Glands are epithelial structures/derivatives involved in secretion of substances.

They are

often derived by invagination of the surface epithelium and subsequent projection into the

underlying connective tissue.

Secretory cells may synthesize, store, and release proteins, lipids or complexes of

carbohydrates and proteins. Epithelium of mammary glands secrete all three substances.

Scattered secretory cells, sometimes called unicellular glands, are common in simple

cuboidal, simple columnar, and pseudostratified epithelia. An important, easily seen example is

the goblet cell abundant in the lining of the small intestine and respiratory tract, which secretes

lubricating mucus that aids the function of these organs.

The body contains a variety of glands. They are classified as either exocrine glands or

endocrine glands.

Functions and Examples of Glands:

Exocrine: These glands communicate with the external environment through ducts or tubes.

They secrete their products, such as enzymes, mucus, sweat, and saliva, into ducts that carry

these substances to the body's external surfaces or cavities. Examples include salivary

glands, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

Endocrine: Endocrine glands, on the other hand, do not have ducts. They do not communicate

with the external environment. Instead, they release their secretions, which are often hormones,

directly into the bloodstream. These hormones travel through the bloodstream to target cells or
organs throughout the body, where they regulate various physiological processes. Examples

include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, and adrenal glands.

Follicles typically refer to small spherical or round structures composed of secretory

cells. "Cords" refer to elongated, cord-like arrangements of secretory cells within an endocrine

gland. These cells are often organized in a linear or branching pattern.

That is, exocrine glands are connected to the surface epithelium by excretory ducts, into which

they secrete their secretory products that pass to the external surface. In contrast, the endocrine

glands have lost their connection to the surface epithelium and their secretory products are

delivered directly into the capillaries of the connective tissue that surrounds the circulatory

system.

Classification of Glands Based on Cellular Structure

UNICELLULAR Glands (e.g: Intestinal Goblet Cells): Unicellular glands consist of a single

specialized cell that can perform secretory functions. In the case of intestinal goblet cells, they

are scattered among the cells of the lining of the intestines. These cells secrete mucus, which

plays a crucial role in lubricating the intestinal lining and protecting it from mechanical damage

and pathogens.

MULTICELLULAR Glands: Multicellular glands are composed of multiple cells organized into

glandular structures. These glands can be further classified into exocrine and endocrine glands

based on whether they have ducts and their mode of secretion:-

Exocrine Glands (with ducts): Multicellular exocrine glands have ducts or tubes that transport

their secretions to specific locations. They can be further categorized into mucus-producing
(e.g., salivary glands) or serous-producing (e.g: sweat glands) glands based on the type of

secretion they produce.

Endocrine Glands (ductless): Multicellular endocrine glands lack ducts, and their secretions

(hormones) are released directly into the bloodstream. These hormones are carried by the

bloodstream to target cells or organs throughout the body, where they regulate various

physiological processes.

N.B: In chronic bronchitis, common among habitual smokers, the number of goblet cells

in the lining of airways in the lungs often increases greatly. This leads to excessive mucus

production in areas where there are too few ciliated cells for its rapid removal and contributes to

obstruction of the airways.

Summary: Exocrine glands are either unicellular or multicellular. Unicellular glands consist of

single cells. The mucus-secreting goblet cells found in the epithelia of the small and large

intestines and in the respiratory passages are the best examples of unicellular glands.

Classification of Exocrine Cells

SIMPLE Exocrine Glands (1 duct): Simple exocrine glands have a single duct through which

they release their secretions onto a surface or into a body cavity. These glands are typically

unbranched and consist of a single duct and a cluster of secretory cells. Examples of simple

exocrine glands include sweat glands and sebaceous (oil) glands.

COMPOUND Exocrine Glands (small ducts → large ducts): Compound exocrine glands are

more complex in structure. They consist of a branching network of ducts that transport their

secretions. The ducts start as smaller ducts that eventually converge into larger ducts before
releasing the secretion onto a surface or into a body cavity. Examples of compound exocrine

glands include the salivary glands and mammary glands.

Structural Components of Exocrine Glands

Secretory Part: This refers to the portion of the exocrine gland responsible for producing

and secreting the gland's product. The secretory part is made up of specialized secretory cells

that synthesize and release the gland's secretion. This can take the form of tubular structures

(tubular glands) or rounded structures resembling a cluster of grapes (acini or alveoli)

- Tubular: Tubular glands have a structure that resembles a tube or duct. The secretory

cells form a long, narrow tube-like structure for secretion.

- Acini/Alveoli: This refers to rounded, sac-like structures within the secretory part of the

gland. These structures often resemble a cluster of grapes and are involved in the

synthesis and storage of the gland's secretory product.

Excretory Part: The excretory part of the exocrine gland is responsible for transporting

the gland's secretion from the secretory cells to the outside of the gland. This part includes

ducts that carry the secretion away from the secretory cells.

- Duct: Ducts are tubular structures that connect the secretory part of the gland to the

external environment. They serve as conduits for the gland's secretory product to exit

the gland and reach its target destination, such as the body surface or a body cavity.
● A "mucous acinus" refers to a specific structural component of certain exocrine glands,

particularly those that produce and secrete mucous or mucus.

● Mucous acini are often found in exocrine glands associated with mucous

membrane-lined organs, such as the respiratory tract and digestive tract. These acini

contain goblet cells that produce mucus, which is then released into the respective

organ's lumen (cavity) to provide lubrication and protection.

● In the respiratory system, mucous acini are essential for trapping and clearing foreign

particles, such as dust and microorganisms, to maintain lung health.

 ● "Serous acinus" is a structural unit within an exocrine gland that is specialized for

producing and secreting serous fluid.

● Serous acini are commonly found in exocrine glands associated with the production of

enzymes and other substances that are involved in processes like digestion. Examples

of such glands include the salivary glands, the pancreas (specifically its exocrine

portion), and some sweat glands.

- For example: In the salivary glands, serous acini produces serous saliva, which contains

enzymes like amylase to initiate the digestion of carbohydrates.

Types of Exocrine Glands

1. Merocrine (Eccrine) Glands: These glands release their secretions through exocytosis,

which involves the release of secretory vesicles containing the product. Examples

include sweat glands and salivary glands.

2. Apocrine Glands: These glands release secretions through the shedding of the apical

portion of the cell, which contains the secretory product. Apocrine sweat glands are an

example.

3. Holocrine Glands: In holocrine glands, entire cells laden with secretory product

disintegrate to release their contents. Sebaceous (oil) glands in the skin are holocrine

glands.

Types of Glands: Exocrine Glands, Exocrine Glands and Paracrine Glands

Paracrine glands are a subset of exocrine glands that secrete their products into the interstitial

fluid, also known as the extracellular fluid or tissue fluid.