slabs as
shown in the following illustration. This is not necessary at the bottom landing where the stair
slab and the landing meet because here the bar bears against the concrete.

35
SHRINKAGE AND TEMPERATURE TENSION
Sometimes concrete is lightly reinforced merely to hold initial drying shrinkage crack tightly
together through temperature changes which occur from season to season.
Roof slabs are subjected to varying temperature changes as well as concrete shrinkage. Floor
slabs while not usually subjected to wide temperature changes, are subjected to shrinkage. It is a
general practice to provide reinforcement in slabs, at right angles to the main stress carrying
steel, to provide for these effects. This reinforcement is referred to as temperature steel and may
consist of either bars or welded wire fabric.
In reinforcement concrete walls, temperature bars are used at right angles to the main steel for
the same purpose. Usually in wall construction, temperature bars may be placed horizontally and
vertically in a wall face for temperature and shrinkage purposes only, even though that surface of
the wall does not carry any other tension forces.
COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT COLUMNS
While the main reason for steel in concrete is to resist tension forces, it is also used at an
advantage to resist compression forces. The most common use of steel for compression forces is
in columns. If concrete alone was used, the size of column required would be so large to be
impractical and would add considerable weight to the structure. Since bars are about twenty (20)
times stranger than an equivalent area of concrete, they are used to carry part of the column load.
The concrete and the steel work together and the resulting column is much smaller in size and
lighter in weight.

COLUMN VERTICAL BARS

Column vertical bars are in compression and if not restrained in some manner, the compression
load would allow the bars to buckle and break out of the concrete.
Column ties are placed to prevent this; they are in tension holding the bars in position. Column
spirals act in the same manner as column tires, but in addition they retain the concrete somewhat
like a stove pipe retain a column of sand fill inside of it.
Spiral turns are more closely spaced to accomplish this purpose. A spiral rod should never be cut
without specific direction from the engineer.

COMPRESSION REINFORCEMENT BEAMS

In some beams where compression is high or where size of beam need to be restricted, it may be
necessary to use bars in the top of the beam. These bars take the place of some of the concrete,
very much the same as the column vertical bars. When used in this manner, the bar is always
restrained by closed stirrup-ties.

36
In some continuous beam (those which have more than two (2) supports) the compression in
concrete is sometime high in the bottom near a support. For this reason, bottom bars are
sometimes extended and lapped with those for an adjacent span.

GRADES OF BARS
Reinforcing bars are furnished in several grades which vary in yield strength, ultimate tensile
strength, and percentage of elongation, bent test requirements and composition. The particular
grade is a very important factor in the design of concrete members. The engineer will state in his
specification or on his drawing, the specific grades to be finished for various parts of the
reinforced concrete structure.
YIELD STRENGTH
Yield strength is the load limit to which a bar will stretch and return to its original length. During
the manufacturing process, the manufacturer of steel bar reinforcement indicates that at one end
of the bar is the yield strength. For example, the steel bar is marked grade 40; this means that the
steel bar has a yield strength of 280 Nmm2. (40,000 PS1).
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
The ultimate strength is the maximum amount of stretching which the steel bar can withstand
without breaking.
ELONGATION
When steel is properly cast and moulded, each cross sectional area of the steel bar, if accurately
done, should have the same dimension throughout its length. However, sometimes this is not
done and some section of the steel bar is like a circle that has been stretched slightly out of true.
The elongation in the steel bar may affect the bond between the steel and concrete and contribute
to slippage. (See illustration below).

BEND REQUIREMENT
The is a requirement to the effect that the steel must be able, when cold to be bend almost double
so that the distance between the proportions of a bent bar is equal to the thickness of the bar
without any fracture on the outside of the bent portion. All bars used should be clean and free
from rust and should be of uniform cross section throughout its length.

37
TYPES OF STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS
The standard type is the deformed bar. Each mill which rolls deformed bars may have a different
pattern of deformation on the bar but all are rolled to specifications. Some of the types of
deformation patterns are shown, but the patterns are not confine strictly to the ones shown.

PLAIN BARS
Plain bars are smooth round bars without deformation on them. They are used for special
purpose such as dowels at expansion joints where the bar must slide in a metal or pape4r sleeve,
for both expansion and construction joints in pavement, column spirals, etc.
WELDED WIRE FABRIC
Welded wire fabric is manufactured in many types and shapes. It is a prefabricated
reinforcement, consisting of parallel series of high- strength, cold-drawn wires welded together
in square or rectangle grids. Smooth wires, deformed wires or a combination of both may be
used in welded wire fabric.
Welded wire fabric should be lapped at least one full stay spacing plus 50mm. A 200mm X
200mm fabric would require a minimum of 250mm overlap. Some of the shapes available are
shown below, they can be used to reinforce slabs and walls, and can be obtained in rolls or flat
sheets.

BAR SIZES
Deformed bars are always designated by a number. There are eleven (11) standard sizes; #3 to
#11 exclusive #14 and #18. The number denotes approximately the diameter of the bars in
millimetre. For example, a #5 bar has an approximate diameter of 16mm, #8 25mm. the nominal
dimension of a deform bar (not including deformation) are equivalent of those of a plain round
bar having the same weight per foot as the deform bar. The approximate diameter may be helpful
to a steel-fixer in identifying a bar size. The conformance of reinforcing bar sizes to specification
cannot be judged by such measurements, but by a standard laid down by engineers which varies
from country to country. An example of bar sizes is set out in the table shown below.

38
CATEGORY OF REINFORCED BAR
The chemical composition of the steel bar may cause them to be classified in about two (2) main
categories, namely; Mild Steel and High Tensile Steel.
IDENTIFYING STEEL BARS
With the various grades and sizes available, it was found necessary to provide some means of
easy identification:
a) A letter or symbol to show the producer of the reinforced bar.
b) A number corresponding to the size, number of the bar.
c) A symbol of marking to indicate the type of steel.
d) A marking as shown below to designate grades 40 and grades 60.

The following illustration shows the various identification

BAR FABRICATION
The fabrication of bars include cutting to length of straight bars, cutting to length and bending to
shape, of bars, and bundle bar in order for placement.
Straight bars are cut to specified length and bundled. Bars are cut to length with allowances for
hook-end and bent to specified shapes.
TYPE OF BEND

39
There are numerous type of bends but the more commonly used types are illustrated in the
following pages.
HOOK END
Hooks are used at the end of bars when the straight length of the bar cannot provide enough
embedment in the concrete to properly anchor the bars. There are two (2) types of hook generally
used- 180 degrees and 90 degrees (1800 and 900), the other types are not frequently used. The
illustration below shows the relevant dimension for hooked ends.

POSITIONING REINFORCED STEEL BARS

There are number of factors that should be taken into account when positioning reinforced bars.
Some of these factors are more significant than others. Let’s look at a few of the more significant
ones.
BENDING SCHEDULE
The bending schedule may be complex or simple; this depends on the amount of information on
the particular schedule. The more simplified types carry the following information;
a) Job number
b) Name of builder and site address
c) Drawing reference number
d) Identification mark of bar
e) Number of bar require
f) Sizes of bar
g) Length of bars(overall and actual length)
h) Shape of bar (in sketch form)
i) Purpose required and remarks. The attached sheet gives an idea of the simplified bending
schedule.

BAR SUPPORT
A bar support is used to hold firmly, the bars at the required clearance from the forms before and
during the placing of concrete. They must be efficiently strong and properly place to provide this
support under normal construction conditions, the bar support may consist of steel wire or
precast concrete blocks.
The metal support should be so protected that they do not cause rust strain, this is even more
important where concrete will be left exposed. Some of the more commonly used ones are shown
below.

40
TIES USED IN PLACING OF BARS
The purpose of tying bars is to ensure that the bars are held in position until the concrete is
placed. The ties must be rigid if the bars are to maintain their position and the right size

and type
of wire for tying must be used.
SIZE OF WIRE
Wires used for tying are usually #16gauge black, soft annealed wire. There are some cases when
a heavier gauge wire may be used. #15 or #14 gauge tie wire or double #16 gauge may be used
when tying bars in heavily reinforced occasions or walls to maintain the proper position of the
horizontal reinforcement.

TYPES OF TIES
There are number of ties used when locating reinforced bars, much of the tying is done on a flat,
horizontal framework such as floor slabs. The most commonly used ties are illustrated below.
SNAP OR SIMPLE TIE
This is normally used in flat horizontal work to secure the reinforcing bars in position against
displacement due to work done by other tradesmen and concrete placing.
WRAP AND SNAP TIE
This is normally used when tying wall reinforcement, holding the bars securely in position so
that the horizontal bars do not shift during the construction processing or concreting.
SADLE TIE
This is more complicated than the two described above, but is favoured in certain localities, it is
used particularly for tying footing or mats to hold hook end of bars in position; also it is used for
securing column ties to vertical bar.

41
WRAP AND SADDLE TIE
This is similar to the saddle tie except that the wire is wrapped one and a half times around the
first bar then proceeding as described above. This type is sometimes used to secure heavy mats
that are lifted by crane and for securing column ties to verticals where there is tendency for a
great deal of strain on the ties.

FIGURE EIGHT TIE

This is occasionally used in walls, instead of the wall tie , but is not particularly recommended
because of the time required to make the tie. These ties should be used where recommended, as
tying does not add strength to the reinforced unit, it should be used liberally during placing of
bars. The illustration below briefly describe how tying can be approached.

BAR SPLICING
Reinforced concrete structures are generally designed so that the separate parts act as a single
unit. This makes it necessary to properly locate construction joints and provide continuity in the
steel reinforcement through the joints. Just as it is impossible to cast all the concrete at one time,
it is also impossible to provide full length continuous bars in most structures, this is because of
manufacturing, fabrication or transportation limitations. Since splices in reinforcement cannot be
avoided, it is necessary for the engineer to provide for properly designed splices.
BARS LENGTH LIMITATIONS
Bars are stocked in six (6) meters and nine (9) meters length in Jamaica, but in other countries
bars may be obtained up to eighteen (18 m) lengths. Transporting bars sometimes causes
problems which necessitates cutting or bending of the full bar.
Practical construction limitation on bar length must also be considered except for slab on grade,
long lengths of horizontal bars, projecting far beyond required construction joint is preferable.
Vertical bar length in columns and walls are most severely restricted. In multi-storey

42
construction, usual practice is to use bars on one storey in height, however, with heavily
reinforced columns and staggered location of splices; vertical bars, two storeys in length are
sometimes used. In high wall, vertical bars extending full height are difficult to hold in position
and may need to be spliced at one or more placed either to suit concrete operation or location of
the construction joints as determined by the engineer.
LOCATION OF SPLICES
Splices are made at construction joints such as between footings and columns or walls, between
columns below and above a floor, or between wall and floors. Bars projecting through the joints
are either lapped with other bars or connected directly by welded or mechanical means. Bars are
also spliced, usually by lapping, when used as horizontal bars in walls, temperature bars in slabs
or vertical bars extending through horizontal construction joints in high walls and piers, etc.
Although considered desirable, it is sometimes necessary to splice main bars in beam and girder
because of length limitation. This is done at location where the forces on the bars are not at their
maximum. The location and kind of splices are shown on the placing drawing. No substitution in
type or location should be made without proper authority specific instruction as to application.
There are three (3) types of splices:
a) Lapped splice
b) Welding and;
c) Mechanical

Only lapped splices are illustrated in this booklet, this splice is the most frequently used.
LAPPED SPLICES
In most cases, lapped splices are more economical than other types. The length of lap varies with
the concrete strength, the yield strength of the steel and the bar size laps are always shown on
placing drawings and will be found either in the detail or in the notes.
Due to close spacing of bars it is not always possible to provide lap splices. In some cases,
especially on large size bars, the amount of lap might be sufficient to make another type of splice
more economical. Lap splice of #14 and #18 is not permitted, except the smaller size dowels at
footing. Whenever, it becomes necessary the engineer will specify the type of lap to be used in a
particular area.
The maximum reinforcing bar in lap splice is NO.11.
For slabs the lap is made by simply placing one bar beside the other. However, for beams and
columns where accurate, cover must be maintained, the lap is made by cracking one of the bars
as shown below.

43
 Steel Fixing
How to Measure and Build Stairs

Measure and Build Stairs

Let's learn how to make a precise and beautiful stairway. Building stairs seems challenging, but
it's really quite simple if you use the proper formula. This is how you can measure and build
professional-looking stairs with exact accuracy.

Things You'll Need

 tape measure
 marking pencil
 small carpenters square
 hammer Skilsaw Handsaw

Instructions

1. 1

Before we can start putting up the stairs, we'll need to take a few measurements.
We need to think of it this way: we have so much height that we need to reach and
we have to do it within a certain length.
The part of the stairs that will help us accomplish the height is the risers. The
length part is the treads. The part of the stairs that will hold all the weight will be
the stringers.

o 2

The treads are usually around 10-inches. That's kind of standard, but the risers
completely depend on the height from the bottom floor to the top floor.

o 3

Now we need to get an exact measurement from the bottom floor to the second
floor, including the second-floor particle board.

44
 o 4

Now, we use the formula for getting the height of each stair riser.
Suppose the distance from bottom floor to top floor including the thickness of the
second floor is about 9 feet or 108 inches.
108 divided by 7 equals 15.428. That tells us that 15 risers will be needed.
Next, let's divide 108 by 15 and we'll get right around 7 inches or the exact height
each riser needs to be. The treads need to be right around 10 inches.
The number of treads will be one less than the number of risers, so to find the total
run or length of the stairs, we just multiply 10 by 14 and that tells us that our
stairway will be 140 inches long.

o 5

Now, select a knot-free 2 X 12 stringer. We can get prefabricated wood or a

cheaper selection can be a strong softwood like Fir or Pine. It needs to be about
one foot longer than your stair distance. This would need to be 120" or twelve feet
long.
Next, while the board is lying flat, measure up about 8 inches to mark the first
stair tread.
Use a carpenter's square to measure 10-inches over(tread) and 7-inches up(riser).
We'll do this on every step. Once that is done, we'll go back to the bottom of the
board and measure and cut the first riser. We'll use the carpenter's square to make
it exactly 7-inches.

o 6

Once this is all marked, we can cut out the stairs with a Skilsaw. We can cut
almost to the inside corner, but we'll need to complete the cut with a hand saw to
get into the corners.
When we get that done, we can use it as a pattern for the other stringers by tracing
in the steps.
We are now ready to stand them up and secure them with nails or screws. Once
the stringers are in place, we can put the tread plates on and then the riser plates.

o 7

We can buy special tread boards that are rounded on the front. They work good for
carpeted stairs. If we want to have hardwood stairs that are exposed, we will want
to use high quality oak or some other hardwood.

Tips & Warnings

 Steps wider than 36 inches will need a stringer in the center for more support.
 Be sure to get help when standing up the stringers.
 Stairs with landings are measured and built as two stairways.
 Please use the best of caution when working with circular saws.
 Use eye protection while sawing

45