Kane Joseph Torrizo Pala A - VEM-021-QUIZ #13-QUIZ#17

SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-PHINMA
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Urgello, Cebu City, 6000
VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

QUIZ #13
Name: Kane Joseph T. Palaña

Block: DVM3-C3
1. Define the following: (20 pts)

a. M cells - M-cells, also known as microfold cells or membranous cells, are
specialized cells found in the mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
of the intestinal epithelium. They play a crucial role in the immune system
by transporting antigens, such as bacteria and other particles from the gut
lumen, to immune cells in the Peyer's patches and other
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue.
b. Paneth Cells - are secretory cells located in the crypts of Lieberkühn,

adjacent to the intestinal stem cells. They produce antimicrobial peptides
and proteins and other components that are important in host defense
and immunity.
c. IELs - IELs, or Intraepithelial Lymphocytes, are a specialized population of

immune cells found within the epithelial layer of various mucosal tissues,
with a notable presence in the gut, specifically in the epithelium of the
small intestine. These cells are an essential component of the body's
immune defense system, particularly in the mucosal lining of the digestive
tract.
d. y/δ T cells - γ/δ T cells, often pronounced as "gamma-delta T cells," are a

subset of T cells in the immune system. Unlike the more common α/β T
cells, which have T-cell receptors composed of alpha and beta chains, γ/δ
T cells have T-cell receptors with gamma and delta chains. This structural
difference sets them apart and gives them unique properties and
functions in the immune system.
2. Explain the immune defenses of the skin and mammary gland (10 pts)
Both the skin and mammary gland have evolved specific immune defenses to protect
against infections and other threats. The skin relies on physical barriers, antimicrobial
secretions, and immune cells, while the mammary gland provides immune protection to
nursing infants through the secretion of antibodies, immune cells, and other
antimicrobial factors in breast milk.
3. Describe why the intestine is the largest immune organ in the body (10 pts)
The gut is like the superhero of our immune system, standing out as the biggest
defender in our body. It's always on guard, ready to protect us from a wide array of
potential threats. Whether it's harmful microorganisms or foreign substances from our
food, our intestine steps up to keep us safe.
4. Explain the defenses of respiratory and genitourinary system (10 pts)
Respiratory System Defenses:
● Mucociliary Clearance: Protective mucus and cilia lining the respiratory tract trap
and remove inhaled particles and pathogens.
● MALT: In the respiratory system, MALT structures like tonsils and lymph nodes
house immune cells to respond to incoming pathogens.
● BALT: The bronchial mucosa's BALT plays a role in local immune defense.
● IgA Antibodies: Immunoglobulin A (IgA) antibodies neutralize inhaled pathogens.
● Cough Reflex: Natural reflexes like coughing and sneezing expel irritants and
pathogens.
● Alveolar Macrophages: Specialized immune cells patrol the lungs and eliminate
pathogens in the lower respiratory tract.
Genitourinary System Defenses:
● Urine Flow: Constant urine flow flushes potential pathogens from the urinary
tract.
● Low Urine pH: Naturally acidic urine inhibits the growth of many bacteria in the
urinary tract.
● Genital Secretions: The genital tract produces antimicrobial secretions
containing enzymes and mucins.
● Immune Cells: Immune cells like lymphocytes and macrophages in genital
tissues provide local immune defense.
● Vaginal Microbiota: Beneficial bacteria in the female genital tract maintain an
acidic environment, preventing harmful microorganisms.
● MALT: In the genitourinary system, MALT structures house immune cells to
respond to infections and threats.
5. Differentiate inductive site and effector site (10 pts)
INDUCTIVE SITE EFFECTOR SITE
Inductive Site: Effector Site:

● Location: The inductive site is ● Location: The effector site is
where the initial steps of an where immune responses are
immune response take place. It's executed and pathogens are
typically a secondary lymphoid attacked. These sites can be
organ like a lymph node or the various tissues or organs
spleen. throughout the body, depending on
where the infection or threat is
● Function: In the inductive site, located.
antigen-presenting cells (APCs),
such as dendritic cells, capture and ● Function: Immune cells that have
process antigens (like parts of been educated and activated in the
pathogens) that have entered the inductive site travel to effector
body. They then present these sites to combat infections. For
antigens to T and B cells. example, T cells might go to the
skin or lungs to deal with an
● Activation: T cells are educated infection there.
and activated here. They learn to
recognize specific antigens, and B ● Action: This is where the actual
cells get activated to produce immune response takes place. It
antibodies. involves activities like killing
infected cells, engulfing and
● Training Ground: Think of the destroying pathogens, or
inductive site as a training ground producing antibodies to neutralize
for immune cells. They learn what threats.
to look for and how to respond to
threats. ● Front Line: Think of effector sites
as the front lines where the
immune system directly battles
against the invaders.
6. Differentiate immune exclusion and immune elimination (10 pts)
IMMUNE EXCLUSION IMMUNE ELIMINATION
Immune Exclusion: Immune Elimination:

● Definition: Immune exclusion ● Definition: Immune elimination
refers to a mechanism by which refers to the process by which the
the immune system restricts the immune system identifies and
entry of pathogens or foreign removes pathogens, infected cells,
substances into specific tissues or or foreign substances that have
compartments within the body. already entered the body.
● Function: It serves as a preventive ● Function: It is an active response

strategy to stop the initial invasion to clear existing threats within the
of pathogens by creating physical body, rather than preventing their
or immunological barriers. entry. It involves immune cells and
molecules working to target and
● Examples: The blood-brain barrier destroy the intruders.
and the placental barrier are
examples of immune exclusion ● Examples: The body's response to
mechanisms. These barriers a bacterial infection, where
prevent many pathogens and immune cells like macrophages
harmful substances from entering and neutrophils engulf and destroy
the brain or the fetus's the invading bacteria, is an
environment. example of immune elimination.
Additionally, the immune response
to a viral infection, where cytotoxic
T cells kill infected host cells, is
another example.
7. Explain oral tolerance (5 pts).
Oral tolerance is a phenomenon in the immune system where the body learns to tolerate
and not mount an immune response against specific antigens (usually harmless
substances like food proteins) that are introduced through the oral route, typically
through the digestive system. This process is essential for preventing the immune
system from reacting against the body's own tissues (autoimmunity) or overreacting to
harmless substances, which can lead to allergies.

QUIZ #14
Name: KANE JOSEPH T. PALANA

Block: DVM3-C3
1. Explain the state of development of the innate and adaptive immune system at
birth (10mpts)
At birth, the innate and adaptive immune systems of a newborn are at different stages
of development. The innate immune system is more developed and functional at birth,
while the adaptive immune system is relatively immature. Here's an overview of their
states of development:
INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM
Functional from Birth: The innate immune Relatively Immature: The adaptive
system is the body's first line of defense immune system, which includes T cells
against infections. It is active and and B cells, is less developed and
functional from birth, ready to respond to relatively immature at birth. It is not fully
a wide range of pathogens. It includes capable of mounting robust and specific
physical barriers like the skin and mucous immune responses to many pathogens.
membranes, as well as immune cells like
neutrophils and macrophages, which are Limited Memory: Newborns have limited
present and functional in a newborn. pre-existing memory cells (memory T
cells and B cells) that can remember past
Non-Specific Defense: The innate infections or vaccinations. Over time,
immune system provides non-specific through exposure to pathogens and
defense mechanisms. It can recognize vaccines, the adaptive immune system
and respond to general patterns becomes more mature and gains
associated with pathogens, such as the memory.
presence of certain molecules on the
surface of bacteria. However, it lacks the Dependent on Maternal Antibodies:
ability to create specific memory Newborns receive a degree of protection
responses to particular pathogens. from maternal antibodies passed through
the placenta or in breast milk. These
maternal antibodies help compensate for
the infant's immature adaptive immune
system, providing some specific
protection until the baby's immune
system can develop its memory and
immune responses.
Gradual Maturation: The adaptive

immune system continues to mature and
develop throughout childhood, gaining the
ability to produce a wide range of specific
antibodies and T-cell responses to various
pathogens. This maturation is influenced
by exposure to infections and
vaccinations.
2. Explain how newborn mammals are temporarily protected against infection by

transfer of immunoglobulins from their mother (10 pts)
The transfer of maternal antibodies from mother to offspring provides a crucial

mechanism for immediate protection against infections during the early stages of life. It
complements the gradual development of the newborn's own immune system, offering
a valuable defense until the infant can produce its antibodies and memory responses.
3. Explain how Ig is derived from the mother (10 pts)
Maternal antibodies are transferred to offspring through various mechanisms in

different species:
● In placental mammals like humans, maternal IgG antibodies pass through the
placenta to the fetus during pregnancy.
● In many nursing species, such as cows and cats, maternal antibodies are
provided via colostrum and breast milk.
● In birds and some reptiles, antibodies are transferred through the egg yolk during
embryo development.
● In egg-laying mammals and amphibians, maternal antibodies may be absorbed
through direct contact with the mother's skin or secretions.
These mechanisms grant newborns temporary protection against infections,

complementing their developing immune systems.
4. Describe the absorption of colostrum from the neonatal intestine (5 pts)
The absorption of colostrum from the neonatal intestine is a crucial process that allows
newborn mammals to acquire essential nutrients, antibodies, and immune factors from
their mother's first milk. Colostrum is the initial milk produced by the mother
immediately after giving birth, and it plays a vital role in providing passive immunity and
nutrition to the newborn. The absorption of colostrum from the neonatal intestine is a
vital process that not only provides essential nutrients but also grants the newborn
immediate passive immunity through the uptake of maternal antibodies. This
process helps protect the newborn against infections and supports its early growth
and development.
5. Differentiate colostrum and milk and their protective functions (10 pts)
Colostrum and Milk:
Composition:
● Colostrum: Colostrum is the initial milk produced by the mother
immediately after giving birth. It has a distinct composition compared to
mature milk. Colostrum is rich in antibodies (IgG, IgA, IgM) that provide
immediate passive immunity to the newborn. It also contains high levels
of growth factors, vitamins, and minerals but is relatively low in fats,
carbohydrates, and lactose.
● Milk: Mature milk, which comes after colostrum, has a more balanced
composition. It contains higher levels of fats, carbohydrates, lactose, and
calories, making it the primary source of nutrition for the growing infant.
Protective Functions:
● Colostrum: The primary protective function of colostrum is to provide
passive immunity to the newborn. It contains specific antibodies produced
by the mother that are targeted against pathogens she has encountered,
offering immediate protection against infections during the vulnerable
early days of life. Colostrum also has a laxative effect that helps the
newborn pass meconium (early stool), which contains waste products
from the fetal stage.
● Milk: While milk continues to provide some antibodies, its primary
protective function is to support the ongoing growth and development of
the infant. It offers balanced nutrition with higher energy content, essential
nutrients, and calories, which are important for the infant's overall health
and growth.
Timing:
● Colostrum: Colostrum is produced in the immediate postpartum period,
typically within the first few days after birth. It is a concentrated and
limited-quantity substance.
● Milk: Mature milk production begins a few days to a week after birth, and it
continues throughout the lactation period. It is produced in larger
quantities to meet the nutritional needs of the growing infant.
Volume and Fat Content:
● Colostrum: Colostrum is produced in small quantities, usually measured in
milliliters. It has a lower fat content compared to mature milk.
● Milk: Mature milk is produced in larger volumes and has a higher fat
content, which provides the infant with the energy required for growth.
6. Explain each reason for passive failure and give an example each (15 pts)
"Passive failure" in the context of the immune system refers to situations where passive
immunity, which is acquired through the transfer of pre-formed antibodies (usually from
another individual), is not successful in providing protection against an infection. There
are several reasons for passive failure, and each reason has specific examples:
Timing Issues:
● Example: A newborn receives passive immunity from its mother through
the transfer of maternal antibodies, typically via colostrum or placental
transfer. However, if the mother's antibody levels are low at the time of
transfer, or if the antibodies wane quickly, the passive immunity may not
last long enough to protect the infant during a specific window of
vulnerability. For instance, if the maternal antibodies wane too rapidly, the
newborn may be susceptible to infections that occur a few months after
birth.
Mismatched Antibodies:
● Example: A person receives an antibody treatment or serum from another
individual to combat a specific infection. However, if the antibodies in the
treatment are not well-matched to the strain of the pathogen causing the
infection, passive immunity may not be effective. For instance, if someone
is given antibodies against a certain strain of influenza, but they are
infected with a different strain, the treatment may not work.
Pathogen Variation:
● Example: Some pathogens, like the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
have a high degree of genetic variability. This variation can make it
challenging to create effective antibody-based treatments or vaccines.
Over time, the virus can evolve, and antibodies that were once effective
may no longer work against new viral strains.
Inadequate Antibody Levels:
● Example: When passive immunity is achieved through an antibody
treatment, there may be insufficient antibody levels administered to
provide full protection. For example, in cases of rabies exposure, the
administration of rabies immune globulin (RIG) must be sufficient to

neutralize the virus. If the dosage is too low, it may not be effective in
providing protection.
Duration of Protection:
● Example: Some infections require long-term or continuous passive
immunity. For instance, someone with primary immunodeficiency
disorders may require regular infusions of immunoglobulins to maintain
protection against infections. If they miss an infusion or the intervals
between infusions are too long, they may experience a gap in protection.
Immune Evasion Strategies by Pathogens:
● Example: Certain pathogens have developed mechanisms to evade the
host's immune response, including antibodies. For example, the bacterium
Neisseria gonorrhoeae can vary its surface proteins to avoid being
recognized by antibodies, making it challenging for the host's immune
system to effectively neutralize the pathogen.
In each of these examples, passive failure occurs when the immune system is unable to
provide adequate protection through the passive transfer of antibodies due to various
factors such as timing, mismatched antibodies, pathogen variation, antibody levels,
duration of protection, or immune evasion strategies employed by the pathogen.
7. Explain why neonates can’t be successfully vaccinated (5 pts)
Newborns have an immature immune system that renders them at high risk for infection
while simultaneously reducing responses to most vaccines, thereby posing challenges
in protecting this vulnerable population.

QUIZ #15

Block: DVM3-C3
1. Define the following: (20 pts)

a. Leukotoxin - Leukocytes, commonly known as white blood cells, are a type
of blood cell that plays a crucial role in the immune system. They are an
essential part of the body's defense against infections and diseases.
Leukocytes are responsible for identifying and eliminating foreign
invaders, such as bacteria, viruses, and other pathogens, as well as
cleaning up damaged cells and debris within the body. These cells are a
diverse group, with several subtypes, each serving specific functions in
immune responses. Leukocytes are produced in the bone marrow and are
distributed throughout the bloodstream and various tissues to carry out
their immune surveillance and defense functions.
b. Bacterin - A bacterin is a type of vaccine or immunization that is

specifically designed to protect against bacterial infections. Bacterins are
created from inactivated or killed bacterial cells or components. These
components trigger an immune response when introduced into the body,
allowing the immune system to recognize and remember the bacteria.
This memory response helps the body fight off the bacteria more
effectively if it encounters them in the future.
c. Heat shock proteins - also known as stress proteins, are a group of

proteins that are produced by cells in response to various stressors,
including exposure to high temperatures, environmental stress, and other
cellular stresses. The primary function of HSPs is to help protect and
stabilize cells during stressful conditions. They play a critical role in
maintaining cellular homeostasis and promoting cell survival.
d. Toxoid - A toxoid is a chemically modified and inactivated form of a

bacterial toxin that retains its ability to stimulate the immune system but
has lost its toxic properties. Toxoids are used as the basis for vaccines,
primarily to protect against diseases caused by toxin-producing bacteria.
By immunizing individuals with a toxoid, their immune systems learn to
recognize and defend against the specific toxin, providing immunity
against the disease associated with that toxin without causing illness.
2. Explain the role of innate immunity in combating bacterial invasion. (5 pts)

Innate immunity acts as the body's initial defense against bacterial invasion. It employs
physical barriers, chemical defenses, phagocytic cells, NK cells, inflammation, the
complement system, PRRs, and other mechanisms to recognize, neutralize, and
eliminate bacteria. While the innate immune response is immediate and non-specific, it
sets the stage for the adaptive immune system to mount a more specific and targeted
defense against the invading bacteria.
3. Explain how antibodies can neutralize and opsonize bacteria. (10 pts)
Antibodies neutralize and opsonize bacteria by recognizing specific bacterial surface
molecules and binding to them. When antibodies bind to bacteria, they can neutralize
bacterial toxins, prevent bacterial adhesion and invasion, and promote bacterial
agglutination. Moreover, antibodies act as opsonins, marking bacteria for phagocytosis
by immune cells like neutrophils and macrophages. Once opsonized bacteria are
engulfed, they are destroyed within phagolysosomes, aiding in the elimination of the
bacterial infection.
4. Describe why T-cell-mediated activation of macrophages is required to kill

intracellular bacteria. (5 pts)
T-cell-mediated activation of macrophages is essential to combat intracellular
bacterial infections effectively. It provides specific recognition, amplifies the
immune response, enhances the bactericidal activity of macrophages, and
promotes the formation of structures like granulomas. This coordinated
response is crucial for containing and eliminating intracellular bacteria while
minimizing collateral damage to host tissues.
5. List and briefly describe the multiple mechanisms by which bacteria resist
immune destruction. (20 pts)
Bacteria have evolved various mechanisms to resist immune destruction and evade the
host's immune defenses. These strategies enable them to establish and maintain
infections in the host. Here are multiple mechanisms by which bacteria resist immune
destruction:
1. Capsule Formation: Some bacteria produce a protective capsule, which is a slimy

layer surrounding the bacterial cell. This capsule can hinder the attachment of
antibodies and immune cells, making it difficult for the immune system to
recognize and eliminate the bacteria.
2. Antigenic Variation: Bacteria can change the surface antigens (proteins or
carbohydrates) they express, which makes it challenging for the immune system
to maintain a specific immune response. This strategy allows bacteria to evade
detection and clearance.
3. Biofilm Formation: Bacteria often form biofilms, which are complex communities
of bacteria encased in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances. Biofilms
protect bacteria from the host's immune responses and make it difficult for
immune cells to reach and eliminate the bacteria.
4. Intracellular Survival: Some bacteria have evolved the ability to invade host cells
and survive inside them. This intracellular lifestyle can hide the bacteria from the
immune system, as immune cells may not easily access the infected host cells.
5. Efflux Pumps: Bacteria can use efflux pumps to expel antibiotics and toxins that
the immune system deploys to kill them. This helps bacteria develop resistance
to immune-mediated destruction.
6. Inhibition of Phagocytosis: Bacteria may produce molecules that inhibit
phagocytosis, the process by which immune cells engulf and digest bacteria.
This prevents immune cells from effectively eliminating the invading bacteria.
7. Toxin Production: Bacteria often secrete toxins that can target immune cells and
neutralize their function. These toxins can damage or kill immune cells,
weakening the host's defense.
8. Resistance to Antibiotics: Some bacteria have developed mechanisms to resist
the action of antibiotics, which are often used to treat bacterial infections. This
resistance allows bacteria to survive antibiotic treatment and continue to cause
infections.
9. Quorum Sensing: Bacteria communicate with each other through quorum
sensing systems. This coordination allows bacteria to time their virulence factor
production and infection strategies effectively, making it challenging for the host
immune system to respond.
10. Immunomodulation: Some bacteria can manipulate the host's immune response
by producing immunomodulatory molecules. These molecules can suppress or
redirect the immune response, allowing bacteria to establish and maintain
infections.
These mechanisms highlight the adaptability and resilience of bacteria in the face of
host immune defenses. Understanding these strategies is essential for developing
effective strategies to combat bacterial infections, such as the development of new
antibiotics and vaccines.
6. Explain, differentiate, and give examples of the 4 hypersensitivities. (20 pts)

Hypersensitivity reactions, also known as allergic reactions, are exaggerated or
inappropriate immune responses to normally harmless substances. These reactions are
categorized into four types, each with distinct mechanisms and examples:
Type I Hypersensitivity (Immediate Hypersensitivity):

● Mechanism: Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by IgE antibodies. When
an individual is exposed to an allergen (e.g., pollen, animal dander, food), it
triggers the production of IgE antibodies. Upon re-exposure to the same
allergen, IgE antibodies bind to mast cells and basophils, leading to the
release of inflammatory mediators like histamine.
● Examples: Allergic rhinitis (hay fever), asthma, food allergies, bee stings,
anaphylaxis (a severe, life-threatening allergic reaction).
Type II Hypersensitivity (Cytotoxic Hypersensitivity):
● Mechanism: Type II hypersensitivity involves antibodies (IgG or IgM)
targeting antigens on the surface of host cells, leading to cell destruction
or dysfunction. Antibody-mediated cytotoxicity is the primary mechanism.
● Examples: Hemolytic disease of the newborn (Rh incompatibility),
autoimmune hemolytic anemia, autoimmune thrombocytopenia.
Type III Hypersensitivity (Immune Complex-Mediated Hypersensitivity):
● Mechanism: Type III hypersensitivity results from the formation of immune
complexes when antibodies (typically IgG) bind to soluble antigens or
pathogens. These complexes can deposit in tissues, activating the
complement system and leading to inflammation and tissue damage.
● Examples: Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis,
serum sickness, post-streptococcal glomerulonephritis.
Type IV Hypersensitivity (Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity):
● Mechanism: Type IV hypersensitivity is T-cell mediated. It involves the
activation of sensitized T cells, specifically CD4+ T cells (helper T cells) or
CD8+ T cells (cytotoxic T cells). These T cells initiate an inflammatory
response upon re-exposure to the antigen.
● Examples: Contact dermatitis (e.g., poison ivy rash), tuberculin skin test,
autoimmune diseases like type 1 diabetes and multiple sclerosis.
In summary, these four types of hypersensitivity reactions differ in their underlying

mechanisms and the specific immune components involved. Type I involves IgE
antibodies and immediate mast cell activation, Type II involves antibody-mediated
cytotoxicity, Type III involves immune complex deposition, and Type IV involves
T-cell-mediated delayed responses. Examples of these reactions vary, with each type
manifesting in different clinical conditions and diseases.
7. Explain why cell-mediated immune responses are usually required to protect

against fungal infections. (5 pts)
Cell-mediated immune responses, particularly those involving T cells, are
essential for combating fungal infections due to the unique characteristics and
challenges posed by fungi. T cells are crucial for recognizing fungal antigens,
coordinating immune responses, forming granulomas, and mounting effective
defense against these eukaryotic pathogens. While antibodies can also play a
role in fungal immunity, cell-mediated responses are often the primary means of
protection against fungal infections.

QUIZ #16

Block: DVM3-C3
1. Explain the antiviral mechanism of interferons (5 pts).

Interferons are signaling proteins released by infected cells in response to viral
infections. They play a crucial role in the antiviral defense mechanisms of the immune
system. When neighboring cells receive interferon signals, they initiate several antiviral
responses, including the production of antiviral proteins like PKR and 2'-5' OAS, which
inhibit viral replication. Interferons also enhance the expression of MHC class I
molecules, making infected cells more visible to the immune system. They can induce
apoptosis in infected cells, limit the spread of the virus, and enhance the activity of
natural killer (NK) cells. Additionally, interferons modulate the overall immune response,
helping coordinate the efforts of various immune cells to combat the viral infection.
2. Enumerate the different types of interferons and their uses. (10 pts)
Interferons are a family of cytokines that can be categorized into three main types: Type
I, Type II, and Type III interferons. Each type has distinct subtypes and functions. Here's
an enumeration of the different types of interferons and their primary uses:
Type I Interferons (IFN-I):

● Subtypes: Type I interferons include multiple subtypes, with the most
common being interferon-alpha (IFN-α) and interferon-beta (IFN-β).
● Primary Uses: IFN-α and IFN-β are used to treat various medical
conditions, including viral infections, certain cancers, and autoimmune
diseases. They have antiviral properties and are also employed in
therapies like interferon therapy for hepatitis C and multiple sclerosis.
Type II Interferon (IFN-II):
● Subtype: The primary Type II interferon is interferon-gamma (IFN-γ).
● Primary Uses: IFN-γ is a critical player in the immune response against
intracellular pathogens, including viruses and certain bacteria. It is used
for diagnostic tests like the tuberculin skin test for tuberculosis and has
potential therapeutic applications in conditions like chronic
granulomatous disease (CGD).
Type III Interferons (IFN-III):
● Subtypes: Type III interferons include interferon-lambda (IFN-λ) subtypes.

● Primary Uses: IFN-λ has antiviral properties and is primarily involved in
immune responses at mucosal surfaces. It is currently being studied for
its potential use in treating viral infections, particularly hepatitis C and
respiratory viruses.
It's important to note that interferon therapy, particularly Type I interferon therapy, has
been used to treat various viral infections and autoimmune diseases, such as hepatitis
C, multiple sclerosis, and some forms of cancer. The choice of interferon subtype and
therapy regimen depends on the specific medical condition and the desired therapeutic
effect. The use of interferons continues to be an active area of research and
development in the field of immunology and medicine.
3. Explain why antibodies are effective against extracellular viruses. (5 pts)

Antibodies are highly effective against extracellular viruses because they can
specifically recognize and bind to viral particles, preventing them from infecting host
cells. Antibodies also promote agglutination, making it easier for immune cells to engulf
and destroy the clustered viruses. They function as opsonins, marking viral particles for
phagocytosis, and can activate the complement system, leading to the direct
destruction of viruses. By limiting the spread of infection and inducing immunological
memory, antibodies play a crucial role in protecting the host against extracellular viral
threats.
4. Explain T cell mediated responses for antiviral immunity. (5 pts)

T-cell-mediated responses are crucial for antiviral immunity. CD4+ helper T cells provide
help to other immune cells, stimulate antibody production, and enhance CD8+ cytotoxic
T cell responses. CD8+ cytotoxic T cells directly destroy infected cells. Memory T cells
ensure long-term immunity, while cytokine responses further bolster the immune
defense against viruses. T-cell responses are highly specific, coordinated, and
adaptable, making them essential components of the antiviral immune response.
5. Enumerate and briefly describe the methods on how viruses evade immune
destruction. (20 pts)
Viruses have developed several strategies to evade immune destruction, allowing them
to establish and maintain infections within host organisms. Here is an enumeration of
some common methods viruses use to evade the host immune system:
1. Antigenic Variation: Many viruses can rapidly mutate or recombine their genetic
material, leading to changes in the viral surface proteins. This antigenic variation
makes it difficult for the immune system to recognize and produce effective
antibodies against the constantly evolving virus. Examples include influenza

viruses and HIV.
2. Immunosuppression: Some viruses, like HIV, can target and infect immune cells,
such as CD4+ T cells. By weakening the host's immune system, these viruses
make it more challenging for the body to mount an effective immune response
against them.
3. Blocking Immune Recognition: Certain viruses can inhibit the presentation of viral
antigens to immune cells. For instance, herpesviruses interfere with antigen
presentation, preventing the host immune system from recognizing and attacking
infected cells.
4. Modulation of Immune Responses: Some viruses have evolved mechanisms to
suppress or manipulate immune responses. They can produce proteins that
interfere with the host's antiviral signaling pathways, such as interferon
responses, to dampen the immune reaction.
5. Blocking Apoptosis: Viruses often inhibit the programmed cell death (apoptosis)
of infected cells, prolonging their survival and allowing the virus to replicate. This
makes it harder for the immune system to eliminate infected cells.
6. Immune Evasion through Immune Privilege: Some viruses can establish
infections in immune-privileged sites, such as the brain or the eye, where the
immune response is restricted. This allows the virus to avoid the full force of the
immune system.
7. Latency and Persistence: Some viruses, like herpesviruses, can establish latent
infections, remaining dormant within host cells and periodically reactivating.
During latency, the immune system may not recognize or target the virus,
enabling its persistence.
8. Interfering with Complement System: Viruses can interfere with the complement
system, a part of the innate immune system that helps destroy pathogens. By
blocking complement activation, viruses escape immune attack.
9. Resistance to Antibodies: Some viruses have evolved mechanisms to resist
antibody-mediated neutralization. For example, they may have a thick envelope,
mutate rapidly, or use decoy antigens to distract antibodies.
10. Destruction of Immune Cells: Certain viruses can directly target and destroy
immune cells, particularly CD4+ T cells, which are crucial for orchestrating the
immune response. This immune cell depletion weakens the host's defenses.
11. Inhibition of NK Cells: Natural killer (NK) cells are part of the innate immune
system and play a role in killing virus-infected cells. Some viruses can inhibit the
activity of NK cells, preventing them from recognizing and destroying infected
cells.
12. Escape from the Lysosome: Some viruses can avoid being destroyed in
lysosomes, cellular compartments that break down foreign invaders. They use
various strategies to prevent their degradation and maintain their integrity.
Viruses have evolved an array of immune evasion mechanisms, each tailored to their
specific characteristics and the host environment they encounter. These strategies
enable viruses to persist and establish chronic infections, making them challenging
targets for the immune system and medical interventions.
6. Explain antigenic variation and its consequences. (10 pts)

Antigenic variation is a strategy employed by pathogens to change the antigens on their
surface, making it difficult for the host's immune system to recognize and combat them.
This evasion tactic has several consequences, including the ability to evade host
immune responses, leading to chronic or recurrent infections. It can increase the
pathogen's virulence, promote genetic diversity, exert selective pressure on the host's
immune system, and present challenges in vaccine and therapy development. Antigenic
variation is a significant factor in the persistence and adaptability of certain pathogens.
7. Explain how parasites evade the immune system: (15 pts)

a. Protozoa - They use antigenic variation to change surface antigens, live
intracellularly, suppress immune responses, and modulate host immune
cells.
b. Helminths - Helminths modulate the host's immune responses, migrate

within host tissues, mimic host molecules, and have protective coatings to
evade immune detection.
c. Arthropods - Arthropods release saliva containing immune-suppressing

molecules, facilitating their feeding. Some also actively assist in
transmitting parasites between hosts. Understanding these evasion
tactics is essential for effective control and treatment of parasitic
infections.
8. Differentiate the immune responses between intracellular protozoa and
extracellular protozoa. (5 pts)
The immune response against intracellular protozoa primarily involves cell-mediated
immunity with a focus on cytotoxic T cells, while extracellular protozoa provoke a
humoral immune response with a strong reliance on antibodies, complement activation,
and phagocytosis by immune cells. The location of the protozoa within or outside host
cells determines the nature of the immune response mounted by the host.
9. Differentiate the immune response between intestinal helminths and tissue

helminths. (5 pts)
The immune response against intestinal helminths is primarily localized to the gut,
involving mucosal immunity, IgE-mediated responses, and local defense mechanisms.
In contrast, the immune response against tissue helminths is more systemic, with a
focus on antibodies, granuloma formation, and broader immune activation to combat
parasites that reside in host tissues and body fluids.
10. Explain how eosinophils damage and kill helminths (5 pts).

Eosinophils are particularly effective in combating helminths due to their unique
armament of cytotoxic granules and enzymes. These cells can directly damage the
parasites' surfaces, induce apoptosis, and produce toxic reactive oxygen species, all of
which contribute to the elimination of helminths. Their role in the immune response is
vital in controlling helminth infections and preventing their establishment and
proliferation within the host.
11. Describe type 2 responses in immunity to: (10 pts).

a. Helminths
b. Arthropods
Type 2 immune responses are vital in the defense against parasitic infections and
arthropod bites.
Immunity to Helminths:
● Th2 cell activation leads to cytokine release.

● B cells produce IgE antibodies.
● Mucosal immunity prevents attachment and penetration.
● Eosinophils damage and kill helminths.
● Histamine release causes allergy-like symptoms.
Immunity to Arthropods:
● Exposure to arthropod saliva triggers IgE production.

● Immediate hypersensitivity reactions may occur.
● Adaptive immune memory develops with repeated exposures.
These responses collectively aim to neutralize parasites and limit their impact on the
host.

QUIZ #17

Block: DVM3-C3
1. Differentiate and describe passive and active immunization (5 pts).

Passive immunization provides immediate but temporary protection by introducing
pre-formed antibodies, while active immunization stimulates the individual's immune
system to develop long-lasting immunity by producing its antibodies and memory cells
in response to a vaccine. Active immunization is the most common and effective way to
establish enduring protection against a wide range of diseases.
2. Differentiate and describe live and killed vaccines. (5 pts)
Live Vaccines (Attenuated Vaccines): Killed Vaccines (Inactivated Vaccines):
Live vaccines, also known as attenuated Killed vaccines, also known as inactivated
vaccines, are made from weakened forms vaccines, are made from microorganisms
of the live, disease-causing that have been completely inactivated or
microorganism (bacteria or virus). These killed. These vaccines cannot replicate
vaccines are designed to mimic a natural within the host's body and are incapable
infection without causing the disease of causing the disease. Here's how killed
itself. Here's how live vaccines work: vaccines work:
1. Weakened Pathogen: In the case 1. Inactivated Pathogen: The

of live vaccines, the pathogen is microorganisms in killed vaccines
modified to reduce its virulence are thoroughly inactivated using
(ability to cause disease) while heat, chemicals, or radiation. This
retaining its ability to stimulate an ensures that they are unable to
immune response. This weakening replicate and cause disease.
can be achieved through serial 2. Weaker Immune Response: Killed
passage in non-human cells or vaccines typically elicit a weaker
genetic engineering. immune response compared to live
2. Strong Immune Response: Live vaccines because they do not
vaccines provoke a strong and mimic a natural infection as
long-lasting immune response closely. Multiple doses and
because they closely mimic the booster shots are often required to
natural infection. The immune maintain immunity.
system responds by producing 3. No Risk of Reversion: Since the

antibodies and memory cells microorganisms in killed vaccines
specific to the pathogen. are completely inactivated, there is
3. One or Few Doses: Many live no risk of them regaining virulence
vaccines provide protection with or causing disease in the host.
just one or a few doses because 4. Safer for Immunocompromised
they stimulate a robust immune Individuals: Killed vaccines are
response. Examples of live generally considered safer for
vaccines include the measles, individuals with weakened immune
mumps, and rubella (MMR) systems, as they do not involve live
vaccine and the oral polio vaccine microorganisms. They are
(OPV). recommended for individuals who
4. Potential for Reversion: Since live cannot receive live vaccines.
vaccines contain weakened but 5. Examples: Common examples of
still live microorganisms, there is a killed vaccines include the injected
very slight risk that they could polio vaccine (IPV), the hepatitis A
revert to a more virulent form, vaccine, and the pertussis
causing disease in individuals with component of the diphtheria,
weakened immune systems. tetanus, and acellular pertussis
(DTaP) vaccine.
3. Differentiate and describe inactivation and attenuation ( 5 pts)

Inactivation involves rendering microorganisms nonfunctional and noninfectious
to create killed vaccines with a weaker immune response. Attenuation involves
reducing the virulence of microorganisms to create live vaccines that stimulate a
strong immune response. The choice between these approaches depends on
factors such as the pathogen, safety considerations, and the desired level of
immune response.
4. Briefly describe each category of vaccine as per the USDA classification of

Genetically Engineered Veterinary. (20 pts)
The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) classifies genetically engineered
veterinary vaccines into several categories based on the type of modification and the
intended purpose of the vaccine. Here's a brief description of each category:
1. Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs): GEM vaccines use genetically

modified microorganisms, such as bacteria or yeast, to express antigens from
the target pathogen. These microorganisms are harmless and incapable of
causing disease in the vaccinated animals. GEM vaccines are designed to
stimulate an immune response against specific pathogens.
2. Recombinant DNA Vaccines: Recombinant DNA vaccines involve the use of

genetically engineered DNA molecules that encode antigens from the target
pathogen. When these DNA vaccines are introduced into the host's cells, they
instruct the cells to produce the pathogen's antigens, which then trigger an
immune response.
3. Subunit Vaccines: Subunit vaccines contain specific components or subunits of
the target pathogen, such as proteins or polysaccharides. These components are
typically produced through genetic engineering or other biotechnological
methods. Subunit vaccines are safe because they do not contain live or
inactivated microorganisms.
4. Virus-Vectored Vaccines: Virus-vectored vaccines use a harmless virus as a
delivery system to carry and express antigens from the target pathogen. The
modified virus can infect the host, delivering the pathogen's antigens and
inducing an immune response. The virus vector is typically incapable of causing
disease.
5. RNA Vaccines: RNA vaccines are a relatively new category that uses synthetic
RNA molecules to encode pathogen antigens. When introduced into the host,
these RNA vaccines instruct cells to produce the antigens, leading to an immune
response. RNA vaccines have gained attention for their flexibility and rapid
development.
6. Vector Vaccines: Vector vaccines utilize non-viral vectors, such as plasmids, to
introduce genetic material encoding pathogen antigens into the host's cells. The
host's cells then produce the antigens, leading to an immune response. These
vaccines are particularly useful for stimulating a strong immune response.
7. Antibody-Producing Vaccines: These vaccines are designed to elicit the
production of specific antibodies against a pathogen, rather than relying on
cell-mediated immune responses. Genetic engineering is used to produce and
deliver the specific antibodies, providing passive immunity to the vaccinated
animals.
Each category of genetically engineered veterinary vaccine has unique advantages and
may be chosen based on the target pathogen, the host species, and the desired immune
response. The use of genetic engineering in vaccine development has significantly
advanced the field of veterinary medicine, allowing for more targeted and effective
methods of disease prevention in animals.
5. Explain adjuvants and its role to vaccines’ effectiveness and its disadvantages.
(5 pts)
Adjuvants are substances added to vaccines to enhance their effectiveness by boosting
the immune response. They offer several advantages, including:
● Strengthening the immune response.

● Reducing the required vaccine antigen dose.
● Improving vaccine stability.
However, adjuvants may have disadvantages such as local or systemic reactions in rare
cases, adjuvant-specific considerations, and occasional concerns about long-term
safety. The choice of adjuvant is carefully assessed during vaccine development to
balance their benefits and risks.
6. Enumerate and briefly describe common adjuvants. (10 pts)

Common vaccine adjuvants include aluminum salts (Alum), MF59, AS03, AS04,
Monophosphoryl Lipid A (MPL), CpG oligodeoxynucleotides, virosomes, squalene-based
adjuvants, and Adjuvant System 05 (AS05). These adjuvants enhance the immune
response to vaccines by various mechanisms, such as providing a depot effect,
activating innate immune receptors, or improving antigen delivery. Adjuvants are chosen
based on their compatibility with the vaccine's target pathogen and the desired immune
response. Their safe and effective use is critical in vaccine development and
production.
7. Enumerate the advantages and disadvantages of multiple antigen vaccines. (10

pts)
Multiple antigen vaccines offer advantages such as convenience, simplified vaccination
schedules, reduced healthcare visits, increased coverage, and potential cost savings.
However, they come with certain disadvantages, including a slightly increased risk of
allergic reactions, complex manufacturing, limited customization, a higher risk of
adverse events in some cases, and limited availability for certain vaccines. The decision
to use multiple antigen vaccines should be made based on individual needs and
circumstances, with guidance from healthcare professionals.
8. Explain the importance of correct timing in vaccination to neonates. (5 pts)

Timely vaccination in neonates (newborn infants in their first 28 days of life) is of
paramount importance for several reasons:
1. Neonates have immature immune systems, making them vulnerable to

infections.
2. Vaccination is crucial to initiate the development of an active immune response
in neonates.
3. Diseases can be severe or fatal if contracted in the neonatal period.
4. Vaccination in neonates helps interrupt disease transmission and contributes to
herd immunity.
5. It establishes a foundation for a complete and well-timed vaccination schedule
throughout childhood.
6. Some vaccines administered to neonates offer long-term protection.
7. Timely vaccination benefits both individuals and public health by reducing
disease burden and healthcare costs.
9. Explain the existence of adverse effects in animals. ( 5pts)

Adverse effects in animals refer to undesirable reactions or side effects that can occur
after the administration of vaccines or medications. These effects can vary in severity
and may result from individual variability, complex biological systems, incomplete
understanding, rare or uncommon reactions, dose-dependent effects, environmental
factors, heightened immunogenic responses, allergic reactions, new vaccine
technologies, and effective data collection and reporting. Rigorous testing, safety
monitoring, and surveillance are essential to manage and mitigate adverse effects and
ensure the well-being of animals.
10. Enumerate the common “normal” adverse effects to vaccine and the uncommon
adverse effects. (10 pts)
Common "Normal" Adverse Effects to Vaccines:
1. Pain or Discomfort at the Injection Site: It is common to experience localized

pain, redness, or swelling at the injection site after vaccination. This is typically
mild and temporary.
2. Low-Grade Fever: Some individuals, especially children, may develop a low-grade
fever after vaccination. This is the body's natural response to the vaccine and
usually resolves within a day or two.
3. Mild Fatigue or Irritability: Feeling slightly tired or irritable for a short time
following vaccination can be a normal response.
4. Headache: Some people may experience mild headaches after vaccination,
which typically subside quickly.
Uncommon Adverse Effects:

1. Allergic Reactions (Anaphylaxis): While extremely rare, severe allergic reactions

(anaphylaxis) can occur after vaccination. Symptoms may include difficulty
breathing, swelling of the face and throat, a rapid or weak pulse, and dizziness.
Anaphylaxis requires immediate medical attention.
2. Fainting (Syncope): Some individuals, particularly adolescents, may faint or
experience vasovagal syncope shortly after vaccination. It's more common with
certain vaccines, like the HPV vaccine.
3. Severe Local Reactions: In rare cases, severe pain, swelling, or redness at the
injection site can occur.
4. Severe Fever or Febrile Seizures: Some vaccines, like the measles, mumps, and
rubella (MMR) vaccine, may rarely cause high fever, which, in extremely rare
cases, can lead to febrile seizures, primarily in young children.
5. Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS): GBS is a rare neurological disorder that has been
associated with some vaccines, such as the influenza vaccine. The risk is
extremely low.
6. Intussusception: A rare condition where part of the intestine folds into itself. It
has been associated with certain vaccines, such as the rotavirus vaccine.
7. Nerve Inflammation: Some vaccines have been linked to rare cases of nerve
inflammation, such as the oral polio vaccine.
8. Thrombocytopenia: A decrease in platelet count, which can be associated with
certain vaccines, like the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine.
11. Describe vaccination failure. (5 pts).

Vaccination failure occurs when a vaccinated individual contracts the disease
they were vaccinated against. It can happen due to various reasons, including
primary vaccine failure, waning immunity over time, incomplete vaccine series,
variability in vaccine effectiveness, pathogen mutation or evolution, individual
immune system factors, vaccine-resistant variants, and community vaccination
rates. Vaccination remains highly effective in preventing diseases, and
vaccination failure does not diminish the overall benefits of vaccination. Public
health efforts focus on improving vaccine coverage and addressing the factors
contributing to vaccine failure to maintain high levels of protection.

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SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY-PHINMA

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Name: Kane Joseph T. Palaña

1. Define the following: (20 pts)

b. Paneth Cells - are secretory cells located in the crypts of Lieberkühn,

c. IELs - IELs, or Intraepithelial Lymphocytes, are a specialized population of

d. y/δ T cells - γ/δ T cells, often pronounced as "gamma-delta T cells," are a

4. Explain the defenses of respiratory and genitourinary system (10 pts)

Respiratory System Defenses:

Genitourinary System Defenses:

5. Differentiate inductive site and effector site (10 pts)

INDUCTIVE SITE EFFECTOR SITE

Inductive Site: Effector Site:

6. Differentiate immune exclusion and immune elimination (10 pts)

IMMUNE EXCLUSION IMMUNE ELIMINATION

Immune Exclusion: Immune Elimination:

● Function: It serves as a preventive ● Function: It is an active response

7. Explain oral tolerance (5 pts).

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Name: KANE JOSEPH T. PALANA

Gradual Maturation: The adaptive

2. Explain how newborn mammals are temporarily protected against infection by

The transfer of maternal antibodies from mother to offspring provides a crucial

3. Explain how Ig is derived from the mother (10 pts)

Maternal antibodies are transferred to offspring through various mechanisms in

These mechanisms grant newborns temporary protection against infections,

4. Describe the absorption of colostrum from the neonatal intestine (5 pts)

Colostrum and Milk:

administration of rabies immune globulin (RIG) must be sufficient to

7. Explain why neonates can’t be successfully vaccinated (5 pts)

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Name: KANE JOSEPH T. PALANA

1. Define the following: (20 pts)

b. Bacterin - A bacterin is a type of vaccine or immunization that is

c. Heat shock proteins - also known as stress proteins, are a group of

d. Toxoid - A toxoid is a chemically modified and inactivated form of a

2. Explain the role of innate immunity in combating bacterial invasion. (5 pts)

4. Describe why T-cell-mediated activation of macrophages is required to kill

1. Capsule Formation: Some bacteria produce a protective capsule, which is a slimy

6. Explain, differentiate, and give examples of the 4 hypersensitivities. (20 pts)

​ Type I Hypersensitivity (Immediate Hypersensitivity):

In summary, these four types of hypersensitivity reactions differ in their underlying

7. Explain why cell-mediated immune responses are usually required to protect

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Name: KANE JOSEPH T. PALANA

1. Explain the antiviral mechanism of interferons (5 pts).

​ Type I Interferons (IFN-I):

● Subtypes: Type III interferons include interferon-lambda (IFN-λ) subtypes.

3. Explain why antibodies are effective against extracellular viruses. (5 pts)

4. Explain T cell mediated responses for antiviral immunity. (5 pts)

antibodies against the constantly evolving virus. Examples include influenza

6. Explain antigenic variation and its consequences. (10 pts)

7. Explain how parasites evade the immune system: (15 pts)

b. Helminths - Helminths modulate the host's immune responses, migrate

c. Arthropods - Arthropods release saliva containing immune-suppressing

9. Differentiate the immune response between intestinal helminths and tissue

10. Explain how eosinophils damage and kill helminths (5 pts).

11. Describe type 2 responses in immunity to: (10 pts).

● Th2 cell activation leads to cytokine release.

● Exposure to arthropod saliva triggers IgE production.

VEM-021- FUNDAMENTALS OF IMMUNOLOGY

Type I Hypersensitivity (Immediate Hypersensitivity):

Type I Interferons (IFN-I):