MAK 4057E Vehicle Systems Design

MAK 4057E
Lecture 2b – Road Resistances

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Özgen Akalın

Slides do not cover the complete course material and

can not be used as a single resource.
Classroom use only!

Road resistances

n Aerodynamic resistance
n Rolling resistance
n Grade resistance
n Drawbar resistance
n Acceleration (Inertia forces)
n Steering resistance

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Aerodynamic resistance is generated by two

sources:

n Flow over the exterior of the vehicle body

(90 %)
n Flow through the engine radiator and the

interior of the vehicle for purposes of cooling,

heating and ventilation. (10 %)

The external air flow generates normal pressure

and shear stress on the vehicle body

n Pressure drag (90 %)

n Skin friction (10 %)

In practice, the aerodynamic resistance is

expressed in the following form:
1
Ra = rCD Af Vr 2
2 Speed of vehicle relative to wind
Frontal area
Drag coefficient 0,3-0,5
Mass density of air

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Aerodynamic lift:
1
RL = rCL Af Vr 2
2
Coefficient of aerodynamic lift
CLR, CLF: Rear and front lift coefficients
Aerodynamic pitching moment:
1
Ma = rCM Af LCVr 2
2
Characteristic length
Wheelbase or overall length
Pitching moment coefficient
CM=0,05-0,20

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Air density

n Atmospheric conditions affect air density, and

hence aerodynamic resistance
n Temperature: 0à38 °C, r ¯14 %
n Altitude: 0à1219m, r ¯ 17 %
n Standard testing conditions: 520 ° Rankin
(15,5 ° C or 60 ° F)
n Barometric pressure 101,32 kPa (76 cm or
29,92 in Hg)
n r =1,23 kg/m3 @ STC

Drag coefficient CD is a function of

Vehicle design and Operational factors.

n Fore body n Ground clearance

n After body n Loading conditions
n Underbody n Radiator
n Drip-rails open/blanked
n Window recesses n Window open/closed
n External mirrors n Angle of attack
n Mud flaps

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Drag coefficients

CD=0.28
CD=0.27
CD=0.26
CD=0.25

CD=0.25

CD=0.189

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CD

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Power requirements

Rolling resistance

n The rolling resistance of tires on hard surfaces

is primarily caused by the hysteresis in the tire
materials due to the deflection of the carcass
while rolling.
n Friction between tire road caused by sliding.
n The resistance due to air circulating inside the
tire.
n The fan effect of the rotating tire also
contribute to the rolling resistance of the tire
(secondary importance)

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Rolling resistance (Free rolling)

FZ

FR

FZ

Fz.e=FR.r
FR=FZ.e/r=FZ.fR

nCoefficient of rolling
resistance (fR)

Rolling resistance

n Rolling resistance due to toe-in

Toe-in

Very small, can be neglected

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Rolling resistance

n Friction in roller bearings

(can be neglected)
n Road irregularities, energy absorbed by
shock absorbers, strut, etc.
(can be significant on bumpy roads)

Rolling resistance

n f is very sensitive to speed around the “critical speed” of a tire.

Ref. G. Genta, Motor Vehicle
Dynamics, Modeling and
Simulation,
World Scientific, 1997, p. 46.
V

Vcritical

n At or above Vcritical, the deformation/relaxation process of the

contact patch occurs at a frequency matching the lowest
harmonic mode of the tire. Standing waves are generated along
the tire circumference.

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Rolling resistance coefficients, average values of radial tyres as a function of the

speed, measured on a drum test rig. Tyres authorized up to 210 km h–1 have a
lower rolling resistance below 160 km h–1 (than the V and W designs) whilst the
value rises sharply above this speed (measurements: Continental).

Rolling resistance

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Grade resistance

Rg= ±W.Sinq
For small angles sinq @ tanq

WSi
nq
sq
WCo
W

If the car is going downwards the resistance is negative

Acceleration Resistance

Racc= l.m.a

m: Translational mass
l : Rotational inertia coefficient
a : Acceleration

l= 1.45 1.st gear (Typical 5-speed transmission passenger car)

l= 1.15 2.nd gear
l= 1.08 3.rd gear
l= 1.05 4.th gear
l= 1.03 5.th gear

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Acceleration Resistance

Jw.wW

J2.w2 J1.w1
ENGINE

Rotational inertia coefficients

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Steering resistance

FyRL

mV /r
2

FL
Fy
V

FyRR FyFR

If the tires are steered. The side forces of these tires have
a rearward component along the vehicle axis.

Course slides are for classroom use only. Publication, reproduction or

distribution of materials by any means whatsoever including, but not
limited to, conventional printing, electronic imaging, photocopying,
scanning, electronic transmission via internet or e-mail, or placing such
material on any website anywhere in the world is strictly prohibited.

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