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Module in Chemical Bonding
Module in Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding
Introduction
Our understanding on the properties of substances or materials around us,
like what comprise this module you are reading, the food you eat daily, the water
you drink, the rocks and soil we stepped is the important concept of chemical
bonding. Chemical bonding is one of the most basic fundamentals of chemistry
that explains other concepts such as molecules and reactions. Without it, scientists
wouldn't be able to explain why atoms combine or attracted to each other or how
products are formed after a chemical reaction has taken place. The stability of
atoms depends on whether or not their outermost shell is filled with electrons. If
the outer shell is filled, the atom is stable. Atoms with unfilled outer shells are
unstable, and will usually form chemical bonds with other atoms to achieve
stability.
How do atoms combine? Typically they bind together or attract each other in such
a way that they lose their identities as elements and adopt a new identity as a
compound. These forces of attraction, which is a physical phenomenon of
chemical substances are called chemical bonds. And how do atoms join together?
Ultimately, it all comes down to electron in the outermost shell called valence
electrons which are involved in chemical bonding. The valence of an element is
the number of electrons the elements share, gain or lose when it forms compounds
with other elements. An important clue to the understanding of the driving force
for chemical bonding was the discovery of the noble gases and their apparently
inert chemical behavior. Elements tend to attain this configuration of completely
filled outer shells in order to gain stability.
Chemical nomenclature is a term given to naming of the compounds. It is used to
identify chemical species by means of written name based on the symbols of the
atoms in the formula. It is a useful means for communication among scientists.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
1. differentiate the different kinds of chemical bonds
2. draw Lewis Electron Dot Structure of given elements and compounds
3. predict geometry of compounds, distinguish and categorized polarity of
their molecules
4. identify intermolecular forces of attraction present in a given molecule
5. write and name formulas by identifying their ions and molecules
Why people marry? People find their best partner in life to attain contentment and
stability. This is analogous to the question, “why atoms combine?” As what was
emphasized in the last chapter, atoms that have incomplete valence electrons are
unstable. They tend to combine with other elements to form compounds and to
establish stability like their nearest noble gases.
Choose a partner and discuss the Octet Rule. Help each other to identify whether
the following atoms is complete or incomplete by identifying the number of their
valence electron and the number of electrons needed to make them complete like
their nearest inert gas.
1
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
When atoms combine they form different types of compounds. These compounds
are identified as ionic compounds or covalent molecules.
Learning Objectives:
Let’s Learn
You should understand that atoms with incomplete valence electrons tend to pair
with another atom of the same kind in order to form a bond and attain stability.
Below are the different types of bonds:
Look at the metal in your electrical wirings, what is it made of? Is it just
copper metal that is composed of Cu atom? Is a metal made up of atoms or
ions? It is made of atoms. Each positive center in the diagram represents
all the rest of the atom apart from the outer electron, but that electron has
not been lost - it may no longer have an attachment to a particular atom,
but it's still there in the structure. It is the mobile electrons that enable the
metals to conduct electricity
2
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The metallic bond defines the properties of metals that was previously
discussed.
1. Concept Check
1. _____________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________
3
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
H+ Mg2+ Al3+
Li+ Ca2+
Na+ Sr2+
K+ Ba2+
2. Concept Check
3. Concept Check
1. Number of valence electrons in Fluorine
a) 5 e- b) 6 e- c) 7 e-
2. Change in electrons for octet
a) lose 1e- b) gain 1 e- c) gain 3 e-
3. Ionic charge of Fluorine
a) 3- b) 2- c) 1-
4
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Consider the reaction between Na and O, the two atoms of Na lose one electron
each (2Na+) while atom of O gains two electron (O2-)
Another example is the ionic bonding between Ca and Cl, Calcium gives its two
electrons to Cl and two atoms of Cl gain one electron each from Ca:
Ionic compounds are always neutral, no net charge is present. The ratio in which
positive and negative ions combine is the ratio that achieves charge neutrality
for the resulting compound. Hence. Sodium Oxide (Na2O) and Calcium Chloride
(CaCl2) are presented as:
2 Na + O = 0 Ca + 2Cl = 0
2 (1+) + 1(2-) = 0 1(2+) + 2(1-) = 0
(2+) + (2-) = 0 (2+) + (2-) = 0
4. Concept Check
Show the transfer of electrons for the following atoms in forming ionic
bond:
1. Li and O
2. Ba and F
3. Al and O
You can call the neutral particle molecule that is formed when atoms share
electrons, like in the H2 molecules. The two shared electrons do double duty,
helping each hydrogen atom achieve a helium noble-gas configuration.
Take note that the bonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons that are
shared between atoms in a covalent bond are represented with dashes for the
following molecules:
5
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The nonbonding electrons are pairs of valence electrons on an atom that are not
involved in electron sharing. They are also referred to as unshared electron
pairs, lone electron pairs, or lone pairs.
The formed covalent bond may be single, double or triple depending on the
number of electrons shared by the atoms.
When atoms share one pair of electrons, a single covalent bond is formed like in
the case of diatomic molecule hydrogen:
H–H
Double covalent bond is formed when two atoms share two pairs of electrons
like carbon sharing its four electrons to two oxygen atoms.
O=C=O
Triple covalent bond is formed between nitrogen atoms in which two atoms
share three pairs of electrons.
Take a look on the valence electron and number of covalent bonds formed for
the following atoms:
Nitrogen (5 Valence
Electrons, 3 Octet Vacancies)
5. Concept Check
1. H and O
2. N and H
3. C and O
6
4. C, H, and Cl
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Feedback
Answer the following questions:
1. If a pure substance is a good conductor of electricity in both its solid and
its liquid phases, the bonding in the substance is predominantly
a. Ionic
b. Metallic
c. Polar covalent
d. Non-polar covalent
2. Which type of bonding involves positive ions immersed in a sea of mobile
electrons?
a. Ionic
b. Non-polar covalent
c. Polar covalent
d. Metallic
3. Which kind of bond predominates in compounds formed between Group 1
and Group 17 elements?
a. Covalent
b. Metallic
c. Ionic
d. Polar-covalent.
4. Which pair of elements will not form an ionic bond?
a. Ba and Cl
b. Ca and S
c. K and O
d. C and Cl
5. In which of the following pairs of compounds are both members of the
pair ionic compounds?
a. Pl3 and HBr
b. H2S and NCl3
c. LiF and H2O
d. LiI and NiO
6. Elements in groups IA and VIIA of the periodic table possess,
respectively, how many valence electrons?
a. 1 and 1
b. 1 and 7
c. 7 and 1
d. 8 and 8
7. Formation of a positive ion is the result of an atom
7
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
8
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
a. Zero
b. One
c. Two
d. Four
15. Which of the following statements concerning double covalent bonds is
correct?
a. They are found only in molecules that contain P or atoms in the third
period or higher
b. They are only found in molecules that contain large atoms that can
effectively overlap with each other
c. They occur only between atoms containing 2 valence electrons
d. They always involve the sharing of 4 electrons.
Learning Objectives:
Let’s Learn
The valence electrons are the basis for bonding of atoms. Hence, you should
know how to show the position of these electrons using dots. Lewis symbol
is a chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots equal in number to
the number of valence electrons present in atoms of the element. The position
of the dots depends on its valence electron electronic configuration.
: .
Example: Oxygen – 1s2 2s2 2p4 (px2, py1, pz1) - :O
.
Lewis symbols for selected representative and noble gas elements are given
below:
9
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
6. Concept Check
Br
Pb
7. Concept Check
Using dots, Lewis made the valence electron visible. The stability of noble gases
is now associated with the 8 valence electrons around them. The stability of 8
valence electrons led to the conclusion that all elements strive to acquire 8
electrons in the valence shell, and the chemical reaction takes place due to
elements trying to get 8 electrons. This is octet rule which states that elements
gain or lose electrons to attain an electron configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Noble gases have complete outer electron shells, which make them very stable.
Other elements also seek stability, which governs their reactivity and bonding
behavior.
7. Concept Check
Write the Lewis symbols for each of the following ions:
a. As3–
b. I–
c. Be2+
d. O2–
e. Ga3+
f. Li+ 10
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Step 1: Determine the total number of valence electrons. Find the sum of valence
electrons of all atoms in the polyatomic ion or molecule. If it is an anion, add one
electron for each negative charge. If it is a cation, subtract one electron for each
positive charge.
26 6 = 20
Step 3. Add nonbonding electron pairs to the structure such that each atom
bonded to the central atom has an octet of electrons.
26 6 = 20 – 18 = 2
Step 5. If there are not enough electrons to give the central atom an octet, then use
one or more pairs of nonbonding electrons on the atoms bonded to the
central atom to form double or triple bonds.
8. Concept Check
a. F2
b. HF
c. NH3
d. CO2
e. CCl4
11
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Feedback
1. How many electrons appear in the Lewis symbol for an element whose
electron configuration is 1s22s22p5
a. 2
b. 4
c. 7
d. 9
2. The “octet rule” relates to the number eight because:
a. Only atoms with eight valence electrons undergo chemical reaction.
b. Ions with charges of +8 and –8 are very stable.
c. Atoms, during compound formation, frequently obtain eight valence
electrons.
d. All electron subshells can hold eight electrons.
3. Write the Lewis symbols of the ions in each of the following ionic
compounds and the Lewis symbols of the atom from which they are formed:
a. MgS
b. Al2O3
c. GaCl3
d. K2O
e. Li3N
Learning Objectives:
Let’s Learn
Polarity of Molecules
Have you ever experienced having best friend? Sometimes you equally share
what you have with your best friend, like food. Nonpolar covalent bonding is
very similar to the way you share your food to your best friend.
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Unit V. Chemical Bonding
An example of a nonpolar covalent bond is the bond between two hydrogen atoms
because they equally share the electrons. Another example of a nonpolar covalent
bond is the bond between two nitrogen atoms because they also equally share the
electrons.
Examples: H2 : H – H N2 : N = N
9. Concept Check
Show the diagram of sharing electrons forming nonpolar bonds of the
following molecules:
a. O2
b. Cl2
c. I2
Sometimes you lend your personal things to your best friend. It is similar to a
polar covalent bond wherein electrons have unequal sharing of the bonding pair
of electrons. Electrons spend more time near the more electronegative atom of the
bond and less time near the less electronegative atom of the bond. It creates
fractional positive and negative charges on atoms.
Example:
In H-Cl, the electronegativity of the Cl atom is 3.0, while that of the H atom is
2.1. The result is a bond where the electron pair is displaced toward the more
electronegative atom. This atom then obtains a partial-negative charge while the
less electronegative atom has a partial-positive charge. This separation of charge
or bond dipole can be illustrated using an arrow with the arrowhead directed
toward the more electronegative atom.
13
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
How to determine polarity? There are three ways to go about determining whether
a molecule is polar or not.
a. If the molecule has a net dipole, then it is polar.
b. If the structure is symmetric, then it is non-polar
c. There are three rules to this part:
1. When there are no lone pairs on the center atom, then the molecule
is non-polar
2. If it is linear or square planar, then it is non-polar. (This rule is more
important than rule 1, so it overrules it because it has lone pairs.)
3. If it has different terminal atoms, then it is polar. (This rule overrules
rule 1 and 2 because it is more important.)
14
12. Concept Check
True or false:
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Intermolecular Forces
What holds molecules together? The force that holds molecules together whether
attractive or repulsive is called intermolecular force. The physical properties of
melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure, evaporation, viscosity, surface
tension, and solubility are related to the strength of attractive forces between
molecules called intermolecular forces.
Intermolecular forces also vary in strength from one another:
London Dispersion Weakest (<1 Kcal)
Dipole-dipole Stronger (2-5 Kcal)
Hydrogen bond The Strongest (12-16 Kcal)
(for comparison, a true covalent bond is about 400Kcal)
Intermolecular forces hold molecules together in the solid & liquid phase and
allow gases to condense on cooling. They also prevent instantaneous evaporation
from occurring. Strong attractive forces between molecules also make
vaporization phase changes more difficult.
There are three types of intermolecular forces operating in molecular substances
are:
a. London Dispersion Forces or Induced Dipole attraction, which are present
in ALL molecular substance. This intermolecular force is the weakest
attractive force that are formed due to the temporary dipoles induced in
non-polar molecules. There will be a distortion or a momentary shift in
electron density within the molecules electron cloud. The dipoles created
by the motion of electrons are transient or instantaneous dipoles. A large
number of these dipoles are created at any instant and may disappear when
electron density in the molecules shifts, but new dipoles appear.
15
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The larger the atom or molecule, the Induced Dipole forces become
stronger.
- larger electron clouds are easier to deform
Why does the boiling point low for compounds that interact by this type of
force? The minimal force holding these molecules together allow them to
move readily from the liquid phase into the gaseous phase, or even from
the solid phase to gaseous phase, like I2. If Molecules have high boiling
points, they will have low vapor pressure, conversely low boiling point
mean high vapor pressure.
b. Dipole-dipole Attraction
Dipole-dipole forces are attractive forces existing between polar
molecules. In this intermolecular force, dipoles are always present as
opposed to constantly forming and reforming dipoles in weaker
Dispersion force molecules.
16
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
c. Hydrogen Bond
A special type of dipole-dipole interaction between the hydrogen atom in a
polar molecule and the highly electronegative atoms of N, O and F in a
molecule
Why does H bonding occur? The small atoms of N, O, and F are powerful atoms
with strong nuclear charges and of high electronegativity values.
CCl4
NH3
Geometry of Molecules
17
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The shape of a molecule is determined by the location of the nuclei and its
electrons. The electrons and the nuclei settle into positions that minimize
repulsion and maximize attraction. Thus, the molecule's shape reflects its
equilibrium state in which it has the lowest possible energy in the system.
Although VSEPR theory predicts the distribution of the electrons, we have to take
in consideration of the actual determinant of the molecular shape. We separate
this into two categories, the electron-group geometry and the molecular
geometry.
Molecular geometry is the 3-dimensional shape that a molecule occupies in space.
Your knowledge in the Lewis electron dot structure is helpful to locate the
valence electrons of the center atom. The molecular geometry is determined by
the central atom and the surrounding atoms and electron pairs. The approximate
shape of most molecules can be predicted using the Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) model, which depicts electrons in bonds and lone pairs as
“electron groups” that repel one another and stay as far apart as possible.
Below are the possible geometry formed considering the number of electron
groups:
18
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
a. SF4
D.
b. CH3Cl
M
c. BF3
d. NH3
19
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Learning Objectives:
1. identify a molecules
2. predict the charge of ions formed by each element or molecule.
Let’s Learn
There are several elements that exist in nature as diatomic molecules. We've
already discussed hydrogen, but did you know that nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2),
fluorine (F2), chlorine (Cl2), bromine (Br2), and iodine (I2) also exist in nature as a
diatomic? A diatomic molecule can also contain atoms of different elements. A
few examples are hydrogen chloride (HCl) and carbon monoxide (CO).
The majority of molecules contain more than two atoms. They can be atoms of
the same element such as ozone (O3) which is made up of three oxygen atoms, or
they can be combinations of two or more different elements. Molecules
containing more than two atoms are called polyatomic molecules. Water, yet
again, falls into this category. H2O contains two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen
atom, which makes three atoms.
Molecular compounds are composed of molecules and almost always contain only
nonmetals.
Ions
20
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
If electrons are lost or gained by a neutral atom, then the result is that a charged
particle is formed - called an ion.
For example, Sodium (Na) has 11 protons and 11 electrons. However, it can
easily lose 1 electron. The resulting cation has 11 protons and 10 electrons, for an
overall net charge of 1+ (the units are electron charge). The ionic state of an
atom or compound is represented by a superscript to the right of the chemical
formula: Na+, Mg2+ (note the in the case of 1+, or 1-, the '1'is omitted). In contrast
to the Na atom, the Chlorine atom (Cl) easily gains 1 electron to yield the chloride
ion Cl- (i.e. 17 protons and 18 electrons).
In general, metal atoms tend to lose electrons, and nonmetal atoms tend to gain
electrons.
Na+ and Cl- are simple ions, in contrast to polyatomic ions such as NO3- (nitrate
ion) and SO42- (sulfate ion). These are compounds made up of chemically bonded
atoms, but have a net positive or negative charge.
Elements must gain or lose electrons, to end up with the same arrangement of
electrons as the noble gases, in order to achieve the same kind of electron
stability.
Example: Nitrogen
Nitrogen has an atomic number of 7; the neutral Nitrogen atom has 7 protons and
7 electrons. If Nitrogen gained three electrons it would have 10 electrons, like the
Noble gas Neon (10 protons, 10 electrons). However, unlike Neon, the resulting
Nitrogen ion would have a net charge of N3- (7 protons, 10 electrons).
The location of the elements on the Periodic table can help in predicting the
expected charge of ionic forms of the elements. This is mainly true for the
elements on either side of the chart.
Feedback
Answer the following questions:
A. Write the formula for each ion.
1. the nitrogen ion
2. the carbonate ion
3. the stannous ion
4. the potassium ion
5. sulfur ion
Learning Objectives:
Let’s Learn
22
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The names and symbols of the elements known to the ancients were derived from
astrology. Gold was likened to the shining dawn, hence its Latin name aurum. Its
color and brilliance was associated with the sun, hence its ancient symbol
consisting of a circle to represent the sun. Similarly the color silver was likened to
that of the moon, hence its ancient symbol of the crescent moon. The elements
known to the ancient, the heavenly bodies with which they are associated, their
symbols and meaning are given below:
In 1894, Berzelius proposed that the symbol of the elements be the first letter of
the element’s name. In cases, where there were several elements with the same
initial letter, the first letter was followed by the second letter also from the name.
The symbols of the elements are be divided into four main groups:
a. Symbols derived from the capitalized first letter of the English name of the
element such as B for boron, C for carbon, and H for hydrogen.
b. Symbols derived from the first two letters of the English name. The first
letter of the symbol is capitalized but the second letter is in lower case. For
example, Ba for barium, Be for beryllium, Al for aluminum, and Ca for
calcium.
c. Symbols based on the first letter of the English name and one other letter
(written in lower case), which is not the second letter. This is done
because there are two or more elements whose names have the same first
letters. For example, Cd for cadmium because calcium is represented by
Ca; Tl for thallium because thorium is represented by Th.
d. Few symbols are based from Latin (or other foreign) names. These are
listed in Table 2.
Table 2
Elements with Symbols Derived From Ancient/Foreign Names
23
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Antimony Stibium Sb
Gold Aurum Au
Copper Cuprum Cu
Iron Ferrum Fe
Lead Plumbum Pb
Mercury Hydragyrum Hg
Potassium Kalium K
Silver Argentum Ag
Sodium Natrium Na
Tin Stannum Sn
Tungsten Wolfram/ W
Formula Writing
When symbols are grouped together, they represent the combination of atoms in a
partial compound or the formula of the compound. The formula of a molecule
simply lists the various atoms present and gives the number of atoms in each
element. The different kinds of formulas are:
a. Empirical formula, also called the simplest formula – gives the simplest
ratio of atoms in the compound. By conversion it includes symbols of the
elements making up a compound and the subscript affixed to each element
denotes the relative number of atoms.
b. Molecular formula – gives the element composition and the actual number
of atoms in a molecule.
c. Structural formula – shows the arrangement of all the atoms in a molecule.
The interatomic bonds are represented by dashes.
d. Lewis structure – uses the symbol of an element with dots to represent the
number of electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom. A pair of
dots between adjacent atoms represents a bond.
H H
H: : H (Lewis Structure)
C :: C
. H: : H
24
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Table 3
Principal Oxidation Numbers of
Some Common Elements with Variable Oxidation States
25
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Table 4
Names & Formulas of Some Polyatomic Ions
total positive charge (from cation) = total negative charge (from anion)
The empirical formula for an ionic compound indicates the smallest whole
number ratio of cations and anions needed to produce an electrically neutral
compound.
26
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
You should follow these simple steps in writing chemical formula of ionic
compounds:
If the prefixes are used, then it is a covalent bond. In case there are no prefixes, it
is an ionic bond. After that is decided move to Step number 2.
Step 2: Now, write down the symbol of the element or polyatomic ion. The
symbol of the positive element or the formula of the positive radical is written
first, followed by the negative element or radical.
Step 4: And balance the charges by providing subscript. To determine the number
of atoms for each (the subscript), apply the crisscross rule so that the algebraic
sum of the positive and the negative oxidation numbers is equal to zero.
1. The cation is written first: sodium ion (Ca 2+) and the anion is written last:
carbonate ion (Cl1-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound:
Since the charges are not equal in magnitude the charge of calcium
ion (+2) becomes the subscript for the chlorine ion. The charge of
the chlorine ion (1-) becomes the subscript for the calcium ion.
1. The cation is written first: Aluminum ion (Al3+) and the anion is written
last: sulfate polyatomic ion (SO42-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound:
Since the charges are not equal in magnitude the charge of
aluminum ion (+3) becomes the subscript for the sulfate
polyatomic ion. The charge of the sulfate polyatomic ion (2-)
becomes the subscript for the aluminum ion.
Another example: Write the empirical formula for lead (IV) oxide.
1. The cation is written first: lead (IV) ion (Pb4+) and the anion is written
second: oxide ion (O2-)
2. Combine them to form an electrically neutral compound.
27
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Since the charges are not equal in magnitude, the charge on the
lead (IV) ion (+4) becomes the subscript for the oxide ion. The
charge on the oxide ion (-2) becomes the subscript for the lead (IV)
ion.
3. The initial formula that is written would be Pb2O4. Notice, however, that
this is not the empirical formula. Both subscripts can be divided by 2
giving the correct empirical formula, PbO2.
You should also notice that the charges of the ions are NOT shown when writing
the final formula.
If the positive oxidation number of one atom or radical equals the negative
oxidation number of another, their ration is 1:1. For example:
This does not hold true for Hg2Cl2, Hg2Br2, Hg2I2, H2O2 and metal peroxides.
Nomenclature of Compounds
Compounds are classified as binary (having two atoms), ternary (having three
atoms) and higher than ternary or higher than three atoms.
28
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
The prefix attached to each element indicates the number of atoms of the
element in the molecule. Some of these prefixes and their numerical
equivalence are given below.
mon(o) =1 pent(a) =5 oct(a) = 8
di =2 hex(a) =6 non(a) = 9
tri =3 hep(a) =7 dec(a) = 10
tetra =4
For two nonmetals forming more than one compound, the prefix mono is
omitted for the more electropositive nonmetal but is retained for the
second nonmetal. For nonmetals forming only one compound, prefixes are
omitted.
Rule: name or stem name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen + ous /
ic acid
The suffix – ous is used when the element other than hydrogen and oxygen is in
its lower state and – ic when it is in its higher oxidation state. If an element forms
only one oxyacid, the – ic ending is used. It is important to point out that
hydrogen in an oxyacid is not specifically included in the name of the acid
because its presence is implied by the use of the word acid.
Examples: HNO – notice the stem name of the element other than hydrogen
and oxygen is nitro, the oxidation number of N is + 3
(lower oxidation number). Hence the name is:
Nitrous acid
In case where there are more than two oxyacid in a series, prefixes per–and
hypo–are added to the –ous or –ic names. The prefix per- is written before the
stem name of the element other than hydrogen and oxygen when this element has
a higher oxidation number than in the –ic acid. Hypo - is used when the element
other than the hydrogen and oxygen has a lower oxidation number than the –ous
acid.
Example: HClO (Cl = +1) hypochlous acid
HClO2 (Cl = +3) chlorous acid
HClO3 (Cl = +5) chloric acid
HClO4 (Cl = +7) percholoric acid
Another rule is applied for salts of Oxyacids – compounds containing a metal and
an oxyanion.
Rule: Name of metal + name of oxyanion (i.e., stem name of the element other
than oxygen) + ite or ate. Take note that the suffix – ite is used
when the element other than oxygen in the oxyanion is in its lower
oxidation state and – ate when it is in its higher state.
30
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
There are definite patterns in naming oxyacids and their salts. The –ous and –ic
ending of the acid names become –ite and –ate in the salt names respectively, but
the stem name remains the same.
For Acid Salts – compounds containing a metal, hydrogen and an oxyanion, the
rule is stated below.
Rule: name of metal + prefix (except mono) + hydrogen + name of oxyanion
The name of hydrogen may be substitute with bi- for acid salts of acids containing
two hydrogen atoms. In some cases, the numerical prefixes are used with metal
atoms to remove ambiguity as to the number of metal and hydrogen atoms.
There are categories called Mixed or Double Salts – compounds containing two
metals and an oxyanion. Take note of the following rule:
Rule: prefix (except mono) + name of metal with lower oxidation number + prefix
(except mono) + name of metal with higher oxidation number + name of
oxyanion
31
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
There are EXCEPTIONS to the later rules. Please remember the following rules:
Feedback
1. NaF 2. SF6
3. SnCl4 4. HCIO3
5. PCl5 6. KCIO2
7. SO2 8. Ag2CrO4
9. CuS 10. FeSO4
11. P2O5 12. HNO3
13. H2S 14. NaNO2
15. NH4Br 16. Ca(OH)2
17. Pb(NO3)2 18. Fe2S3
19. H3BO3 20. N2O
32
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
Hardness These are not These are not hard. These are hard,
very hard, though because of the
exceptions are crystalline nature.
silicon, diamond
and carbon.
Malleability and These are non- Metallic bonds are Ionic bonds are
Ductility malleable and malleable and also non-malleable
non-ductile. ductile. and non-ductile.
33
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
BASIS FOR
COVALENT METALLIC
COMPARISO IONIC BOND
BOND BOND
N
Bond energy Higher than the Lower than the Higher than the
metallic bond. other two bond. metallic bond.
34
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
charge and is called a cation. An atom or molecule with extra electrons has a net
negative charge and is called an anion.
Molecules are made up of atoms that are held together by chemical bonds formed
by sharing or exchange of electrons among atoms.
35
Unit V. Chemical Bonding
charges;
they don’t exist
for these
compounds.
After using and studying this module, did you meet your expectations on what to
learn in this module? How well you used the instruction given in the module?
How would you used your learnings in this module in your everyday life? What
would you like to learn more?
References:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/
Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/
Chemical_Bonding/Fundamentals_of_Chemical_Bonding
http://limestone.k12.il.us/teachers/rhebron/Chem_HO/C04_Naming_Writing.html
https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/University_of_Illinois%2C_Springfield/UIS
%3A_CHE_267_-_Organic_Chemistry_I_(Morsch)/Chapters/
Chapter_01%3A_Structure_and_Bonding/1.12%3A_Polarity_of_Molecules
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