LANGUAGUE AND CIVILIZATION: ENGLISH

1. MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words and forms. A core part of
linguistic study today.
The term morphology is Greek and is a mix of morph- meaning ‘form’, and -ology
which means ‘the study of something’.
Words are composed of morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning.
Some words consist of just one morpheme; some consist of several.

1.1.MORPHEMES
Are the smallest unit of meaning of languages. They can be classified as:
- Simplex words: don’t have internal structure (They’re only one morpheme).
Ex: work, build, run. They can’t be split into smaller parts.
- Complex words: have internal structure (consist of two or more morphemes).
Ex: worker (affix -er added to the root work to form a noun).

1.1.1. Types of morphemes

- Free morpheme: a morpheme that can stand on its own. Ex: Ugly.
- Bound morpheme: is unable to work on its own. Ex: Ugliness.
- Derivational morpheme: a morpheme used to derive a new word. Ex:
Friendliness.
- A word created by adding a derivational morpheme changes the meaning, and
may change the grammatical class. Ex: Consciously.
- Inflexional morphemes have a bound morpheme that shows how the verb
conjugates. Ex: Flying.

1.1.2. Inflectional vs derivational morphemes

- Inflectional (morfemas flexivos): There’re only 8:
1. Plural (-s): “He has three desserts.”
2. Possessive (’s): “This is Betty’s dessert.”
3. Present tense (-s): “Bill usually eats dessert.”
4. Past tense (-ed): “He baked the dessert yesterday.”
5. Past participle (-en): “He has always eaten dessert.”
6. Gerunds (-ing): “He is eating the dessert now.”
7. Adjective comparative (-er): “His dessert is larger than mine.”
8. Adjective superlative (-est): “Her dessert is the largest.”
- Derivational (morfemas derivativos): it has prefixes and suffixes.

1.2.WORD
It’s a lexeme/lexical item that is a single unit of meaning that’s not necessarily
indivisible (Ex: phrasal verbs) It can be derived from morphological rules. Ex:
dehibernification (Hibernia, Latin word for Ireland)
A word is “one or more morphemes that can stand alone in a language.”
Lexeme: Families of words that differ only in their grammatical endings or grammatical
forms. Ex: the words walk, walking, walked, and walks all belong to the same lexeme.
 1.3.TECHNICAL TERMS
- Prefix or suffix = affix.
- Inflexional morpheme: changes the tense or number but not the grammatical
form. Ex: dog –s, Go/Went, drink/drank.
- Derivational morphemes: change the meaning or grammatical form. Ex:
drinkable.
- Compounds: two or more words put together to form new meanings. Ex:
homesick.

1.4. TREE DIAGRAM

Internationalization Unhappiness

2. RELATIONS AMONG WORDS

2.1.SEMANTIC RELATIONS
2.1.1. Synonymy
Words or expressions with very closely related meanings. Ex: Liberty –
Freedom.

2.1.2. Antonymy
Words with opposite meanings. Types:
- Gradable: Big — Bigger — Biggest.
- Non-gradable: Dead.
- Reversive antonyms: Tie — Untie.
-
2.1.3. Hyponymy and Hypernym
When the meaning of one word (hyponym) is included in the meaning of
another general word (hypernym).
- Dog — Hyponym of flower.
- Colour — Hypernym of blue, red, yellow…

2.1.4. Polysemy
When a word has two or more related meanings. Ex: Bright (Light or
clever).
 2.2.PHONOLOGICAL RELATIONS
2.2.1. Homonymy
Words with different meanings but the same pronunciation. Ex: Pupil: part
of the eye / student at school.

2.2.2. Homophony
Words with the same pronunciation but unrelated spellings and meanings.
Ex: Meat — Meet.

2.3.SYNTACTIC RELATIONS
2.3.1. Collocation
Words tend to frequently occur with certain words. Ex: Bread and butter.

2.4.WORD FORMATION
- Compounding: Text + book —Textbook
- Abbreviation:
 Clipping/Shortening: Advertisement — Ad, Advert
 Contraction: Government — Govt
 Acronym/Initialism: Compact disc — CD
- Affixation:
 Prefix: Re + write — Rewrite
 Suffix: Bear + able — Bearable
 Infix: Man + plural — Men
- Borrowing: Sofa (Arabic) — Sofa (English)
- Blending: Smoke + fog — Smog

3. SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Subject, Predicator, Object, Adjunct are Functions. Each function can be filled by a
range of alternative classes:
- Subj: NP
- Subj: Clause
- Adjunct: Adverbial phrase
- Adjunct: Prepositional phrase
- Adjunct: Noun phrase
The basic function structure of phrases is Premodifier — Head — Postmodifier.

Premodifiers Head Postmodifier

Six ugly Men From Sydney

3.1. NOUN PHRASES

3.1.1. Structure
Noun Phrases consist of:
- Determiner: An element which indicates which one we are talking
about. Ex: this, that, John’s...
- Premodifier: Placed before the head, after the determiner.
 - Head: A noun or a pronoun (obligatory).
- Postmodifier: modifiers after the head.

3.1.2. Determiners
There’re two classes of determiners: predeterminers and central
determiners.

Predeterminers Central determiners Head

All the jobs

- Central determiners:
Often just called “the determiner” and there’s only one central
determiner. The most common ones are the articles. Types of
Central Determiners:
 Specific:
- Definite article: the
- Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
- Possessive: my, your, his, John’s...
- Wh-determiners: which, what, whose, who...
 General:
- Indefinite article: a
- Zero article: people
- Negative: no
- Universal: every, each
- Existential: some, any
- Dual: either, neither
- Quantitative: enough, much, many, all, both…

When is the determiner necessary?

 Singular count nouns need a determiner, whether specific
or general: a car, this car
 Plural count nouns:
- If talking about specific things, a determiner is
needed: The tigers got loose.
- If talking in general, determiner not required:
Tigers are a type of cat.
 Mass Nouns: Same as for plural count nouns:
- Specific mass: This water, your flour.
- General mass: Water evaporates.
 Abstract nouns: In Spanish, abstract nouns need an article
(el terrorismo es malo), but in English, they don’t
(Terrorism is bad).
 Locations: Some locations do not need a determiner when
they specify a place one spends time (I am going home).
But: The home is where the heart is (Not a destination).
 Meal names: Words like “breakfast”, “lunch”, “dinner”
don’t need a determiner in most cases (See you after
breakfast). But if the speaker wants to identify specific
 meals, a determiner can be used (Remember the
breakfast we had together).
 Percentages: No determiner in front of percentages in
English (33% of the respondents said…).

- Predeterminers:
Words that come before the determiner:
 Quantifiers: All the girls
 Multipliers: Twice my age
 Sufficiency: Just, almost, exactly, precisely…
 Exclamative: What a coincidence!

Partitive expressions: “all of”, “most of”, “some of”.

Predeterminer Determiner Head

All of the books

3.1.3. Premodifiers
Premodifiers appear between the determiner (if present) and the head
noun. We will consider four types of premodifier:
- Ordinal: Which one in a series? (The first book).
- Quantity: How many? How much? (they’re seven students).
- Epithet: What is it like? (it’s a beautiful game).
- Classifier: What type? (a university degree).

 Ordinals:
- Sequencing by number (ordinals): first.
- Relative Sequencing: giving sequence relative to
another item, or point of time: next, last.
Ordinals always appear AFTER the determiner or they may
appear without determiner (First novels rarely sell).

 Quantity:
- Quantification by number (cardinals): one,
several.
- Imprecise quantification: (a) few, (a) little.
If both Ordinal and Quantity are present, Ordinal precedes
Quantity (The first three trains).

 Epithets
Describe what the thing is like in appearance, quality, etc.
- Usually in terms of appearance. Ex: colour, size,
quality, age.
- Non-visible characteristics also possible. Ex: ethics
(unfair), behaviour (silly).
Because the Epithet can be intensified, the slot is filled
by adjectives: a very nice wine.
 Past-participle verbs can function as intensifiable
adjectives: a used tissue.
Adjectives that can’t be intensified are classifiers (A dead
fly).
Gradeability: Epithets are adjectives or past-participle
verbs that are (or could be) preceded by ‘very’.
Syntactic locations: The adjective that function as an
epithet could also come after a be-verb (The old book —
The book is old).

 Classifiers
Place the thing into one class or another, into segregated
categories:
- Material: An iron gate.
- Means of Functioning: An electric oven.
- Purpose: A writing desk.
- Nationality: A Spanish painter.
- Object used on: A can opener.
Gradeability: Classifiers can’t be preceded by “very”.
Syntactic locations: Classifiers can only be realised as
Premodifiers (Medical school — The school is medical).

3.1.4. Postmodifiers
The Postmodifier, if present, is most typically filled by a prepositional
phrase. Ex: The boy is from Brazil. But this slot can also be filled by various
kinds of clause:
- Relative-clause: The problem that I have.
- That-clause: The fact that I have a problem.
- Present-participle clause: An orangutan playing guitar.
- Past-participle clause: Refugees driven from their homes.
- Infinitive clause: The team to beat.

Two basic functions:

- To supply information enabling the reader to specify and identify
the person or thing referred to by the NG. Ex: This is the house
where the Prime Minister lives (Answers which house).
- To add additional information about the referent when it has
already been identified. Ex: This is Number 10 Downing Street,
where the Prime Minister lives.

The postmodifier can also be an Adjunct, what in Spanish is called a

Complemento Circunstancial, or an Adverbial (an additional element that
may be removed and still have sense).

3.2.PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE
The prepositional phrase (PP) consists of a preposition, followed by an NP or
pronoun. Ex: He stood in the middle. The Postmodifier in a PP is OBLIGATORY.
 Head Postmodifier
In the morning
Prep Np

3.3.ADVERBIAL PHRASE
3.3.1. Types of adverbs
- Description adverbs: Answer the question “how”: Quickly, lazily...
- Frequency adverbs: Answer the question ‘how often’: I go
often/frequently…
- Time and Place adverbs: Answer the questions: ‘when’ or ‘where’:
 Time: I need to go now/today/later...
 Place: It was here/there/everywhere...
- Degree adverbs: Answer the question “to what extent”: Very,
more, most…
- Sufficiency adverbs: Answer the question “how closely”: Almost,
just, precisely...

3.3.2. Structure

Premodifiers Head Postmodifiers

quickly
Very quickly
quickly enough
So quickly that he flew
quickly in spirit
Just now

Adverb Phrases consist of:

- An adverb of description, frequency, time or space as Head.
- An optional preceding degree or sufficiency adverb.
Description and Frequency adverbs can be intensified or given lower
intensity (using degree adverbs):
- Exceedingly quickly (Manner).
- Very rarely (Frequency).
Time and Place adverbs can be restricted in focus (using sufficiency
adverbs):
- Just now, only here.

3.3.3. Function of adverbs

- Description/Frequency/Time/Place Adverbs function as Adjunct:
 He is waiting outside.
 He quickly told John the message.
- Degree adverbs premodify adjectives or descriptive adverbs:
 They are smoking very heavily.
- Sufficiency adverbs premodify nouns, prepositions, verbs, or
time/place adverbs:
 He just ran / Just here
 3.3.4. Positioning of adverb phrases
- Description/Frequency: Generally, after the verb, or if there is a
direct object, after the object (never between). Ex: He was waiting
patiently.
If the adverb would end up too far from the verb, it can precede
the verb. Ex: He quickly told John the message.
Can be at the start of the sentence. Ex: Quickly, he summarised
the main points.
- Place/Time: Usually at the end of the sentence, but can come at
the beginning. Ex: He is waiting outside / Inside, it is warmer.
Unlike description/frequency adverbs, place adverbs cannot come
between verbs. Ex: He has outside waited for 5 hours.

3.4.VERBAL PHRASE
The verb phrase (VP) contains the sequence of verbs between Subjects and
Objects/Complements etc. Ex: I ate yesterday. VPs can be discontinuous. Ex: Can
you see him?

3.4.1. Elements
At its simplest, the VP consists of a single verb, called the main verb. Ex: I
love Mary.
Before the main verb, 4 elements can occur:
- MOD: a modal verb: I must run.
- PERF: some form of ‘have’ (followed by an –en verb): I have driven
far today.
- PROG: some form of ‘be’ (followed by an –ing verb): I was driving
home.
- PASS: some form of ‘be’ (followed by an –en verb): I was driven
home.
Each Auxiliary verb conditions the verb that follows it (the following verb
must have a particular inflection):
- MOD: modal + inf: I will be there.
- PERF: have + -en: I have eaten
- PROG: be + -ing: I was being eaten.
- PASS: be + -en: I was eaten.

3.4.2. Events and states

- Event: Something which happens, with a beginning, middle and
end. Ex: Eating something.
- Action: An event that has an Agent (someone does something)
- Habitual action: Some agent frequently performs an action. Ex:
She plays tennis every Monday.
- State: the continuation of properties of entities over some period
of time. Ex: He is five-years old.
Includes mental states: I feel sick.
3.4.3. Talking about the past
- Events
4 main strategies:
 Simple Past: Something happened in the past. Ex: I spilt
my coffee.
 Present Perfect: Something happened in the past, and its
consequence is still here. Ex: I have spilt my coffee.
 Past Perfect: Something happened in the past, and its
consequence was still in effect at the time being talked
about. I had spilt my coffee.
 Past Continuous: At some point of time in the past, the
action was still in process. Ex: I was spilling my coffee.

Present perfect: three uses:

 When you wish to indicate that the past event has
consequences for the present. Ex: I have spilt my coffee:
the coffee was spilt, and still needs to be cleaned up.
 Use if the period being talked about is still open. Ex: We
have built 20 houses this year (so far).
 Talking about things achieved in your life. Ex: I have
climbed Mount Everest.

- Stages
Four main strategies:
 Simple Past: Some state held in the past (and probably no
longer holds). Ex: I was sick.
 Present Perfect: Some state started in the past and
continued to quite recently (or might even still continue).
Ex: I have been sick.
 Past Perfect: Some state continued up until the time
spoken about. Ex: I had been sick.
 Used to: Ex: I used to be a Democrat.

- Past habitual actions

Talking about some activity we habitually performed in the past.
Three main forms:
 Simple past with adjunct indicating recurrence. Ex: I took
the train every day.
 “Used to” form: Ex: I used to take the train to work.
 “Would” form: Ex: I would take the train each day.

3.4.4. Talking about the present

- Ongoing events
 Present Continuous: For reporting events happening at the
time of speaking. Ex: He is eating well.
  Simple Present: Not very common for events, but used in
sports commentary. Ex: He passes the ball to Smith.
 Present Perfect Continuous: Implies the action has been
going on for a while. Also, allows you to state HOW LONG
the action has been going on for. Ex: I have been working
for 20 minutes.

- Ongoing states
 Simple Present: I have a book.
 Present Continuous: The meaning is of behaviour. Ex: I am
being good.

- Current habitual action

Some action that the actor is currently performing regularly.
 Simple Present: Usually with an adjunct indicating
repetition. Ex: I play tennis every day.

3.4.5. Talking about the future

- Definite Predictions:
The future stated as incontrovertible
 “Will” form: Sometimes used even when there is doubt.
Ex: It will rain tomorrow.
 “Going to” form: Not much difference from simple future.
Ex: It is going to rain tomorrow.
 Simple present with temporal adjunct: Ex: They play
tomorrow in the new stadium.
 Present continuous with temporal adjunct: Ex: They are
playing tomorrow.
 Future Continuous: A prediction that some event will be in
the process of occurring at some future point. Ex: It will be
raining.
 Future Perfect: A prediction that some event will have
finished before some future time. Ex: It will have rained
by tomorrow.

4. ADVERBIALS AND MULTI WORD VERBS

4.1. ADVERBS VS ADVERBIALS

All Adverbs are Adverbials but not all Adverbials are Adverbs. An Adverbial is a
construction which modifies or describes a verb phrase.

4.1.1. Main types of adverbial function

- Spatial: Tells us where or in what direction. Ex: to work.
- Manner: Tells us how. Ex: Quickly.
- Causal: Tells us the reasons. Ex: Because I say so.
- Temporal: Tells us when. Ex: This morning.
 4.1.2. Adjunct, disjunct or conjunct
- Adjuncts: Are inside the clause structure, but can be removed and
still leave a meaningful sentence.
- Disjuncts: Are outside the clause structure and give the speaker’s
assessment of the action.
- Conjunct: Are outside the clause structure and link or show the
relationship with other sentences or clauses.

4.1.3. Prepositional verbs

- Phrasal verb: The verb and the particle can be separated by the
object. Ex: I put my key in the door.
They can be transitive (need an object) or intransitive (don’t need
an object).
Some phrasal verbs consist of three words: verb + particle +
preposition. Three-word phrasal verbs are always transitive and
nonseparable.
- Verb + prep: The verb must be immediately followed by the
particle. Ex: Purchased in a charity shop.

5. CLAUSE CONSTITUENCY: SPOCA

5.1.FUNCTIONS
- Subject (S): Always before the verbs. When realised by a pronoun, use the
nominative case (‘we’). Number should agree with the Finite verb.
- Predicator (P): The main verb of the clause and its auxiliaries.
- Object (Od, Oi): Direct Object or Indirect Object. In reporting clauses with
verbs like told, persuade, convince, inform, and remind you MUST include
the indirect object.
- Complement (C): (Atributo). Appear, seems, feels, looks, tastes, get,
become. We analyse clauses with these verbs in the same way as ‘be’
when followed by an adjectival phrase, so there’s always a Complement.
- Adjunct (A): (CC) Sometimes an Adverbial.
5.2.SLOTS AND FILLERS
Subj, Pred, Object, Adjunct are slots (or functions). Each slot can be filled by a
range of alternative classes:
- Subj: NP
- Subj: Clause
- Adjunct: Adv P
- Adjunct: PP
- Adjunct: NP
- Adjunct: Clause

5.3.DISTINGUISHING OBJECT FROM COMPLIMENT

- Grammatical criteria: An Object has potential to become Subject, a
Complement does not.
 - Semantic Criteria: A Complement further specifies the Subject (identity,
attribute or circumstance). An Object is a separate entity from the Subject
(except for reflexives).

6. TRANSITIVITY

6.1.TRANSITIVITY
- Intransitive clause (1 participant): Unicorns do not exist!
- Monotransitive clause (2 participants): John loves Mary.
- Ditransitive clauses (3 participants): Mary gave John the book.