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Continuity Risk in Narrow Reef Gold Deposits – Implications for
Evaluation and Exploitation
S C Dominy1,2 and I M Platten3
ABSTRACT
Narrow reef gold deposits are generally less than 4 m in width and
relatively complex geological phenomena. They often display variable
geometry, attitude, continuity and internal architecture. Economic grades
are mostly restricted to specific structural domain(s) and localised within
discrete ore shoots that have a nuggety internal grade distribution. On
account of the often extended history of geological events, the specific
factors localising gold-rich domains are likely to be unique to a particular
mine or even reef. These features lead to a high resource risk and require
careful management during both evaluation and mining. The gross form,
location and global continuity of gold reefs can generally be determined
from surface diamond drilling leading to the definition of Inferred
Mineral Resources. It is likely that for the definition of Indicated and
Measured Mineral Resources underground development and/or close-
spaced diamond drilling will be required. Understanding geometry and
continuity permits the resource to be more effectively managed, lowering
risk/uncertainty. This in turn will allow for well-informed financial
and operational decisions. Most importantly, project expectations and
milestones can be set at achievable levels.
INTRODUCTION
The major challenge during narrow gold reef resource evaluation
and exploitation is determining and managing their inherently
high risk profile. Risk relates to issues of grade and geological
continuity, and in particular variable vein geometry and internal
architecture, erratic grade distribution and generally a high to
extreme nugget effect (Dominy et al, 1997, 1999, 2000a, 2003,
2004).
If the key risks can be understood, then an evaluation program
can be designed to manage them through appropriate strategies.
Most importantly, project expectations and milestones can be set
at realistic levels. The role of geological interpretation is pivotal
in understanding continuity risk and thus managing wider
resource risk.
Many narrow reefs are characterised by coarse gold and a high
nugget effect, where representative sampling and evaluation will
be challenging. The difficulty of evaluating narrow high-nugget
effect systems is well-documented (Dominy et al, 1997, 1999,
2000b, 2001, 2003; Dominy, Stephenson and Annels, 2003).
A key part of any risk control strategy will include the
application of structural geological principals through mapping,
core logging, data interpretation and geological modelling.
Structural geological studies of reef systems are often absent
during evaluation and exploitation programs or where present,
lack rigour or focus. This is despite the fact that the JORC Code
and other reporting codes require geology and hence continuity
to be considered (Sinclair and Vallée, 1994; Dominy and Phelps,
1996; Dominy et al, 1999; Dominy, Platten and Raine, 2003;
1. FAusIMM(CP), Executive Consultant and General Manager (UK),
Snowden Mining Industry Consultants Limited, Abbey House,
Wellington Way, Brooklands Business Park, Weybridge Surrey KT13
0TT, England. Email: sdominy@snowdengroup.com
2. Adjunct Principal Research Fellow, School of Science and
Engineering, University of Ballarat, University Drive, Mount Helen
Vic 3353.
3. Principal Geologist, Snowden Mining Industry Consultants Limited,
Abbey House, Wellington Way, Brooklands Business Park,
Weybridge Surrey KT13 0TT, England.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
Platten and Dominy, 2003; Dominy, 2004a; 2005). The definition
of continuity models can form the basis for understanding
continuity in the context of evaluation (Dominy, Platten and
Raine, 2003; Dominy, 2005).
Geological studies are shown to have a positive impact on
evaluation and mining by lowering uncertainty and risk (Peters,
1993; Cox et al, 1995; Cuffley et al, 1998; McCuaig, Vann and
Seymour, 2000; Baxter and Yates, 2001; Nugus et al, 2003;
Dominy, Platten and Raine, 2003; Tripp and Vearncombe, 2004;
Monteiro, Fyfe and Chemale, 2004; Snowden, 2006b, 2008a).
Many studies are academic and, however, whilst scientifically
rigorous, often lack the focus required to aid evaluation and
exploitation. In particular, they fail to investigate the relationship
between geological and grade continuity.
In some projects the re-interpretation of historical data using
modern 3D modelling techniques has played a major role in
understanding reef geology and grade distribution/controls
(Dominy et al, 2004; Morrison, Storey and Towsey, 2004; Fraser,
Bartlett and Quigley, 2004; Dominy, in press).
Resource evaluation depends upon geological models that
provide a sound, confident expectation that the defined volume is
mineralised throughout. Investigations must yield information as
to the nature of reef geometry, internal architecture, geological
continuity and controls on gold localisation and distribution.
REEF GEOLOGY
Narrow reefs are generally less than 4 m in width and may
comprise one individual vein, or be made up of numerous
individual veins forming a larger ‘lode’ or ‘reef’ structure
(Figure 1). They contain both barren and productive segments
with gold grade varying laterally, vertically and across the body
(eg Platten and Dominy, 2003). Reef formation generally has a
complex and extended history, related to the emplacement of
relatively barren and gold-rich vein elements at different stages.
Although it is a comparatively easy matter to establish the
geological continuity of the global structure during diamond
drilling, the tracing of individual gold-rich veins or domains
(eg local geological continuity) and determining their extent
within the reef is more difficult. This is accentuated when the
gold distribution in the vein is erratic (high-nugget effect), as it
may not be present in cores where the gold-carrying structure is
intersected in a locally barren area.
Based on various field-based studies, there is evidence to show
that different gold grade and particle sizing characteristics are
often related to specific structural (continuity) domains. For
example, studies at Ballarat (Australia) have shown that
fine-gold particle populations are associated with low-grade
(<3 g/t Au) steep west dipping veins, whereas coarse gold is
principally related to flat- to east-dipping veins (>3 g/t Au) that
extend away from the larger west-dipping structures (Dunn,
1929; Olsen, 2005; Osborne, 2008). Similar studies in the
Dolgellau gold-belt (United Kingdom) have shown that high-
grade (>120 g/t Au) coarse gold mineralisation is restricted to
discrete veins within a larger low-grade (<5 g/t Au) mother reef
(Platten and Dominy, 2003). At Bendigo (Australia), Dominy,
Platten and Raine (2003) noted that on the local scale, the
gold-rich veins (>100 g/t Au) are generally narrow and
discontinuous containing clusters of visible gold. These veins
form part of a larger lower grade reef structure (<2 g/t Au).
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S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

grade at various scales. Grade risk is related to grade information

that should be based on quality sampling and assaying of the reef
from either drilling and/or underground development. A number
of continuity risks are associated with the resource evaluation of
gold-quartz reefs (Table 1).

TABLE 1
Key continuity criteria that impact on resource risk for narrow
gold reefs.
Uncertainty criteria Principal resource Comment
risk contribution
Gross geological Tonnage risk Gross continuity
continuity controls the overall
economic mineralised
zone volume.
Reef geometry: dip, Tonnage risk Local variations in reef
strike, width, etc geometry will lead to
local tonnage
uncertainty. Prediction
of effects will depend
upon scale and data
density.
Grade distribution Grade risk Gross localisation of
control: small-scale gold within shoots
geological continuity controls grade risk. The
and ore shoot controls scale of the shoots will
determine ease of
definition.

Resource risk includes additional factors such as mineralogy,

FIG 1 - Examples of narrow gold reef structures. (A) Main Vein,
440 west level in the Nalunaq gold mine, Southern Greenland.
High-grade (>20 g/t Au) laminated quartz vein showing relatively
continuous wallrock layers (extending >1 m) and discontinuous
layers traceable for a few centimetres. Field of view 2 m (source:
Snowden, 2006b). (B) Cononish Vein, exploration adit, Cononish
gold mine, Scotland, UK. Massive low-grade (1 - 3 g/t Au) white
quartz vein bearing a high-grade (>20 g/t Au) shear zone with
sulfides. Field of view 3 m (source: Snowden, 2008a).
There are three levels of complexity involved in localisation of
gold in reef structures. Firstly, the internal distribution in the
immediate host structure may be controlled by textural
development of the major reef filling minerals to give an
irregular distribution of gold. Secondly, the primary shape and
dimensions of the host reef are controlled mostly by slip
directions and initial fracture shape. Fracture pattern and
deformation style may be controlled in part by the behaviour of
the rest of the reef and its host rock. Finally, the variable
relationships of the gold-rich vein(s) to whole reef, particularly
the effect of later deformation, minor igneous intrusions and
veins on its position and continuity relative to the gross reef
envelope.
CONTINUITY RISK
There are two significant risks related to resource evaluation: risk
on tonnage (‘geological risk’) and risk on grade (‘grade risk’).
Both geological and grade continuity (and variability) have an
obvious impact on both.
Grade risk is usually greater than geological risk, though the
effect of the latter should not be understated. Geological risk is
related to the identification of economic volumes from both
geological and grade data (ie drilling and/or underground
development), and must consider continuity of both geology and
sampling and assaying quality, survey data, data density, bulk
density, estimation methods, etc which are out of the scope of
this discourse (Dominy, Noppé and Annels, 2004).
The application of matrices to communicate aspects of
resource risk is common (Annels, 1996; McCuaig, Vann and
Seymour, 2000; Annels and Dominy, 2002; Dominy, Noppé and
Annels, 2004). This contribution presents a simple six score
classification for continuity risk based on the criteria given
in Table 1. The system uses numerical scores which are defined
in Table 2. Examples of the classification are given in the case
studies.
The more continuous and uniform the mineralisation, the
fewer the number of data points (eg drill holes and samples)
needed for a given level of confidence and acceptable risk.
Continuity risk can be directly linked to resource classifications
using international reporting codes (eg JORC, 2004). The JORC
Code defines the confirmation of grade and geological continuity
for Measured Mineral Resources, through to assumed geological
(and/or grade) continuity for Inferred Mineral Resources
(Table 3). The JORC Code and other reporting codes are
important risk communication tools.
CASE STUDIES
This contribution presents two case studies representing project
evaluation (Clogau mine, North Wales, United Kingdom) and
production (Nalunaq mine, Southern Greenland). Each presents
how geological studies have led to a better understanding of the
nature of continuity risk and show how it is being used to
manage resource/reserve risk.
Clogau gold mine
Introduction
The Clogau gold mine is situated within the Dolgellau gold-belt
of North Wales (Figure 2). With a recorded total production of
over 100 000 oz Au, Clogau is Britain’s largest producing mine.

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS – IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION

TABLE 2
Definition of the continuity risk score and its practical meaning. Note that precision figures are given for indicative purposes only and do not relate
to any specific resource classification or estimation methodology. Precision will depend upon geology, nugget effect and data density, etc.

Risk score Implied meaning Practical meaning for resource

1-2 Little or no perceived risk Such a score is unlikely for a narrow vein gold reef unless it is characterised by a low nugget effect and
(Low risk) (low uncertainty) simple geology and geometry. Indicated precision on tonnes and grade less than ±10%.
3-4 Some risk that could lead to Indicates a moderate risk profile related to grade and/or geological variability. Drilling alone may be
(Moderate risk) material error in the resource able to define Ore Reserves, though underground development may be required. Indicated precision
model on grade and tonnes in the range ±10% to ±20%.
5-6 Strong risk that could lead to Indicates a high level of grade and/or geological variability. Likely to result in uncertainly in both
(High risk) material error in the resource grade and tonnes. Possible that Ore Reserves will be difficult to define in large quantities and will be
model (high uncertainty) driven by underground development and a ‘blocking out’ approach. Indicated precision on grade and
tonnes in the range ±20% to ±40%, or possibly higher.

TABLE 3
JORC (2004) Code requirements for geological and grade continuity in the definition of Inferred, Indicated and Measured Mineral
Resources.
Inferred Mineral Resource Indicated Mineral Resource Measured Mineral Resource
It is inferred (the resource) from geological The locations (drill hole intersections, etc) are too The locations (drill hole intersections, etc) are
evidence and assumed but not verified geological widely or inappropriately spaced to confirm spaced closely enough to confirm geological and
and/or grade continuity geological and/or grade continuity but are spaced grade continuity
closely enough for continuity to be assumed

FIG 2 - Geological summary and location map of the Dolgellau gold belt (from Platten and Dominy, 1999).

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 33

S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN
Production was first recorded around 1840 and the main mines of
the belt (Clogau, Gwynfynydd and Cefn Coch mines) have been
worked sporadically since then (Hall, 1988). Clogau operated
during 1982 to 1987 and 1992 to 1998, and was again explored
during 2000 and 2006 though no mining took place.
A Mines Royal Gold Licence (exploration) has recently been
acquired (September 2008) for a 120 km2 area of the gold-belt,
including the Clogau mine by Gold Mines of Wales Limited
(‘GMWL’), a subsidiary of the privately owned Victorian Gold
Limited. GMWL have commenced a thorough revaluation of the
gold-belt, including the Clogau mine. There are no mineral
resources defined at Clogau.
A unique feature of the Dolgellau gold-belt is that the gold
produced has traditionally been used to produce Welsh Gold
jewellery, which can be sold at a premium above the gold price.
The product and its premium are related to the notion of ‘Royal
Gold’ and the use of Welsh Gold by the British Royal Family. In
Great Britain, the rights to all precious metals are vested in The
Crown.
Dolgellau gold-belt mineralisation shows many broad
similarities to other ‘slate-belt’ hosted deposits such as those in
Australia (Central Victorian Goldfields: Cox et al, 1995;
Cuffley et al, 1998; Turnbull and McDermott, 1998; Shaubs and
Wilson, 2002; Phillips and Hughes, 2003), Canada (Nova Scotia
and Meguma: Keppie, Boyle and Haynes, 1986) and China
(Guizhou: Lu et al, 2005).
This case study is based upon a recent review of the gold-belt
(Snowden, 2008b) and extensive previous work by the authors
(Dominy, 1996; Platten and Dominy, 1999; Dominy and
Platten, 1999; Platten and Dominy, 2003).
Mine area geology
The Dolgellau gold-belt occurs within the northern part of the
Welsh Lower Palaeozoic basin (Allen and Jackson, 1985).
Subsidence and filling of this basin took place in three stages,
represented by the Dyfed, Gwynedd and Powys Supergroups.
Basin evolution ended with an Acadian (late Caledonian)
tectonic event, which resulted in folding and development of the
regional cleavage.
The Dyfed Supergroup begins with a volcanic sequence of
which the Bryn-Teg Formation, the inferred source of gold
mineralisation, is a part. Thick, coarse turbidite sands, the
Harlech Grits Group and the following siltstone-mudstone-
dominated Mawddach Group constitute the main, 4 km thick,
part of the Dyfed Supergroup (Figure 3). These host the quartz
reefs with the main exploitable gold accumulations associated
with the carbonaceous mudstones of the Clogau Formation (90 m
FIG 3 - Stratigraphic sequence of rocks in the Dolgellau area (from Howells, 2007). The basal Maentwrog Formation and entire
Clogau Formation are key exploration targets for gold (box shown).
34 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
to 105 m thick) at the top of the Harlech Group (Figure 3).
The Clogau shales consist of dark-grey or black-banded
carbonaceous mudstones and silty mudstone, with rare quartoze
silty laminae and even less common beds of fine sandstone. The
deposition of the Dyfed Supergoup closed with emplacement of
the andesitic Rhobell Fawr Volcanic Centre.
The region contains Doleritic sills, locally called
‘greenstones’, attributed to the Rhobell Fawr volcanic event.
They are principally conformable sheet-like bodies, which pinch
and swell and sometimes split and rejoin. Their thickness can
reach a maximum of about 25 m and can be traced on surface for
up to 2 km. At Clogau, nine main sills are identified as four
separate groups. In addition, dykes of intermediate composition
are also found (known as Clogau Stone dykes). These dykes
follow the gold veins, occurring within or at the side of the vein
network.
The Clogau mine is hosted principally within the Clogau
Formation and contains greenstone sills, which increase its
thickness to approximately 120 m (Figure 3). The Clogau
Formation at the mine dips about 30° SE, and is cut by a 70° SE
cleavage (Figure 2).
Mineralisation
The Dolgellau gold reefs form an east-northeast to
west-southwest trending array of generally steeply dipping veins
(Figure 2). The veins are internally complex and are composed
of swarms of narrow (1 mm to 300 mm) subparallel veins
separated by country rock sheets giving a total width of up
to 6 m. The reef forming gold-quartz veins are relatively
discontinuous on a scale of tens of metres or less. The main
gold-bearing reef at Clogau can be traced for about 3 km,
striking approximately northeast-southwest dipping steeply
between 60° and 90° SE (Figure 4).
The reef system pinches and swells, changes strike and splits
into a number of smaller offshoots and branches (Figures 5 and 6).
Reef widths are variable, ranging from over 6 m to a few
centimetres, and in places reducing to small irregular quartz
blobs or veinlets.
Veining is complex and characterised by vein networks formed
by successive fracture re-activation. Three quartz vein events are
noted (Figure 7): early non-auriferous quartz-carbonate veins
(EQV); main gold-quartz veins (GQV); and late barren quartz
veins (LQV). Their mineralogy is characterised by specific
paragenesis: early pyrrhotite-pyrite-arsenopyrite-cobaltite (EQV);
chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite (GQV): and telluride-gold-galena (GQV/
high-grade pocket domains). The LQV comprise bucky and fibre
textured white quartz with minor pyrite.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference
 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION

FIG 4 - Schematic map of Clogau mine local geology. Gross trend of reefs (lodes) northeast-southwest.

FIG 5 - Clogau Main Reef geological map from a section of the Tyn-y-Cornel Level at the No 1 Shaft. The reef shows pinch and swell structure
and splits into the upper John Hughes Reef. Gross reef trend northeast-southwest. Key: dark grey – quartz reef; light grey – Clogau Stone dyke;
hatching – Clogau Formation; stipple – greenstone. Scale: strike length of drive 70 m (source: mapping by S C Dominy, 1996).

Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 35

S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

FIG 6 - (A) Clogau main reef geological map from a section of the Cornel level close to No 2 shaft. The reef shows pinch and swell structure
and splits (east facing) into a minor branch. Beyond the No 2 shaft this branch ultimately becomes the major South or Paraffin reef. Scale:
strike length of drive 45 m. (B) Detail of the split section of the Main-South reef with local occurrence of high-gold grades in sublevel 4 m
below Cornel level. Gross reef trend northeast-southwest. Key: dark grey – quartz reef; light grey – Clogau Stone dyke; hatching – Clogau
Formation; stipple – greenstone. Scale: strike length of drive 15 m (source: mapping by Dominy, 1996).

The majority of the gold occurs as free particles with very
little gold intergrown with sulfides. In some sections of the mine,
gold is seen to occur in close spatial association with
concentrations of bismuth sulfides (eg bismuthinite) and
tellurides (eg tellurobismuthite and tetradymite), and sometimes
galena. Where chalcopyrite, pyrite and pyrrhotite concentrations
are high, they show a negative relationship to gold occurrence.
Gold generally has a fineness of >750 and is seen as particles
up to 5 mm in size. Historically larger masses of gold on the tens
of centimetres scale have been reported (Hall, 1988). Within
high-grade pockets over 75 per cent of the gold reports to the
+300 μm fraction and over 85 per cent to the +150 μm fraction,
and less than five per cent reports to the -50 μm fraction (Dominy
et al, 2000a). Approximately 85 per cent of the gold is generally
gravity recoverable.
The wider quartz reef zones comprise a series of thin and
laterally discontinuous GQV. Inclined, cross-cutting barren LQV
is abundant in the GQV. The LQV are lenticular in three
dimensions, tapering and vanishing up and down dip and across
their strike. LQV dimensions vary considerably, veins ranging
from 8 m to 10 mm in length and from 1 mm to 1 m thick.
The north-northwest – south-southeast dimension is essentially

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION
FIG 7 - Clogau Main Reef in the Williams Stope, Cornel Level.
(A) Laminated gold veins (GQV) in a stope pillar cut by late barren
quartz veins (LQV), width of view 1.75 m. (B) Laminated gold veins
(GQV) in the stope backs effectively replaced by late barren quartz
veins (LQV), width of view 1 m (source: Dominy, 1996).
controlled by the host GQV width. Very large veins occur in
thick massive sections of the GQV or penetrate greenstone
wallrocks. The smallest are found where the GQV is composed
of well-spaced very narrow (<10 mm) veins.
Mineralisation at Clogau is related to specific events which
controlled the distribution of gold and its associated minerals. For
example, the John Hughes Reef trends about 30° to the gross trend
of the Main Reef, but is parallel to some local segments in the
Main Reef (Figure 5). The Main Reef gold was associated with
tellurides, whereas in the John Hughes Reef gold was related to
galena and very minor tellurides. This mineralogical difference
must indicate that the Main Reef was inactive at the time of John
Hughes Reef activity. This is supported by field evidence based on
the fact that the widest part of the John Hughes Reef (1 m) is
parallel to the thinnest sparsely-mineralised part of the Main Reef.
Beyond this 50 m long section, the John Hughes Reef thins to the
east and west, where the Main Reef regains its width of between
0.5 m and 2 m. Time relations between the John Hughes and Main
Reefs are unknown.
Figure 8 summarises the geology of an idealised reef structure
and includes normal movement across the fault zone and the
intrusion of Clogau Stone dykes.
Regional structural history
Recent studies at Clogau and elsewhere have determined the
general sequence of geological events within the Dolgellau gold-
belt (Dominy and Platten, 1999; Platten and Dominy, 1999):
• Deposition of Cambrian host sediments.
• Emplacement of greenstone sills.
• Normal faulting on east-northeast to west-southwest trends.
• Ribbon vein emplacement along fault planes forming EQV
and GQV.
• Emplacement of north-east to south-west dyke swarm.
• Fracture of GQV and dykes with initiation of formation of
LQV. East-dipping LQV veins first, west-dipping veins
second. Cataclastic internal deformation of the GQV. Onset
of main metamorphic stage.
• Continued deformation, producing cleavage and deforming
all pre-existing rocks. Metamorphic recrystallisation generates
strain-free quartz in the GQV.
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
FIG 8 - Schematic showing an idealised section through a Clogau
gold reef structure and relationship between the various geological
elements.
• Post-cleavage, post LQV events such as the calcite-marcasite
veins and the regional Trawsfynydd Fault Zone.
Ore shoot/mineralisation controls
Introduction
Two key controls to gold mineralisation and ore shoot formation
have been identified at Clogau; lithogeochemical and structural.
The lithogeochemical control relates to the interaction between
gold-bearing fluids and the Clogau Formation shales. The
structural controls combine the effects of vein-hosting fracture
refraction by greenstone sills and vein splitting/branching
(Dominy, Phelps and Camm, 1996).
Lithogeochemical control of the Clogau Formation
Gold mineralisation is exclusively contained within the quartz
reefs where they are hosted within dark graphitic shales. The
main host is the Clogau Formation, but some dark shales occur
within the uppermost Gamlan and basal Maentwrog Formations.
This gives a total prospective thickness of approximately 210 m
(Figure 3). This control has been shown to be related to the
interaction between the carbonaceous shales and gold-bearing
fluids. A fluid-inclusion study on GQV material indicates the
presence of methane, where reduction of the hydrothermal fluids
by methane is considered to be the main gold-precipitation
mechanism (Shepherd, Bottrell and Miller, 1991; Bottrell et al,
1988; Bottrell and Spiro, 1988). The methane is considered to
have been generated by the reaction of water with the graphite in
the Clogau Formation.
Greenstone sills
A critical control to ore shoot localisation at Clogau is related to
the mechanical effects of the greenstone sills on the reef – a
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S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

feature common across the Dolgellau gold-belt (Hall, 1988;
Dominy, Phelps and Camm, 1996). The sills were intruded into
the Clogau Formation before reef formation. They are competent
intrusive rocks up to about 25 m in thickness and fracture
differently to the enclosing shales. The sills are offset across the
plane of the reef with an apparent down-throw to the southeast
(Figure 8). The sill/reef intersection pitches at a low to moderate
angle south-west on the vein. The reef-hosting fractures are
refracted strongly when they reach a sill. In the shales, the reef
maintains an approximate dip of 70° SE, whereas in the sill
refraction zone has a dip of closer to 50° NW. Ore shoots
pitching gently south-west are spatially associated with sill
intersections (Figures 9 and 10). They lie entirely below the sill
intersection on the north-west side of the structure, but extend
across the truncated surface of the sill intersection on the
south-east wall (the gross hanging wall). This may indicate flow
localisation related to local widening and closure of fractures as
a result of competency contrast between greenstone and shale as
well as refraction. Details are not known at present.
The presence of gold mineralisation below greenstone sills is
apparent in the John Hughes Lode (Figure 10b). However, an
important conclusion from recent mapping is that this control
was regarded by earlier miners as the most important, and has
guided mining of the shallow plunging ore shoots. The old stopes
pitch at about the same angle as the bedding against the plane of
the reef, and occur where the greenstone sills can be projected
onto the workings. It appears that as well as at John Hughes,
most of the early workings at Clogau were related to
intersections of the reefs with the greenstone sills (Figure 10a).
Some stopes are also seen at several localities above the sills.
These indicate that sill control is more complex and requires
further investigation.
Reef splits/branches
Significant splits (or branches) along the reefs have long been
known to carry gold mineralisation (Figures 5 and 6). Splits
provide steep-pitching conduits for ascending mineralising

FIG 9 - Schematic long section showing typical position of the ore shoot zone below greenstone bodies at Clogau.

FIG 10 - (A) Main and (B) John Hughes Reefs at Clogau. The ore shoots are located at the base of the greenstone sills cut by the reef
structures. High-grade pockets of gold are located within the shoots. (A) Strike length 275 m and (B) strike length 110 m.

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION
fluids, resulting in steep-pitching ore shoots along the axes of the
splits. Due to the variable nature of GQV dip and the pitch
direction of the split axis at different localities, north-east and
south-west facing splits with different pitch axes exhibit different
styles of mineralisation.
The geometry of mineralised splits is more closely established
by recent mining in the Llechfraith Level. Activities during
1984 to 1987 followed the Llechfraith-No 1 shoot down-dip
(Figure 11). The shoot plunges 65° SW, is approximately 10 m
along strike and can be traced 40 m down-dip from surface to the
No 4 level below. The shoot is related to a split in the reef with
high-grades within the hinge zone. Two further parallel shoots
were established, but were less important.
The reef splits are not uniformly mineralised. Historical
records suggest that in east facing splits the mineralisation was in
the minor vein away from the split, while in west facing splits it
was in the main vein near to the split (hinge) zone. Recent
studies have shown that the situation is not simple. Open space
development is important for split-based mineralisation to occur
and two favourable sites are indicated: west facing split with a
west pitching junction and east facing split with an east pitching
junction. Other configurations result in good open space
development on the main reef rather than on the split branch
which are generally poorly mineralised. Reef splits can be
complex and may change plunge with depth or close and
disappear. In addition, their proximity to north-south faults
appears to enhance gold potential. Further work is required to
understand the nature of reef splits.
Gold grade distribution in ore shoots
High-grade gold pockets are located within ore shoots of 10 m to
25 m along-strike and >50 m down plunge. Sill/reef intersection
shoots plunge between 20° and 45° SW and reef split shoots
plunge between 45° and 80° SW. Historical records showed that
the most productive ore shoots contained gold-rich pockets in
approximately five per cent to ten per cent of the total shoot
volume. Three gold domains are recognised in the Clogau reefs:
1. barren: reef outside the ore shoot <0.5 g/t Au,
2. low/medium-grade: ore shoot – background grades >0.5
- 60 g/t Au, and
3. high/extreme-grades: ore shoot – pocket grades >200 g/t Au.
FIG 11 - Long section (northeast-southwest) of the Main Reef Llechfraith section and position of three ore shoots related to reef branching.
Particularly high-grade gold mineralisation was located between the No 3 and No 4 sublevels on the No 1 shoot. As branch/split based
shoots, they have a steeper plunge (70° SE) than is usual with the greenstone-hosted shoots (30° to 40° SE).
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
Gold is extremely erratic with high-grades (100s oz/t Au)
within tens of millimetres of very low-grades (<0.1 g/t Au). In
general, the extreme high-grade areas are relatively continuous
over very small areas. Hall (1988) reports a volumetrically small,
high-grade GQV (0.23 m by 1.8 m by 1.4 m) as part of a bigger
structure at Clogau mined in 1867. This GQV yielded 16 kg of
gold from about two tonnes of rock – a grade of ~260 oz/t Au.
Similar pockets are also recorded at the Gwynfynydd mine
(Platten and Dominy, 2003).
The average grade of ore processed at Clogau was historically
17 g/t Au, though this is misleading given that it reflects different
mining strategies (ie highly selective versus non-selective).
Historical and recent mining indicates that selective mining of
shoots to maximise gold pocket extraction is likely to yield
grades around 6 oz/t Au to 10 oz/t Au. Ore shoots generally
posses gold-rich pockets bearing bonanza grades of between
10s to 100s oz/t Au. The ore shoots have a moderate continuity
(tens of metres down plunge and <10 m along strike) once
identified, but the bonanza pockets are less easy to determine
without mining as they tend to be on a scale of <5 m.
Reef modifying features
Post-ore faulting resulted in normal movement downwards to the
southeast across the GQV. This resulted in portions of the GQV
being downthrown by up to 10 m effectively diluting grades
within ore shoots.
Open folding of the Clogau Formation has had little effect on
the localisation of ore deposition; however, disharmonic folding
has in some areas caused additional irregularities in the reefs,
with consequent mining complications.
Where the LQV are emplaced into areas of pre-existing GQV,
they frequently had a deleterious effect, and locally truncating,
dislocating and sometimes even folding the GQV.
Implications for evaluation and exploitation
Clogau continuity risk profile
Clogau mineralisation is high risk due to an extreme nugget
effect which is related to the localised nature of the ore shoot-
hosted gold pockets (Table 4). Resolution of grade continuity is
difficult due the relatively small-scale of the ore shoots and
pockets. There is thus a need for geologically controlled
underground development.
39
S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

TABLE 4
Clogau continuity risk review and associated project expectations.

Uncertainty criteria Risk score Comment

Gross geological continuity
Reef geometry: dip, strike, width, etc
Grade distribution control: ore shoot
controls
Grade distribution: local spatial
effects and small-scale continuity
issues within the ore zone/ore shoots –
‘nugget effect’
Post-reef effects of faulting, dykes, etc
Total risk profile
Project expectations
4 The Clogau Main Reef is relatively continuous, but shows some local variability with pinchouts.
Gross continuity is generally not material to ore shoot definition. Wide-spaced drilling at 100 m
will resolve gross reef and greenstone continuity.
5 (6) Locally reefs can show strong variability that requires underground development or close-spaced
drilling (~10 m by 10 m) to resolve. Locally material to evaluation.
6 Ore shoots are controlled by various structural features (eg vein splits and greenstones) which
show generally good down-plunge continuity. Requires underground development or
close-spaced drilling (~10 m) to resolve.
6 Ore shoots have a very high nugget effect, with gold grade very difficult to predict on a shoot
scale. Requires underground development or very close-spaced drilling (~5 m) to resolve
effectively. Provides the greatest risk at Clogau.
4 (5) Cross faulting and LQV can have a material effect on the continuity of ore shoots. Requires
underground development or very close-spaced drilling (~5 m) to resolve.
6 The overall continuity risk is considered to be high. This is principally driven by the very
high-nugget effect and pockety nature of the very high grades.
• Small system with total gold potential around 150 000 oz to 200 000 oz
• Boutique operation, highly selective stoping to produce a very high-grade
low-tonnage ore
• Continuity risk leads to high resource risk
• Only very small tonnages of resources likely to be defined (Inferred Mineral
Resource category only)

Evaluation grade could be stated as a ‘grade range’ based on different

The primary targets are quartz reefs within the Clogau
Formation. The region contains a number of phases of quartz
veining, many of which are non-auriferous. Platten and Dominy
(1999) and Dominy and Platten (1999) present the case for the
auriferous reefs being precleavage, which provides a primary
discriminator for gold potential.
Evaluation targeting will be based on the identification of
greenstone sills from surface and underground mapping. Recent
mapping has resulted in the identification of a number of targets
with good potential close to the existing workings. Definition
requires underground diamond drilling to determine local
structure and stratigraphy in more detail, and to focus further
drilling and/or underground development. Previous operators
have undertaken little diamond drilling, and the authors believe
that strong definition of structure and stratigraphy will be critical
to project development.
Drilling will rarely resolve actual ore shoots effectively unless
the drill spacing is prohibitively small (potentially <5 m). A
series of 50 m sections drilled from existing workings will
augment surface mapping and the south-east-trending Tyn-y-
Cornel cross-cut to resolve local structure and stratigraphy.
Resource evaluation in the traditional sense in Clogau will be
difficult, as is typical of all mines of the Dolgellau gold-belt.
Identification of ore shoots, hence resolution of small-scale
geological and grade continuity requires underground
development. This development can be targeted based on
drilling. Once an ore shoot is identified by development it is
likely to be possible to extrapolate its extent based on mapping
and drilling. The challenge is to define grade, based on the
highly pockety nature of the gold. Historical records suggest that
as little as five per cent to ten per cent of an ore shoot will be
very high-grade material.
Given the high geological uncertainty and risk, it is likely that
only an Inferred Mineral Resource (JORC, 2004) could be
defined even after development. An identified ore shoot can be
considered to be a high ‘probability’ zone for which a
gold-bearing tonnage can be estimated. Further evaluation of
historical data may allow a payability factor(s) to be defined and
probabilistic outcomes (eg low-, medium- and high-grade cases).
The reporting of grades within ranges has previously been
undertaken to provide a better measure of possible resource
outcomes (Dominy, 2004b, 2006).
Local grade may be defined by processing small parcels of
ore (eg 2 t to 5 t bulk samples), though these may either over or
underestimate grade depending proximity to gold pockets. All
available information should be combined to estimate the
proportion of high-grade pocket ore versus lower grade material,
and likely grade of each. Such an approach is based on a strong
knowledge of local geological and grade continuity. In addition,
it may be possible to gain further confidence in the ore shoot
based on the application of suitable proxies for gold (eg quartz
texture, geochemistry and mineralogy: Dominy and Johansen,
2004).
Exploitation/mining
Reef geometry and grade distribution control the nature of
exploitation. A selective mining operation will develop through
the ore shoot and focus on extracting high-grade pockets.
However, to some extent mining of the entire ore shoot zone is
more likely to ensure pockets are located. High-grade material
can be selectively extracted and milled during a focused ‘bulk’
mine operation. Mining of all reef material, inside and out of ore
shoots, would not be economic. Any mining operation at Clogau
is likely to extract between 1500 t and 3000 t per annum
maximum, and process 200 t to 400 t of high-grade ore.
The use of gold for a premium jewellery product allows for a
low cut-off grade and viability of relatively lower grade material.
Large mineral resources are not required for project viability due
to the small-scale and highly selective nature of the operation.
A number of geological features result in the modification of
the GQV and can hence lead to complexities during mining.
Normal faulting results in portions of the reef being downthrown
by up to 10 m to the south-east, effectively dislocating the shoot
and diluting grade locally. Folding of the Clogau Formation
appears to have minimal effect on gold localisation, but has in
some areas caused additional irregularities in the reef with

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION

consequent mining complications. Where the LQV are emplaced
into areas of pre-existing GQV, they have a deleterious effect,
locally diluting, truncating, dislocating and sometimes even
folding the GQV. A selective extraction process such as reef
open stoping or some form of modified shrink stoping will
provide the flexibility to deal with these geological complexities
(Dominy and Phelps, 1996: Dominy et al, 1998).
Nalunaq gold mine
Introduction
The Nalunaq gold mine is situated in southernmost Greenland,
some 86 km north-west of Kap Farvel (Figure 12). It lies on the
south face of Nalunaq Mountain in Kirkspirdalen between the
Sarqa and Tasermiut Fjords. The nearest settlement is Nanortalik,
30 km to the south-west. The mine is operated by Nalunaq Gold
Mine A/S, a 100 per cent owned subsidiary of Crew Gold
Corporation.
between 1993 and 1996. Drilling from surface is difficult due to
the steep face of Nalunaq Mountain and the cover of glacial
deposits on lower ground. Surface samples were taken in 1997,
followed by underground development in 1998 and further
surface drilling. Extensive underground exploration development
and bulk sampling began in 2000, with production commencing
in 2004 (Dominy and Petersen, 2005).
The underground mine extracts approximately 180 000 t per
annum yielding 80 000 oz to 90 000 oz gold. Operations are
based on an Indicated Mineral Resource of 535 000 t (18 g/t Au)
and an Inferred Mineral Resource of 1.5 Mt (17 g/t Au) for a
total of 1.1 Moz gold reported at a zero g/t Au cut-off (Crew,
2007).
This case study stems from desk and site-based work
undertaken by the authors during 2005 and 2006 (Dominy and
Petersen, 2005; Dominy, 2006; Dominy et al, 2006; Snowden,
2005a, 2005b, 2006a, 2006b).
General geology
The deposit is situated within the early Proterozoic (1850 Ma
to 1750 Ma) Ketilidian Orogenic Belt in South Greenland
(Figure 12). It occurs within the Psammite Zone close to the NW
boundary against the Julianehab Batholith Zone (Chadwick and
Garde, 1996). The Julianehab Batholith Zone is considered to be
the plutonic root of an island arc accreted on to South Greenland
and the Psammite Zone represents an intra arc basin filled with
detritus from the island arc (Chadwick and Garde, 1996). Late
tectonic granitoids and post-tectonic rapakivi granites cut the
Psammite Zone metasediments.
The Nalunaq site lies in a metavolcanic thrust sheet resting on
gently dipping meta-arkoses of the highest tectonic unit in the
Psammite Zone (Windley, 1991). The rocks show amphibolite
facies metamorphism and limited deformation. The metavolcanics
are underlain and intruded by a late tectonic leucocratic granitoid
pluton which is associated with a network of aplite sheets in the
metavolcanics.

FIG 12 - Location and regional geology of Nalunaq (simplified
from Chadwick and Garde, 1996).
The deposit was discovered in 1992 by regional geochemical
surveys (Gowen et al, 1993; Stendal et al, 1995) and was
followed by a program of diamond drilling and surface mapping
Gross form of the deposit
The gross vein structure (Gowen et al, 1993; Kaltoft, Schlatter
and Kludt, 2000; Dominy et al, 2006) is a sheet with
northeast-southwest strike and gross dip 35° SE (range 20° to
55° SE) (Figure 13). The total vein thickness ranges from sub
1 cm up to 3 m, with a mean of about 0.7 m. The vein can be

FIG 13 - Mine plan showing the 300 m, 350 m, 400 m and 450 m initial exploration drives and subsequent development at approximately
10 m vertical intervals. Illustrating the relatively simple gross structure of the vein within the active mine area. The Target Block and South
Block are separated by the Pegmatite Fault, which interrupts gross continuity with an apparent down throw to the north-west. Mine grid north
is to 315° true North (source: Crew Gold Corporation).

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S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

traced in outcrop for 1.4 km along the north side of Nalunaq

Mountain and down the west side of Kirkspirdalen. Drill holes
show the concealed vein extends a further 400 m east.
Exploration drives and drill holes prove vein continuity for at
least 600 m along strike in the mine area.
Gross geological continuity is good within the explored
ground. Only one late fault, the Pegmatite Fault, has sufficient
throw to affect mine layout (Figure 13).
The vein is emplaced in fine amphibolites and medium to
coarse amphibolites interpreted as lavas and sills respectively.
Minor sediments and sulfide-rich layers are intercalated in the
sequence. The gross vein dips at a slightly lower angle than the
host succession and cuts across the lavas and sills. Local
segments run parallel to layering, following the minor sediment
layers.
Based on surface and underground geological mapping and
drill data, it has been indicated that the high-grade sections of the
vein appeared to be hosted within medium-grained metadolerite FIG 14 - Nalunaq gold mine, 440 west level. Quartz vein with
predominantly massive quartz shows rapid variation in thickness.
sills or were located proximal to the metadolerite/metapillow
Moderately inclined aplite sheets with dilation vector at high angle
basalt contact. The sills appear to intersect the veins along a line
to steeper sections (seen near floor). These are converging with
that plunges 30° ENE, and to define a linear trend of plunging
the vein up dip from the drive. Vein will be extended at intersection
ore shoots.
(source: Snowden, 2006b).

Primary vein structure

The vein (Figures 1 and 14 to 17) commonly occurs as an array of
quartz sheets (0.01 m to 1 m thick) that can be in direct contact
with each other, separated by discontinuous, thin wall rock screens
or separated by wide (0.1 m to 2.0 m) screens of wall rock.
Mapping scales for the levels and raises do not permit the thinner
wall rock screens to be shown. Locally quartz veins diverge by
more than 2 m (Kaltoft, Schlatter and Kludt, 2000). A single
quartz sheet may occur or the vein material may be locally absent.
Veins show local tapered terminations that may be primary.
The pattern changes laterally as screens and component veins
change thickness along the vein (Figure 15). Veins may diverge
as screens thicken towards terminations. In packages of veins the
narrow veins may be less continuous than the large veins.
En-echelon patterns are also seen.
Wall rocks show local alteration adjacent to the vein, usually
within 1 m (Figure 16). Amphibolites are replaced by pyroxene-
bearing, equigranular textured, skarn materials. Foliated biotite-
rich rocks may represent metasediments.
Vein mineralogy
The vein mineralogy is simple (Kaltoft, Schlatter and Kludt,
2000; Grammatikopoulos et al, 2004), being mostly granular
coarse quartz. Trace to minor amounts of lollingite, arsenopyrite,
pyrite, pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and bismuth sulfosalts occur in
some vein elements. Native gold occurs as fine (<100 μm) and
coarse (>100 μm) particles. In run-of-mine ore most gold
particles, about 50 per cent are >100 μm in size (Kaltoft, Schlatter
and Kludt, 2000; Grammatikopoulos et al, 2004; Dominy and
Petersen, 2005). Significant amounts of visible gold occur and
locally form very high-grade clusters (Dominy and Platten,
2007). There is a significant coarse gold problem, which gives
rise to sampling issues (Dominy and Petersen, 2005; Dominy et
al, 2006; Dominy, Xie and Platten, 2008). Visible gold is
commonly restricted to one or two individual veins at any one
site, the rest appearing barren.

FIG 15 - Vein section in raise, showing gross planar form but discontinuous and complex in detail. Note the change in total thickness (quartz
plus wallrock screens) in dip and strike direction the matching 2.5 m to 3 m gap in the vein array with a small en-echelon offset pitching
gently south-east on the vein stacked arrays of narrow veins with intervening wallrock screens splitting of veins in the up dip part (source:
redrawn from Crew, 2002).

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION

FIG 16 - Vein section in raise, showing the general planar form of a simple, continuous vein segment. Local gaps and offsets occur along the raise
and differences in detail occur between the opposite walls of the raise. The vein thickness is mostly between 0.1 m and 0.2 m, locally 0.4 m,
significantly less than minimum stope width of 1.2 m. The relationship between vein and alteration envelope is shown. Note that internal
boundaries within the quartz veins are not resolved at the scale of mapping (source: redrawn from Crew, 2002).

FIG 17 - Vein (0.2 m to 0.5 m thick) undulation seen in raise walls. The axis (AL, AR) pitches gently south-west and the up dip vein
termination pitches gently south-east on the plane of the vein. The outline of a model 15 m by 1.2 m stope is superimposed and the bar
shows width of more practical 1.4 m stope. The separation of the enveloping surfaces to the structure is >1.4 m (source: redrawn from
Crew, 2002).

Early deformation of the vein
Three principal deformation types affect the Nalunaq Main Vein
comprising vein undulations, boudinage and folding.
The vein exposure in raises shows undulations at a range of
scales from <1 m to 30 m (Figures 17, 19 and 21). These have
open cross profiles in the raises and are the main cause of the
gross dip variation in the vein. Some have a gentle pitch in the
plane of the vein. The time of development is not well
constrained although the local presence of rigorously planar
aplites indicates the undulations predate at least part of the aplite
network. The larger undulations have sufficient amplitude to be
relevant to stope design.
The vein material has been subject to extension leading to
local necking and pinch and swell patterns, but also to complete
disruption by boudinage (Figure 18 and 20). Boudin structures
are cut by some aplite veins. Wall rock screens within the vein
also show boudinage at some sites. Layers in the immediate wall
rock commonly show boudin development, with necks filled with
quartzo-feldspathic material (quartz-feldspar blebs in Crew,

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S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

FIG 20 - Nalunaq gold mine, strike section on 440 west level

looking south-east. Boudinaged block of quartz vein with blunt
ends cutting across internal layers. Wallrock smoothly deflected
around the ends. Field of view 1.5 m (source: Snowden, 2006b).

FIG 18 - Nalunaq gold mine, 530 east level. Photograph of boudin

neck (0.2 m gap) in quartz vein in coarse amphibolite host. Altered
wall rock is dragged into the neck and a seam of coarse (5 mm to
20 mm) pyroxene crystals occur along centre line of neck. Planar
aplite veins cross the deformation structures associated with the
boudinaged vein (arrowed). A channel sample site here (blue line)
lies across the boudin neck (source: Snowden, 2006b).

2002). This material locally invades boudin necks in the quartz

vein (Figure 20).
There are no proved large scale folds affecting the vein, but
minor folds at 1 cm to 100 cm scale are sometimes seen. The
narrowest quartz veins, particularly those oriented slightly
oblique to the main structure and isolated in wall rock,
occasionally show small folds with traces of axial plane foliation
in host rock. Narrow screens within the vein locally show small
folds. Planar aplite sheets were seen to cut one clearly folded
quartz vein. FIG 21 - Nalunaq gold mine, 350 level, looking south-east.
Photograph of undulation in 0.3 m vein and comparison with later,
planar, 0.4 m aplite sheet in drive. Vein dip at crest is 20°,
Aplite sheet network steepening to 50° in the limb. Note also the boudin neck in the
Aplite (used to describe various leucocratic granites with fine to quartz (Bn) and patch and veins of coarse quartz and feldspar (Qf)
coarse texture) sheets are seen at surface to form several sets in associated with host rock and vein rupture, structures that are
the vein host rocks. The most gently dipping set are traceable as seen in the vein but not the aplite sheet (source: Snowden, 2006b).
offshoots of the adjacent leucocratic biotite granodiorite pluton.
Underground two sets are conspicuous: a gently dipping set are commonly <1 m thick. Dilation on some is normal to sheet
intersecting vein at low angles and steep set running slightly walls but some show evidence of oblique dilation. Dilution and
oblique to the strike of vein (Figures 14, 18, 19 and 21). These small vein offsets result from aplite sheet emplacement

FIG 19 - Combination of structures affecting gross vein envelope in a raise. Two vein structures show varying separation (0.3 m minimum to
1 m maximum wall rock screen), undulation and some component of vertical displacement across aplite. Aplites show cumulative width of
0.9 m along the line of the raise, seven per cent of the 13 m segment illustrated. Rectangle shows upper 11 m of best fit position for 15 m
by 1.2 m best fit stope outline on the raise data (source: redrawn from Crew, 2002).

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 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION
(Figure 19). Channel sample sites can lie within aplite sheets. At
surface the thicker sheets are seen to be continuous for hundreds
of metres.
Faults
The vein and wall rocks are cut by a small number of planar
faults with widely varying dip and strike. These faults are
discordant to the vein and the ductile deformation structures.
They are usually occupied by sheets of granitic or aplitic
material. These igneous materials do not show evidence of
faulting and where fractured the patterns are unrelated to the
fault orientation. The faults are inferred to predate or be
synchronous with aplite sheet emplacement.
The Pegmatite Fault controls mine layout, separating the
Target and Southern Blocks (Figure 13). It has an apparent
down-throw to the northwest, but the true movement vector
is unknown. The other faults have small (1 m to 10 m)
displacements and affect local design of drive and stopes.
Late joints
Planar joint sets cut the veins and aplite sheets. Conspicuous sets
of steep joints run northwest-southeast, 90° to the vein strike, and
a set of southwest-northeast joints dip southeast, subparallel to
the vein. These produce negligible offsets of the host structures.
The joints have mineralised fills and include examples with
limonitic stains recording recent weathering. These joints control
breakage in some parts of drive backs and can influence wallrock
breakage and dilution in the stopes.
Grade/resource estimate
Sampling and estimation practice at Nalunaq
At Nalunaq the complexity and presence of coarse gold was
recognised at an early stage and resulted in the use of bulk
samples and underground development during the feasibility
studies (Lind, Kludt and Ballou, 2001; Dominy and Petersen,
2005). Detailed mapping during development provided a record
of the vein complexity (Crew, 2002).
Dominy and Petersen (2005) describe the sampling protocols
developed to control the effects of coarse gold. Bulk samples
(480 samples of 50 t to 70 t) were taken from development
material in 2000 and 2001. Routine face and drive wall sampling
uses a composite of three channel samples across the vein
(channels spaced 1 m and cut to include a few centimetres of
external wall rock, minimum sample length 0.5 m; details are
given in Dominy and Petersen, 2005).
Controls on the geological nugget effect
The observation of coarse gold, visible clusters and the local
truncation of individual early gold bearing veins is a direct
warning that gold distribution is likely to be nuggety.
Boudin necks and primary vein terminations form distinct
short gaps in the vein where gold mineralisation is usually absent
(Figures 14 to 21). Aplite sheet intersections also produce short
‘gold absent’ sites. Systematic sampling in the plane of the vein
will pick some of these ‘gold absent’ sites. These produce
extreme low grades that are adjacent to full thickness vein
material and thus contribute to the geostatistical nugget effect
(effectively ‘negative nuggets’). The relative contributions of
large grains, or clusters of coarse gold, and the ‘gold absent’ sites
to the observed nugget effect are not known.
Exploitation
The Nalunaq deposit is exploited in longhole stopes developed
from sublevels driven at approximately 11 m vertical intervals
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
along the vein. The minimum design stope width is 1.2 m, but in
practice is commonly 1.4 m.
The thickness of all individual veins (<1 m) and many vein
assemblages is less that any practical minimum stoping width.
Open folds or undulations, offsets across aplite sheets and local
rapid lateral divergence of individual veins result in the gross
envelope containing the vein to be thicker than any local
measurement of vein thickness (Figures 15, 17 and 19). Stopes
are however designed to minimise dilution and thus take rock
only from the vein thickness, subject to a minimum practicable
working width (1.2 m ideal or 1.4 m practical minimum).
Prior to stoping the position of the vein system is known
precisely on the walls of the development sublevels, thus locating
the top and bottom of the stope panel. Vein position and
thickness between the sublevels is unknown in detail for most of
the intended stope. For commonly used longhole stoping, this
defines a stope cross-section with rectangular form and little or
no change in thickness between the upper and lower ends. This
assumes a simple planar form to the vein with limited variation
in thickness. Any departure from this assumption potentially
leads the unplanned dilution and possible failure to actually
recover vein material (Figures 17 and 19). The latter is
particularly serious where the vein is extremely narrow (<0.3 m)
and of very high grade. The absence, presence and position of
individual high grades or extreme low grades are not known
between the sublevels.
Exploration raises (Figures 15 to 17 and 19) and production
raises will however provide local information on vein position
and character between the sublevels. These will allow some
assessment of the risk of using narrow stopes based on the
observed vein characters in the levels. Clearly there is little risk
for stopes adjacent to Figure 16. In Figure 15 there is a risk of
leaving some part of thick vein assemblage in the stope if the
thick section is not seen in sublevel walls. The envelope around
the vein assemblage is however still simple. Figure 17 illustrates
a situation where there is severe risk of leaving a long section of
the ore material in the stope wherever the sublevels occur. In
Figure 17 the model stope outline is drawn for the best recovery
and any other position would leave significant amounts of either
the upper or lower leaf of the vein in place in the stope. In this
case the vein position is controlled by three geological features:
variation in separation of the two leaves, the undulation structure
and the offsets associated with aplite sheet emplacement. These
are unrelated structures and are likely to have different tracks
through any adjacent stope.
Successful projection of structures away from the raise
requires knowledge of the pitch of the structure in the vein
together with its likely continuity. Thicker aplites (Figures 19
and 21) are continuous and regular for relatively long distances
but continuity of individual undulations is not clearly established.
Nalunaq continuity risk profile
The Nalunaq mineralisation defines as moderate-high risk, due
to a high nugget effect of gold grade within the ore shoots
(Table 5). Resolution of local geological continuity and grade for
Ore Reserve definition requires underground development
(blocking out).
It is possible to make a more formalised, but not quantitative,
assessment of the geological risk in stope design (Snowden,
2006b; Dominy et al, 2006). Table 6 summarises vein
complexities and Table 7 and Figure 22 illustrate possible risk
categories for Nalunaq. Various potential stope outlines are
shown in Figure 22 to illustrate the variation in dilution and
recovery risk and the risk for different outlines is summarised in
Tables 6 and 7.
Geological risk features cannot be entirely eliminated due to
cost and the balance between full recovery and increased
45
S C DOMINY and I M PLATTEN

TABLE 5
Nalunaq continuity risk review and associated project expectations.

Uncertainty criteria Risk score Comment

Gross geological continuity
Reef geometry: dip, strike, width, etc
Grade distribution control: ore shoot controls
Grade distribution: local spatial effects and
small-scale continuity issues within the ore
zone/ore shoots – ‘nugget effect’
Post-reef effects of faulting, dykes, etc
Total risk profile
Project characteristics based on risk profile
3 The Nalunaq Main Vein is relatively continuous. Gross continuity is generally not material
to ore shoot definition. Wide-spaced drilling at 100 m to 150 m spacing will resolve gross
reef continuity.
(4) 5 Locally reefs can show strong variability that requires underground development or
close-spaced drilling (~10 m) to resolve. Locally material to evaluation and mining.
3 Ore shoots are controlled by structural and lithological features and show generally good
down-plunge continuity. Can be defined by drilling alone (~30 m).
(4) 5 Ore shoots have a high nugget effect (~70%), with gold grade moderately difficult to
predict locally. Requires underground development to resolve effectively and define Ore
Reserves.
5 Critical vein modifying features are aplite dykes, shearing/boudinage and minor cross
faulting, that has local material effect on the continuity of ore shoots. Requires
underground development to resolve or close spaced drilling (~10 m).
4 (5) The overall continuity risk is considered to be moderate-high. This is driven by the
high-nugget effect and local geological complexities and need for development to resolve
continuity issues.
• Moderate size gold system with total inventory of potentially 1.5 Moz Au
• Small high-grade operation producing around 80 000 to 90 000 oz Au per annum
• Definition of Inferred and Indicated Mineral Resources. Measured not defined even after development
due to nugget effect
• Some 75% of resource base in the Inferred category
• Only one to two years ahead defined as ore reserves based on development

TABLE 6
Summary of vein complexities at Nalunaq and implications for mining (after Snowden, 2006b).

Type of vein complexity Feature Scale Implication

Splitting up or uniting Vein breaks up or veins
converge
Dislocation Aplites and/or faults
cross-cutting the vein
Width variation in vein or Boudinage or primary
vein zone nature of the vein
Attitude Change in dip over short
range
>5 m High variation in total width of veined zone with likelihood of
sections of the vein passing out of the planned stope limits.
Gaps <1 m, spaced at Relocation of vein and dilution by barren aplitic material.
2 m to 10s m Likelihood of vein passing out of the planned stope limits.
Gaps up to 5 m, spaced High variation in vein width with barren gaps leading to dilution.
4 m to 10s m Likelihood of wider sections of the vein passing out of the planned
stope limits.
>5 m Change in vein attitude that may result in sections of the vein
passing out of the planned stope limits.

TABLE 7 CONCLUSIONS
Geological risk classification for stope design at Nalunaq It is well-known that gold-quartz reefs with a high-nugget effect
(after Snowden, 2006b). generally possess a high resource risk. A key component of
resource risk is ‘continuity’ risk, related to uncertainty of reef
Risk Geological features Implications for stope design
continuity at different scales and grade continuity within ore
Low Simple planar vein Vein unlikely to extend shoots. An evaluation program must collect the geological
beyond the limits defined information required, and will include diamond drill core logging
from development. Recovery and surface and/or underground mapping. It should then be
likely to be in excess of 90%. possible to produce a continuity risk profile, from which realistic
Moderate Vein shows some Some portions of the vein expectations of resource definition and problems during mining
variability in width, may extend beyond the limits can be understood. For early stage programs (eg with drilling
attitude and/or continuity defined from development. data only), this may be difficult and will rely on the experience
Recovery likely to be between of the geologist(s) concerned.
60 % and 90%.
The Clogau reef is a very high-risk style of mineralisation due
High Complex vein structure Vein very likely to extend to the small size of the ore shoots and highly-localised
with highly variable width, beyond the limits defined unpredictable gold pockets. On the macro-scale, the occurrence
attitude and/or continuity from development. Recovery
of ore shoots is controlled by the reef structure crossing
likely to be less than 60%.
greenstone sills and/or splits/branches. This localisation is due to
geochemical and structural factors which in combination created
the access for gold-bearing fluids and a geochemical
dilution. Risk factors can be identified and can guide response to environment for gold deposition. Such a deposit has a high
unacceptable shortfalls in grade and ounces. In addition, it resource risk and requires strong geological control during
should be possible to schedule blending of high-risk and low-risk evaluation and mining. The high risk nature of the deposit only
stopes to maintain extraction rates and optimise head grade. permits the definition of small Inferred Mineral Resources even

46 Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008 Narrow Vein Mining Conference

 CONTINUITY RISK IN NARROW REEF GOLD DEPOSITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR EVALUATION AND EXPLOITATION
FIG 22 - Schematic risk assessment models (A, B, C1 and C2) for
stopes from raise mapping data. Refer also to Table 6
(from Snowden, 2006b).
after drilling and underground development. Potential economic
viability is only gained through the use of gold for a premium
jewellery product.
At Nalunaq the resource risk is medium-high and related to a
high nugget effect and continuity issues with the Main Vein.
Undulations in the vein profile are locally large enough relative
to planned stope widths to result in vein material being left
in situ. The deleterious effects begin when the undulations have a
relief of half the stope width, where the largest example may
leave as much as a 10 m length of vein in the stope. Steps in vein
elevation across aplite sheets and small faults may compound the
effects of the undulations. If the undulations can be shown to be
predominantly linear features, then their effects within the stopes
may be partly predictable from outcrop in drives and raises.
Boudinage, aplite sheet intersections and extensional faults are
the main structures that disrupt the gross continuity of the Main
Vein. These are linear features and produce ribbon like gaps or
zones of reduced total vein thickness, with gap widths from
<1 m up to 5 m.
The role of continuity risk definition lies in the wider
management of project and resource risk. If continuity issues can
be determined as early on in a project as possible, it will permit
the technical team to define realistic expectations and milestones.
The level of investment required to fully resolve continuity is
often high, and will involve underground development supported
by close-spaced diamond drilling and bulk sampling/trial mining
(Dominy and Petersen, 2005; Dominy, Platten and Xie, 2008).
However, in previously mined goldfields historical data usually
provides a key source of information. A strong geological
understanding must form the base of all mineral resource
estimates, particularly for complex narrow gold reefs
(Dominy et al, 2003; Dominy, Noppé and Annels, 2004).
Narrow Vein Mining Conference Ballarat, Vic, 14 - 15 October 2008
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This contribution results from on-going work by the authors on
the evaluation of high-nugget effect gold reefs. The following
organisations have supported studies in Dolgellau: Clogau Gold
Mines PLC, Welsh Gold PLC, Elenith Mining Company
Limited, Clogau St David’s Gold Mines Limited, Union Mining
Company Limited and Victorian Gold Limited, and in
Greenland: Crew Gold Corporation and Nalunaq Gold Mine
A/S. Discussions with George Hall, David Pelham and Roland
Phelps on Dolgellau, and Jon Steen Petersen, Ole Dahl, Mogens
Lind and Kurt Christensen on Nalunaq are acknowledged. In
addition, thanks are due to Andy Ross (Snowden Group) and
The AusIMM Conference reviewers, Brian Cuffley and Keith
Whitehouse, for their helpful comments on the manuscript. The
opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors, and
not necessarily those of Snowden or the named operating
companies.
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