Climate Gualdi 1

Climate and Global Changes in the Age
of Sustainable Development
1
The main basic features
of the Earth Climate
Silvio Gualdi
Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici,
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia
Climate and Global Changes in the Age of

Sustainable Development,
Polytechnic University of Milan
28th of September 2022
Introduction
Three Lectures on
“Climate and Global Changes in the Age of
Sustainable Development”
Corso di Studi della Laurea Magistrale in Ingegneria per l’Ambiente
e il Territorio (Environmental Engineering for Sustainability).
Silvio Gualdi
Centro Euro-Mediterraneo sui Cambiamenti Climatici
• Objective of the lectures: to provide a basic understanding of the main features

of the climate system and its variability and to illustrate the simple basic principles
underpinning climate dynamics and climate predictions.
The lectures target an audience of undergraduate students.

Outline
Lecture 1: the main basic feature of Earth’s climate
The main basic characteristics of the of the Earth’s climate are presented, discussing the most
important aspects such as the global energy balance, the effects related to the land–sea
contrast or those associated with the seasonal cycle. Besides, the main modes of climate
variability are introduced, considering the monsoon circulations, the interannual variability
associated with the El Niño phenomenon and the decadal oscillations of Pacific and Atlantic.
Lecture 2: The Earth’s climate system and its dynamics

The fundamental aspects of the dynamics of the Earth’s climate are illustrated and discussed,
starting from the development of a simple radiative balance model, which is then progressively
improved introducing convection (radiative-convective balance model), up to a quick derivation
of the primitive equations for the atmosphere. Some example of simple formulations of the
primitive equations are then discussed (e.g. the shallow-water equations). Finally some basic
modes of the climate variability (e.g. El Niño/Southern Oscillation) will be interpreted on the
basis of the dynamics of the system.
Lecture 3: Modelling the climate system

The basic principles concerning the discretization and numerical solution of the primitive
equations are illustrated. The main concepts underpinning the development of climate models
and their use are discussed. The concept of deterministic chaos is then introduced discussing the
Lorenz idealised system and the problem of predicting the evolution of the Earth’s climate.
Predictability of the first kind and predictability of the second kind. Climate predictions and
climate change projections are discussed.
Bibliography
Climate and Climate System:

• Goosse H. et al., 2010: Introduction to climate dynamics and climate modelling. Online textbook,
www.climate.be/textbook
• Introduction to Tropical Meteorology 2nd Edition Produced by The COMET® Program www.goes-
r.gov/users/comet/tropical/textbook_2nd_edition
Climate Change:
• IPCC-AR6: Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-i/
Some papers: …
Part 1 - The main basic features of the Earth’s climate
Weather or Climate?
• Weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular
place over a short period of time. For example, in these
days in Milan, weather is cool and wet.
Weather ! Meteorology
• Climate refers to the weather conditions of a place over a

long period (30 years or more) long enough to yield
meaningful statistics. For example, although weather in
Milan is cool and wet these days, Milan’s climate is
relatively warm and drier most of the time in September.
Climate ! Climatology
“Climate is what we expect and weather is what we get” (Anonymous)

THE EARTH CLIMATE

Prior to the 1950s, climate was essentially a descriptive science, though general
ideas of the general circulation of the atmosphere and the oceans already existed
Köppen climate zones
Main groups
• Tropical rainy climate: all months > +18 C
• Dry climate: Evaporation > Precipitation
• Mild humid climate: coldest month +18 C - -3 C
• Snowy - forest climate: coldest month < -3C
but warmest > +10
• Polar climate: warmest month < +10 C
• Tundra climate: warmest month > 0 C
THE EARTH CLIMATE

From Climate as a stationary concept (Köppen) ! To Climate as a dynamical system
Over the past 70 years the directions of climate research have changed
driven by improved observations (satellites etc.) and mathematical modelling
• Climate is nowadays generally defined as a comprehensive statistical description

of weather (including extremes) over a sufficiently long period of time (30-100 yrs)
• There is no sharp distinction between weather and climate
• There are free atmospheric modes of circulation that have time-scales of up to

about two years (quasi-biennal oscillation)
• There are coupled ocean-atmospheric modes that have time-scales from weeks to
several decades.
• There are oceanic modes of circulation that have time-scales of up to hundreds of

years
• There are processes involving the cryosphere that have time-scales of up to

thousands of years
Definition of Climate System:
GARP (Global Atmosphere Research Programme of the WMO) 1975:
“as being composed of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere,

land surface and biosphere”.
FCCC (Framework Convention on Climate Change, UN) 1992:
“the totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and

geosphere and their interactions”.
The two definitions are very similar, but the emphasis on the interactions
has increased in the 30 years since 1975, both in the definition and in the
scientific literature.
THE CLIMATE SYSTEM

The pictorial form
9
Atmosphere and Ocean

• Constituents
Atmosphere: well mixed gases: N2, O2, He, + traces (H2O, CO2, O3...)
Ocean: water + salts + traces (bio-geochemistry)
• Depth Atmosphere: HA ≈ 10 km
Ocean: HO ≈ 4 km
• Density Atmosphere: ρA ≈ 1.2 kg m-3

Ocean: ρO ≈ 1000 kg m-3
Mass of the atmosphere ≈ mass of upper 10m of ocean

Atmosphere and Ocean
• Heat Content
Atmosphere: CpA = 103 J Kg-1 K-1
Ocean: CpO = 4 103 J Kg-1 K-1
ρHCp ΔT = Q
Thermal inertial of the atmosphere = that of 2.5 m of ocean

12
from Ruddiman, 2001, Earth's Climate, Past and Future

Annual mean net incoming solar radiation at the top of

the atmosphere that is absorbed by the Earth (W m-2)
Trenberth and Stepaniak (2003). Copyright

American Meteorological Society (AMS).
Annual mean net outgoing longwave radiation at the

top of the atmosphere emitted by the Earth (in Wm-2)
Trenberth and Stepaniak (2003). Copyright

American Meteorological Society (AMS).
net incoming (solar radiation)
net outgoing (longwave radiation)

There is surplus of absorbed energy in the

Tropics and a deficit at the high latitudes
There is surplus of absorbed energy in the

Tropics and a deficit at the high latitudes
In its essence, the climate can be seen as determined by the balance between the
incoming solar radiation, the emitted (outgoing) terrestrial radiation and the heat
transport from the low latitudes (where absorbed solar radiation prevails) to the high
latitudes (where the loss of energy due to the outgoing long-wave radiation prevails)
from K.E. Trenberth

Northward Energy Flux
∂Eao
= RTOA - ΔFao
∂t
equilibrium
∂Eao
∂t
RTOA = ΔFao
𝜙
(Hartmann)
Northward Energy Flux

Poleward Energy Flux

Poleward energy transport in different ocean basins

Annual Mean 2m Air Temperature

Warm air rises … convection

Warm air rises …

Annual
Annual Mean Precipitation
Mean Precipitation GPCP (1988-96)
mm/day
Earth's General Atmospheric Circulation
(WINDS and PRESSURE)
© The COMET Program

Fig. 1.13. Annual averaged northward energy flux by the atmosphere (data from Oort 1971, AMS ).15 Units are 1015 W.
Meridional energy transport is divided between mean meridional transport and eddy motion
(waves)..
Between the equator and about 15°N, a large portion of the energy transport is by the mean
meridional circulation (MMC), also known as the Hadley cell.
In comparison, midlatitude transport is mostly by eddies (midlatitude cyclones).
Longitudinal gradients in energy distribution are due to topography and oceanic warm pools.
Longitudinal gradients in energy distribution are due to topography and oceanic warm pools.
Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

Mean sea surface temperature (SST) and wind
Thermocline
Vertical section of
the upper equatorial
Pacific
Positive (Bjerknes)
feedback amplifies
the SST gradient
and the Walker
circulation
January Mean 2m Air Temperature

July Mean 2m Air Temperature

Temperature Annual range

Different heat
capacity
from Ruddiman, 2001, Earth's Climate, Past and Future

Different thermal
response
January Mean Precipitation

January Mean Precipitation GPCP (1988-96)
mm/day
July Mean Precipitation

July Mean PrecipitationGPCP (1988-96)
mm/day
Inter–Tropical
Convergence Zone
(ITCZ)
Seasonal cycle ! monsoon

Observed SST standard deviation
°C
Circulation along the equatorial Pacific

Normal conditions

El Niño onset conditions

El Niño conditions
An oscillation between two different state:

El Niño (warm phase) and La Niña (cold phase)
Indices of El Niño (or ENSO = El Niño - Southern Oscillation)

indicate a quasi-periodic behaviour
SOI = Southern Oscillation Index

= SLP(Tahiti) - SLP(Darwin)
(Walker, 1932)
SST anomaly in the eastern

equatorial
Pacific
COMET® Program
The largest observed El Niño(1997-98) and La Niña (1988-89)

Not only the atmosphere

and the ocean surface
The impacts of El Niño
winter
summer
COMET® Program
The impacts of La Niña
winter
summer
COMET® Program
Other “modes” of climate variability
COMET® Program
a) AMO index: the ten-year

running mean of detrended
Atlantic sea surface
temperature anomaly (SSTA,
°C) north of the equator.
b) red and blue colored dots

represent positive and
negative correlations of
Northern Hemisphere summer
rainfall with the AMO index.
COMET® Program
Climate variability is determined by processes

occurring at very different time and spatial scales
© The COMET Program

End of Lecture 1

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Climate and Global Changes in the Age

Climate and Global Changes in the Age of

• Objective of the lectures: to provide a basic understanding of the main features

The lectures target an audience of undergraduate students.

Lecture 2: The Earth’s climate system and its dynamics

Lecture 3: Modelling the climate system

Climate and Climate System:

• Climate refers to the weather conditions of a place over a

“Climate is what we expect and weather is what we get” (Anonymous)

THE EARTH CLIMATE

Köppen climate zones

THE EARTH CLIMATE

• Climate is nowadays generally defined as a comprehensive statistical description

• There is no sharp distinction between weather and climate

• There are free atmospheric modes of circulation that have time-scales of up to

• There are oceanic modes of circulation that have time-scales of up to hundreds of

• There are processes involving the cryosphere that have time-scales of up to

Definition of Climate System:

GARP (Global Atmosphere Research Programme of the WMO) 1975:

“as being composed of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere,

FCCC (Framework Convention on Climate Change, UN) 1992:

“the totality of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere and

THE CLIMATE SYSTEM

Atmosphere and Ocean

• Density Atmosphere: ρA ≈ 1.2 kg m-3

Mass of the atmosphere ≈ mass of upper 10m of ocean

Atmosphere and Ocean

Thermal inertial of the atmosphere = that of 2.5 m of ocean

from Ruddiman, 2001, Earth's Climate, Past and Future

Annual mean net incoming solar radiation at the top of

Trenberth and Stepaniak (2003). Copyright

Annual mean net outgoing longwave radiation at the

Trenberth and Stepaniak (2003). Copyright

net incoming (solar radiation)

net outgoing (longwave radiation)

There is surplus of absorbed energy in the

There is surplus of absorbed energy in the

from K.E. Trenberth

Northward Energy Flux

Northward Energy Flux

Poleward Energy Flux

Poleward energy transport in different ocean basins

Annual Mean 2m Air Temperature

Warm air rises … convection

Warm air rises …

© The COMET Program

Sea Surface Temperature (SST)

Mean sea surface temperature (SST) and wind

January Mean 2m Air Temperature

July Mean 2m Air Temperature

Temperature Annual range

from Ruddiman, 2001, Earth's Climate, Past and Future

January Mean Precipitation

July Mean Precipitation

Seasonal cycle ! monsoon

Observed SST standard deviation

Circulation along the equatorial Pacific

Circulation along the equatorial Pacific

Circulation along the equatorial Pacific

An oscillation between two different state:

Indices of El Niño (or ENSO = El Niño - Southern Oscillation)

SOI = Southern Oscillation Index

SST anomaly in the eastern