SCHOOL OF AERONAUTICAL SCIENCES

ASB4302 AEROSPACE STRUCTURES*

(INTEGRATED WITH AEROSPACE STRUCTURES LABORATORY)

LABORATORY MANUAL
2018 REGULATION

FACULTY INCHARGE LABORATORY INCHARGE

 INDEX
S
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS MARKS SIGN
NO

1 Locate Shear Centre for open section

2 Locate Shear Centre for closed section

Determination of Principal axis of Unsymmetrical

3
beams

4 Column testing

5 Vibrations of beams

6 Wagner beam – Tension field beam

7 Constant Strength Beam

8 Beam Subjected to complex loading

Find stresses in circular discs and beams using photo-

9
elastic techniques

Determination of stress concentration factor of tensile

10
strip with central circular hole
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
S
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENTS
NO

1 Locate Shear Centre for open section

2 Locate Shear Centre for closed section

3 Determination of Principal axis of Unsymmetrical beams

4 Column testing

5 Vibrations of beams

6 Wagner beam – Tension field beam

7 Constant Strength Beam

8 Beam Subjected to complex loading

9 Find stresses in circular discs and beams using photo-elastic techniques

10 Determination of stress concentration factor of tensile strip with central circular hole
 QUANTITY
S DETAILS OF THE EQUIPMENT QUATITY
AVAILABL
NO (For a batch of 20 students) REQUIRED
E
C section beam with flange width 40mm, web height
1 1 2
77mm and thickness 2mm.
D section beam with flange width 50mm, web height
2 1 2
75mm and thickness 2mm.

Z section beam with flange width 45mm, web height

3 1 2
75mm and thickness 3mm.

Polariscope setup with Monochromatic (Sodium) light

4 1 1
and white light.
Wagner beam with flange width 50mm and web height
5 250mm with three channel DAT system for tension, 1 1
compression and diagonal strain indicators.

6 Vibration setup 1 1

7 Constant Strength Beam 1 1

8 Beam Subjected to complex loading 1 1

 RUBRICS

S NO CONTENT MARKS ALLOTED

1 Aim, Procedure and Formula 20
2 Tabulation and Calculation 30
3 Result and Graph 30
4 Viva 20
Total 100
Expt.No.1
SHEAR CENTER OF OPEN SECTIONS
AIM:
To determine the shear center of an open section.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A thin cantilever beam of channel section.
2. Two dial gauges.
3. A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
4. Two loading hooks.
PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free end of the beam.
2. Place a two kilograms load at left side hook and note the dial gauge readings
3. Remove one load from left end and place on right end, note the dial gauge readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one by one to the other hook
noting each time the dial gauge readings. Calculate the distance ‘e’ of the line of action
from the web thus:
5. (AB/2) (Wa – Wb) / Wv = e
6. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge readings as
the measure of the angle of twist θ suffered by the section.
7. Plot θ against e and obtain the meeting point of the curve ( a straight line in this case) with
the e-axis (i.e., θ, the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant vertical
load). This determines the shear center.
CALCULATION:
Dimensions of the beam and the section :
Length of the beam (L) :
Height of the web (h) :
Width of the flange (b) :
Thickness of the sheet (t) :
Distance between the two hook stations :
Theoretical location of the shear center (e) : = 3b / [6+(h/b)]
Vertical load Wv = (Wa + Wb)
 TABLE:
Dial gauge readings
S. No Wa Wb e = (AB/2) (Wa – Wb) / Wv
d1 d2 (d1-d2)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
h= b=
ethe : = 3b / [6+(h/b)] =
From the graph,
eexp = when (d1 – d2) = 0
Plot e versus (d1-d2 ) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and locate the shear center.
RESULT:
The shear center obtained experimentally is compared with the theoretical value. e =
Expt.No.2
SHEAR CENTER OF CLOSED SECTIONS
AIM:
To determine the shear center of a closed sections.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. A thin uniform cantilever beam of D – section as shown in the figure. At the free end extension
pieces are attached on either side of the web to facilitate vertical loading.
2. Two dial gauges are mounted firmly on this section, a known distance apart over the top flange.
This enables the determination of the twist, if any experienced by the section.
3. A steel support structure to mount the channel section as cantilever.
4. Two loading hooks each weighing about 0.2 kg.

PROCEDURE:
1. Mount two dial gauges on the flange at a known distance apart at the free end of the beam (see
fig.). Set the dial gauge readings to zero.
2. Place a total of say two kilograms load at A (loading hook and nine load pieces will make up
this). Note the dial gauge readings (normally hooks also weigh a 200 grams each).
3. Now remove one load piece from the hook at A and place another hook at B. this means that
the total vertical load on this section remains two kilogram. Record the dial gauge readings.
4. Transfer carefully all the load pieces and finally the hook one by one to the other hook noting
each time the dial gauge readings. This procedure ensures that while the magnitude of the
resultant vertical force remains the same its line of action shifts by a known amount along AB
every time a load piece is shifted. Calculate the distance e (see fig.) of the line of action from
the web thus:
e = (AB/2) (Wa - Wb )/Wv
5. For every load case calculate the algebraic difference between the dial gauge readings as the
measure of the angle of twist θ suffered by the section.
6. Plot θ against e and obtain the meeting point of the curve (a straight line in this case) with the
e-axis (i.e. θ, the twist of the section is zero for this location of the resultant vertical load). This
determines the shear center.
7. Though a nominal value of two kilograms for the total load is suggested it can be less. In that
event the number of readings taken will reduce proportionately.
 OBSERVATIONS:
Dimensions of the beam and the section :
Length of the beam ( L ) :
Height of the web ( h ) :
Thickness of the sheet ( t ) :
Distance between the two hook station ( AB ) :
Vertical load Wv = ( Wa + Wb )
TABLE
Dial gauge readings
S. No Wa Wb e = (AB/2) (Wa – Wb) / Wv
d1 d2 (d1-d2)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Plot e versus (d1-d2 ) curve and determine where this meets the e axis and locate the shear center.
RESULT:
The shear center obtained experimentally is compared with the theoretical value. e =

PRECAUTION:
1. For the section supplied there are limits on the maximum value of obtain
acceptable experimental results. Beyond these the section could undergo excessive permanent
deformation and damage the beam forever. Do not therefore exceed the suggested values for the
loads.
2. The dial gauges must be mounted firmly. Every time before taking the reading tap the set up (not
the gauges) gently several times until the reading pointers on the gauges settle down and do not
shift any further. This shift happens due to both backlash and slippages at the points of contact
between the dial gauges and the sheet surfaces and can induce errors if not taken care of. Repeat
the experiments with identical settings several times to ensure consistency in the readings.
Expt.No.3
UNSYMMETRICAL BENDING OF BEAMS

AIM:
To determine the principal axes of an unsymmetrical section.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
➢ A thin uniform cantilever Z section as shown in figure.

➢ Two dial gauges.

➢ Two hooks

➢ A string and pulley arrangement

➢ A steel support structure to mount the Z section as cantilever.

PROCEDURE:

1. Mount two dial gauges on the tip section to measure the horizontal and vertical
deflections of a point on it.
2. Apply the vertical load WV
3. Read u and v, the horizontal and vertical deflections respectively at the chosen point.
4. Increase the load WH in steps of about 300 gm ( for the first case 100 gm + 200 gm
hook) from zero to a maximum of about 3 Kg, noting down in each case the values of
u and v. Repeat the procedure and check for consistency for measurements.
5. Plot the graphs (u/v) vs (WH / WV) and find the intersection of this curve with a straight
line through the origin at 45º.
6. Calculate the inclination of one of the axes to the web as θ = tan-1 (WV / WH ).
7. Calculate the inclination θ using the formula
tan 2θ = 2IXY / (IYY – IXX).
TABLE:
S.No WH u v WH / WV u/v
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

CALCULATION:
WV =
θexp = tan-1 (WV / WH ).
b =
h =
t =
IXX =
IXY =
IYY =
tan 2θ = 2IXY / (IYY – IXX)
θ theo =
RESULT:
Therefore, the unsymmetrical bending of beam is calculated and proved the value of ‘θ’ is
approximately same experimentally and theoretically.
Theoretical , θ =
Experimental , θ =
Expt.No.4
COLUMN TESTING - SOUTH-WELL’S PLOT
AIM:
To determine the critical load of a column using south-well plot.
THEORY:
The need to make use of materials with high strength to weight ratio in aircraft design has
resulted in using of slender structure components that fail more often by instability the simplest
example is a slender column. Ideal column under small compressive load is slightly disturbed and
return to original position after removal for particular loading, it takes neighboring column
equilibrium position this is neutral equilibrium. The instability occurs at Euler load or critical load.
• The ideal column deflection occurs suddenly, but in actual column it appears as soon as
load applied.
• South well should have a relation between applied load and corresponding deflection,
which can be used to determine critical load, eccentrically by a graphical procedure without
destroying the specimen.
The formula for critical load is,
Pcr = π2 E I / K2 L2
Where,
K is a const. depending on the end condition of the column
E- Young’s modulus of the material,
I- Moment of Inertia,
L- Length of section.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Column testing apparatus
2. Specimen
3. Screw Gauge
4. Vernier Caliper
5. Weights
FORMULAE
Pcr = 4π2 E I / L2
Where,
E- Young’s modulus of the material, (E=210 Gpa)
L- Length of section.
I- Moment of Inertia, I==bd3/12
PROCEDURE:
• The given column is aligned on the column testing apparatus with its longitudinal axis
vertical.
• The dial gauge is placed at the midpoint of the column.
• Then loads are applied gradually in steps.
• The corresponding deflections of a dial gauge are noted and tabulated.
• Draw the graph with deflection on the y axis to the load on x axis and find slope.
Deflection/Load
Sl.No Load Deflection
( N/mm2)
Actual
Kg N DTI Deflecton
( DTI x LC)
1

4
5
RESULT:
Thus, the critical load of column is found using south well’s plot.

critical load, Pcr =

Expt.No.5
VIBRATION OF BEAMS

AIM:
To find the natural frequency of transverse vibration of the cantilever beam.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Displacement measuring system (strain gauge) and Weights

DESCRIPTION:
Strain gauge is bound on the beam in the form of a bridge. One end of the beam is fixed
and the other end is hanging free for keeping the weights to find the natural frequency while
applying the load on the beam. This displacement causes strain gauge bridge to give the output in
milli-volts. Reading of the digital indicator will be in mm.

FORMULAE USED:
1. Natural frequency = 1/2π√(g/δ) Hz
where g= acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 and δ = deflection in m.
2. Theoretical deflection δ= Wl3 /3EI
Where, W= applied load in Newton, L= length of the beam in mm E= young’s modules of
material in N/mm2 , I= moment of inertia in mm4 =bh3 /12.
3. Experimental stiffness = W/δ N-mm and Theoretical stiffness = W/δ =3EI/l3 N/mm

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the sensors to instrument using connection cable.
2. Plug the main cord to 230v/ 50hz supply.
3. Switch on the instrument
4. Keep the switch in the read position and turn the potentiometer till displays reads “0”.
5. Keep the switch at cal position and turn the potentiometer till display reads 5.
6. Keep the switch again in read position and ensure at the display shows “0”.
7. Apply the load gradually in grams.
8. Read the deflection in mm
GRAPH: Draw the characteristics curves of load vs displacement, natural frequency Draw the
characteristics curves of displacement vs natural frequency
TABULATION
Applied Theoretical Experimental Theoretical Natural
S Deflection
mass m deflection Stiffness k Stiffness k frequency
No δ (mm)
(kg) δ T (mm) (N/mm) (N/mm) fn (Hz)

OBSERVATION:
Cantilever beam dimensions:
Length =
Breadth =
Height =

RESULT:
The natural frequency of transverse vibration of the cantilever beam is =
Expt.No.6
WAGNER BEAM
AIM:
To investigate and study the behavior of a semi-tension field beam.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A stiffened thin-webbed cantilever beam held in a suitable frame, Strain gauge, Strain
indicator, Hydraulic jack, Load cell and Load indicator.
PROCEDURE:
The wrinkling angle is calculated using the equation (1) and a strain gauge is fixed at this
angle in the web. Strain gauges are also fixed on the flanges and s stiffener to measure their
respective stresses. The load is applied gradually in steps of 100 kg. Using the hydraulic jack. For
each load the load indicator reading, strain indicator reading corresponding to each strain gauge is
noted. Precaution is taken so that the beam does not undergo any permanent deformation. Hence
the beam is not loaded up to wrinkling load. The readings are tabulated as given below.
The strain garages are connected in Quarter Bridge and hence the strain indicator readings
are to multiply by 4 to obtain the actual strain.
t= b= d= a=
AF = As = E=
S.No. W kg. εt εF εS σt=4E εt σF=4E εF σS=4E εS
RESULT:
σt, σF and σS values are calculated theoretically and compared with experimental values
given in the table.
σt =
σF =
σS =
Expt.No.7
CONSTANT STRENGTH BEAM
AIM:
To determine the stress at various locations along the length of a constant strength beam to
show that they are equal and compare with theoretical values.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
A constant strength beam in which the depth varies as in equation (1) and made of
Aluminum. Strain gauges, Strain indicator and weights with hook.
FORMULA USED:
𝑃(𝑥)
σ(x) =
𝑍

Where,
σ(x) = Bending strength at ‘x’ (N/mm2)
P = Applied Load (N)
Z = I/y, Section Modulus.
I = Moment of inertia (mm4)
y = Distance from neutral axis at ‘x’ position (mm)
PROCEDURE:
The constant strength beam is fixed as a cantilever. Strain gauges are fixed near the root,
at 3L/4 and L/2. The strain gauges are fixed both on the top and bottom surfaces at each location
to increase the circuit sensitivity of the strain gauge circuit. Hence half bridge used in the strain
indicator to measure the strain at each location. (Strain =Strain meter reading x 2). The beam
loaded gradually in steps of 2 Kg up to 10 Kg by placing the weights slowly in the hook near the
tip of the cantilever. (Loading hook weight 0.25Kg is to be added). The strain gauge readings area
noted for every 2kg at location A, B, C and tabulated as given below
TABULATION:
DISTANCE BENDING STRENGTH
LOCATION
FROM (N/mm2)
S NO LOAD FROM FREE
NEUTRAL
END THE EXP
AXIS
RESULT:
The stress at various locations along the length of a constant strength beam are equal and
verified with theoretical values.
Expt.No.8
BEAMS SUBJECTED TO COMPLEX LOADING
AIM:
To determine minimum and maximum principal stresses due to combined axial, bending and
torsional loads
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
➢ Combined beam setup
➢ Strain gauge
➢ Vernier caliper
FORMULA
𝜎𝑦
σ1,2 = (σx/2) ± √ 2 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦
2

Where,
σx = E (ԑa + ԑb) – Normal Stress in beam
τxy = Eԑt – Shear stress in beam
E – Young modulus
ԑa – Strain in axial direction
ԑb – Strain in transverse direction
ԑt – Strain in plane of torsion.
PROCEDURE
1. Connect the strain gauge (for axial) to the channel as quarter wave bridge in the digital
strain indicator.
2. Connect the strain gauge (for bending) to the channel as half wave bridge in the digital
strain indicator.
3. Connect the strain gauge (for torsion) to the channel as half wave bridge in the digital strain
indicator.
4. Now set the gauge factor and gauge resistance in the indicator.
5. Select the channel one and change the bridge selector to quarter wave bridge.
6. Using course and fine knob, set the reading to zero.
7. Repeat the procedure for channel two and three.
8. Now apply load in axial, bending and torsion direction.
9. Note the strain readings.
10. Using formula calculate the principal strains.
TABULATION:
AXIAL BENDING TORSION
S No ԑa ԑb ԑt σx τxy σ1 σ2
LOAD LOAD LOAD

RESULT:
The minimum and maximum principal stresses due to combined axial, bending and torsional loads
are calculated. σ1 =
σ2 =
Expt.No.9
FIND STRESSES IN CIRCULAR DISCS AND BEAMS USING PHOTO-ELASTIC
TECHNIQUES

AIM
To determine the maximum and minimum principal stresses in circular disc using polariscope.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
Polariscope setup
Loading frame
Vernier caliper
Weights

FORMULA:
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎1 = 𝑓𝜎
ℎ
𝑁
𝜎2 = 𝑓𝜎
ℎ
Where,
𝜎1 maximum principal stress
σ2 minimum principal stress
N Fringe Order
Nmax Fringe Order at the free surface of the orientation
𝑓𝜎 material stress fringe value (N/mm/fringe)
h Specimen thickness

PROCEDURE:
1. Calculate the material fringe value for different loads
2. Change the polariscope to circular polariscope mode and fix white field setup.
3. Now apply the loads and rotate the plates to get isoclinic reading for the load.
4. Rotate the analyser and make the fringe to coincide with point of interest. Note the material
fringe order.
5. Find the principal stress using the formula.
6. Repeat the procedure for different loads.
TABULATION
LOAD FRINGE PRINCIPAL
FRINGE
S NO APPLIED ORDER STRESS
VALUE
N Nmax σ1 σ2

RESULT:
The value of maximum and minimum principal stresses in circular disc using polariscope are
calculated.
1. At load_______kg
a. σ1 =
b. σ2 =
2. At load_______kg
a. σ1 =
b. σ2 =
3. At load_______kg
a. σ1 =
b. σ2 =
Expt.No.10
DETERMINATION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTOR OF TENSILE STRIP
WITH CENTRAL CIRCULAR HOLE
AIM
To determine the stress concentration factor for a finite plate with hole by Photo-elastic
experiment.
FORMULA
𝜎
Stress concentration factor, 𝑘 = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑛𝑜𝑚

Where,
𝑁𝑓𝜎
𝜎max =
ℎ
And
𝑃
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 =
(𝜔 − 𝑑)ℎ
N Fringe Order
𝑓𝜎 material stress fringe value (N/mm/fringe)
P Applied load
w, d and h - the geometric dimensions of the specimen given in Fig

PROCEDURE
1. First arrange polarizer, analyzer and quarter-wave plates for a circular polariscope
arrangement.
2. Then the Photoelastic model of plate with a hole is mounted on the loading frame.
3. The lever arm of the loading frame should be suitably adjusted so that the straightness of
the lever is maintained.
4. If it is not straight, moving the loading frame portion by up or down by using the handle
on the top can rectify it.
5. Now the loading frame is ready for loading.
6. Now the specimen is loaded and one can observe isochromatic fringe patterns.
 7. Using Tardy’s method of compensation total fringe order at the point (point P and Q as
mentioned earlier) where maximum stress developed and far-field fringe order away from
hole is to be determined.
8. After completing the experiment, specimen is taken out from the loading frame and the
geometric dimensions are measured using a vernier caliper.
Caution: Since the specimen has geometric discontinuity of varying sizes, the maximum load that
can be applied for a specimen is to be less than that of the recommended value for that specimen.
Consult the student in charge of the experiment before loading the specimen.

CALCULATION
Thickness of specimen h= mm
Width of specimen w= mm
Material stress fringe value fσ = N/mm/fringe
S. No. Load (P) N K

Trial 1

Trial 2

Trial 3

RESULT
The stress concentration factor for a finite plate with hole by Photo-elastic experiment is carried
out and the value of stress concentration factor is, k =