MAK 4057E Vehicle Systems Design

MAK 4057E
Lecture 2a – Tire Forces and Moments

Instructor: Prof. Dr. Özgen Akalın

Slides do not cover the complete course material and

can not be used as a single resource.
Classroom use only!
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Static Friction and Kinetic Friction

F m

F m

!"#

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MAK 4057E Vehicle Systems Design

Stick-slip Motion / Adhesion

Tire forces

Fx

Fz

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SAE Tire axis system

1) Tire Longitudinal Dynamics

n When a braking torque is applied to the tire,

a streching of the tire tread elements occurs
prior to the entering the contact area, in
contrast with the compression effect for a
driven tire.
n The distance that the tire travels when
braking torque is applied, therefore, will be
greater than that in free rolling.

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Contact pressure distribution

a) Braking b) Traction

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Longitudinal slip (Skid)

n Longitudinal forces are generated by slippage between the tire

and the road.
n The longitudinal slip in this case is defined as:

rw - v
s = ´ 100 rw > v (acceleration)
rw
v - rw (braking)
s = ´ 100 v > rw
v
r = effective wheel radius
w = wheel angular velocity
v = linear velocity of the wheel

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Tractive -Braking effort

n At first, the wheel torque and tractive force increase

linearly with slip, because initially slip is mainly due
to elastic deformation of the tire tread.
n A further increase of wheel torque and tractive force
result in part of the tire tread sliding on the ground.
(Max. tractive force at 15-20 % slip)
n Any further increase of slip beyond that results in an
unstable condition, with tractive effort falling rapidly
from the peak value to pure sliding value.

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Traction Braking

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Tractive -Braking effort

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Tractive -Braking effort

wThe Force-slip curves have a stable and

an unstable region.

Force peak unstable

stable

slip
1.0

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Tractive -Braking effort

n Once the tire longitudinal slip transitions from

the stable to unstable region, the tire road
system rapidly progresses to “wheel lockup”
faster than most human can control.

n In the stable region, it is relatively easy for a

person to control the amount of braking effort
(i.e. longitudinal force) put out.

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Tractive -Braking effort

wThe peak value of force occurs at about 10-15%

of total slip.
µ
1
0.9
Dry road
0.4-0.6
Wet road

0.1~0.2
ice

slip
.1~.15 1

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Tractive -Braking effort

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The Effect of Speed

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

2) Tire Lateral Dynamics

n The elements of the tire enter the contact patch initially

unreformed. As the tire moves forward, the elements of
the tire remain in contact with the road in their original
configuration. As a result, they are deflected laterally
with respect to the tire, producing a lateral force on the
tire.

n As each element moves to the end of the contact patch,

the lateral force builds up until it becomes larger than
the available friction force. At this point, the elements
slip and as they leave the contact patch, the lateral force
is reduced to zero.
Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Cornering properties of tires

effective
lateral
force T. Gillespie, Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics
SAE Press, 1992, p 348.

road contact point

(center pt.)
Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Slip angle

n If the tire is viewed from above

x
a
Wheel velocity
y

n a is termed the slip angle

n The tire may be steered and have a slip angle as well

x body vehicle longitudinal axis.

y d
wheel plane
body a
velocity of wheel center

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Slip angle

n The slip angle is the angle between the

longitudinal plane of the wheel and the
velocity vector of the wheel center.

n The steer angle is the angle between the

longitudinal axis of the vehicle and the
longitudinal plane of the wheel.

n For a non-zero slip angle, the tire contact

patch area is laterally deflected and twisted.

Slip angle

slip angle
wheel initial wheel
a
path heading direction

t1

to

n Footsteps analogy:

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Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Pneumatic trail

n The action of the effective force doesn’t occur

at the effective wheel center contact point.
n The distance between the point of action of the lateral
force and the tire-road contact point is
called the “pneumatic trail.”
n (The pneumatic trail is behind the tire-road
contact point)

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Self aligning moment

n The lateral force ´ the pneumatic trail leads to a

moment about the vertical axis of the tire. This is called
the “self-aligning moment” and is usually present for
small a.
n At large a, the “self-aligning moment” is unstable.

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Self aligning moment

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Self aligning moment

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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Tire Forces

Lateral force

~ linear
region

~ 10 - 15° 90° a

Self aligning moment

~ linear
region
a
~ 15°

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Tire Forces

n The forces obtained by the changes in slip angle do

not occur instantaneously.

n The actual force lags the steady-state force because of

the delay in deflecting the sidewalls of the tire to
generate the lateral force. The lag is therefore a
function of the rotation of the tire usually taking ½ to
1 revolution of the tire to reach steady state.

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Cornering properties of tires

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Cornering properties of tires

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Cornering stiffness

n Cornering stiffness is a linear approximation to the lateral force

vs. slip angle curve at low slip angles.

¶Fy = N/rad
Ca : cornering stiffness º
¶a a = 0

sliding
Fy
Lateral Force transition
N C ¶F
a
¶a y
a (deg) or rad
linear ~3deg 5-7deg
region

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

Cα < Cα < Cα

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Carpet plot

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3- Combined traction / braking and

cornering

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Combined braking and cornering

Friction circle

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Combined braking and cornering

Friction circle

Dr. Ozgen AKALIN

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