English

Language
(2)

1
Writing

2
 How to Write a Sentence

Purpose of your Sentence

to tell something
to ask something

Sentence Structure
A sentence must include a subject and predicate for it to be
a complete sentence.
Subject: a noun, noun phrase or pronoun in a sentence that
does the action or describes the predicate.
Predicate: tells something about the subject and must
include a verb.

Example:
Johnny is walking to the store.
Johnny is the subject and walking to the store is the
predicate.
All sentences need to answer who and what. In the above
example Johnny (who) was doing the action and walking to
the store (what) is telling us something about the subject.

Types of Sentence

Experienced writers use a variety of sentences to make

their writing interesting and lively. Too many simple
sentences, for example, will sound choppy and immature
while too many long sentences will be difficult to read and
hard to understand.

SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence, also called an independent clause,

contains a subject and a verb, and it expresses a complete
thought.

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 A. Some students like to study in the mornings.
B. Paul and Kim play football every afternoon.
C. Alicia goes to the library and studies every day.

The three examples above are all simple sentences. Note

that sentence B contains a compound subject, and sentence
C contains a compound verb. Simple sentences, therefore,
contain a subject and verb and express a complete thought,
but they can also contain a compound subjects or verbs.

COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses

joined by a coordinator. The coordinators are as follows:
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Helpful hint: The first letter
of each of the coordinators spells FANBOYS.) Except for
very short sentences, coordinators are always preceded by a
comma.

A. I tried to speak Spanish, and my friend tried to

speak English.
B. Jack played football, so Maria went shopping.
C. Jack played football, for Maria went shopping.

The above three sentences are compound sentences. Each

sentence contains two independent clauses, and they are
joined by a coordinator with a comma preceding it. Note
how the conscious use of coordinators can change the
relationship between the clauses. Sentences B and C, for
example, are identical except for the coordinators. In
sentence B, which action occurred first? Obviously,
"Alejandro played football" first, and as a consequence,
"Maria went shopping. In sentence C, "Maria went

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shopping" first. In sentence C, "Alejandro played football"
because, possibly, he didn't have anything else to do, for or
because "Maria went shopping." How can the use of other
coordinators change the relationship between the two
clauses? What implications would the use of "yet" or "but"
have on the meaning of the sentence?

COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence has an independent clause joined by

one or more dependent clauses. A complex sentence always
has a subordinator such as because, since, after, although,
or when or a relative pronoun such as that, who, or which.

A. When he handed in his homework, he forgot to

give the teacher the last page.
B. The teacher returned the homework after she
noticed the error.
C. The students are studying because they have a
test tomorrow.
D. After they finished studying, Juan and Maria
went to the movies.
E. Juan and Maria went to the movies after they
finished studying.

When a complex sentence begins with a subordinator such

as sentences A and D, a comma is required at the end of the
dependent clause. When the independent clause begins the
sentence with subordinators in the middle as in sentences
B, C, and E, no comma is required. If a comma is placed
before the subordinators in sentences B, C, and E, it is
wrong.

Note that sentences D and E are the same except sentence

D begins with the dependent clause which is followed by a
comma, and sentence E begins with the independent clause

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which contains no comma. The comma after the dependent
clause in sentence D is required, and experienced listeners
of English will often hear a slight pause there. In sentence
E, however, there will be no pause when the independent
clause begins the sentence.

COMPLEX SENTENCES / ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Finally, sentences containing adjective clauses (or

dependent clauses) are also complex because they contain
an independent clause and a dependent clause.

A. The woman who(m) my mom talked to sells

cosmetics.
B. The book that Jonathan read is on the shelf.
C. The house which AbrahAM Lincoln was born
in is still standing.
D. The town where I grew up is in the United
States.

Adjective Clauses are studied in this site separately, but for

now it is important to know that sentences containing
adjective clauses are complex.

COMPOUND-COMPLEX SETNECES
DEFINITION

In English grammar, a compound-complex sentence is

a sentence with two or more independent clauses and at
least one dependent clause. Also known as a complex-
compound sentence.

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The compound-complex sentence is one of the four basic
sentence structures. The other structures are the simple
sentence, the compound sentence, and the complex
sentence.

The compound-complex sentence is so named because it

shares the characteristics of both compound and complex
sentences. Like the compound sentence, the compound-
complex has two main clauses. Like the complex sentence,
it has at least one subordinate clause. The subordinate
clause can be part of an independent clause."

Some examples:

1. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to

go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with.

 independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go

lately"
 independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go
with"
 dependent clause: "Although I like to go camping... "

2. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our

children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we
were wrong.

 independent clause: "We decided that the movie was

too violent"
 independent clause: "(but) our children thought that
we were wrong"
 dependent clause: who like to watch scary movies

Compound-complex sentences are very common in

English, but one mistake that students often make is to try
to write them without having mastered the simple

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sentences, compound sentences, and complex
sentences first.

Exercise

Identify the following sentences as simple, compound,

complex and compound-complex sentences.

1. Some people tell me that money can’t buy happiness.

This is a _______.
2. I looked for Mary and Samantha at the bus station.
This is a _______.
3. He didn’t want to go to the dentist, yet he went
anyway. This is a _______.
4. She did not cheat on the test, for it was not the right
thing to do. This is a ______.
5. Cats are good pets, for they are clean and are not
noisy. This is a _______.
6. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our
children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that
we were wrong. This is a _______.
7. He said he was not there yesterday; however, many
people saw him there. This is a _______.
8. Wherever you go, you can always find beauty. This is
a _______.
9. Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time
to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with. This
is a _______.
10. The sun is shining through the clouds, so I think that
we can go swimming. This is a _______.
11. She ran quickly but still did not catch the escaping
puppy. This is a _______.
12. Look on top of the refrigerator for the key. This is a
_______.
13. Evergreen trees are a symbol of fertility because
they do not die in the winter. This is a _______.

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 Common Sentence Problems

Sentence fragments, run-on sentences and comma splices,

the passive voice, lack of subject-verb agreement, shifts in
pronoun usage and tense, and lack of parallelism are all
writing problems that need to be understood so that you can
avoid them in your own writing.

Sentence fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that is incorrectly

punctuated as a complete sentence.

For example, "Because it was important to me." would be a

sentence fragment. "Because it was important to me." is
called a dependent clause - it is "dependent" on more
information in order to be a complete thought. However, "I
studied for the test for hours, because it was important to
me." would be a complete sentence. The dependent clause
has been hooked on to an independent clause (a group of
words that can stand alone as a complete sentence) in order
to make a complete thought.

Another type of sentence fragment is a phrase, which

consists of a subject (who or what the sentence is about)
without a predicate (a verb that shows tense and includes
what the verb accomplishes, a word or group of words that
describes or renames what the verb accomplishes , or a
word modifying the verb in some way). A phrase can also
consist of a predicate without a subject. For example, "To
understand her point." would be a phrase, because it lacks a
subject. However, "I tried very hard to understand her
point." would be a complete sentence, because it includes
both the subject (I) and the predicate (tried very hard to
understand).

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An easy way to think about sentence fragments is to do the
following: Try imagining yourself saying the sentence to a
complete stranger who just walked into the room. If the
stranger would be confused by the sentence you wrote, and
would need more information to understand your point, you
probably have a sentence fragment.

There are several easy ways to fix sentence fragments. The

first is to connect your sentence fragment to the preceding
complete sentence with a comma, if the meaning that is
then created is what you are looking for.

Incorrect:

I studied for the test for hours. Because it was important to

me.

Correct:

I studied for the test for hours, because it was important to

me.

Another way to fix a sentence fragment is to add more

information to the fragment to make it a complete thought.

Incorrect:

Because it was important to me.

Correct:

Because it was important to me, I studied for the test for

hours.

A third way to fix sentence fragments is to add a predicate

or a subject, if either one is missing.

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Incorrect (missing a predicate):

Snow on the road.

Correct:

Snow was drifting on the road.

Incorrect (missing a subject):

Wanted to get to class on time.

Correct:

The students wanted to get to class on time.

Run-on sentences and comma splices

A run-on sentence combines two complete sentences (or

independent clauses) without any punctuation. If two
independent clauses are connected by a comma, then a
comma splice has occurred. There are several ways to
correct run-on sentences and comma splices:

Run-on sentence:

I felt awful about hitting this man today he didn't even

seem to notice.

Comma splice:

I felt awful about hitting this man today, he didn't even

seem to notice.

How to fix comma splices and run-on sentences:

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Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,
nor, for, so, yet, either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not
only...but also).

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today, but he didn't
even seem to notice.

Use a semicolon.

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today; he didn't even
seem to notice.

Make the clauses into separate sentences.

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today. He didn't even
seem to notice.

Restructure the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of

the clauses.

Ex: Even though he didn't seem to notice, I felt awful about

hitting this man today.

Passive voice

The passive voice occurs when the sentence explains what

is done to the subject, instead of what the subject did.
Using the passive voice de-emphasizes the actor in a
sentence and usually makes the sentence vague. Therefore,
try to use the active voice instead as much as possible.

Ex: Weak passive:

The exam was thought by us to be unfair because we were

tested on material that was not covered in the course.

Strong active:

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We thought the exam unfair because it tested us on material
the course did not cover.

Ex: Weak passive:

The paper was written by a freshman.

Strong active:

A freshman wrote the paper.

All of these nouns act instead of someone/something acting

upon them.

The passive voice is normally used only when the writer

wants to emphasize the receiver of the action or doesn't
know the identity of the subject, or when the subject doesn't
provide important information.

Shifts in pronoun usage

When you are writing a paper, be consistent in your use of

pronouns, and be sure to use the appropriate pronoun to
match your noun.

Incorrect:

A person should be careful so that he or she doesn't fall

behind in their classes.

Correct:

People should be careful so that they don't fall behind in

their classes.

"A person" is a singular noun and "their" is a plural

pronoun, so the writer needs to use the plural noun
"people" with the plural pronoun "their."
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Incorrect:

One often doesn't know what will happen to them next.

Correct:

One often doesn't know what will happen to one next.

Don't switch from "one" to "them;" if you begin by using

one kind of pronoun, you must be consistent with the use of
that pronoun to represent the noun in the rest of your
sentence.

Subject-verb agreement

Within your sentences your subject (who or what the

sentence is about) must agree with your verb (the action
word in the sentence).

Example:

Incorrect:

The pattern of the stars in the Milky Way are analyzed by

scientists around the world.

Correct:

The pattern of the stars in the Milky Way is analyzed by

scientists around the world.

"The pattern" represents one subject, so the verb needs to

be singular (is), not plural (are).

Shifts in tense

When you are writing a paper, use either the past tense or
the present tense, but use whichever tense you choose
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consistently. Shift tenses only to signal a time before or
after the tense you have chosen to use.

Example of shifting tense to signal a time change:

I felt silly for not understanding the plot of the novel, but I
feel better after talking to some other students in the class
about it. I feel badly for not doing the reading assignment,
but I was sick all last week.

When you are referring to a work of fiction, a poem, a play,

or a film, use the present tense consistently, even though
the work was written in the past, and even if the author is
no longer alive. When you write your own narrative, use
the past tense to describe actions that already happened.

Lack of parallelism

Parallelism is just a fancy way of saying that each part of

your sentence needs to match the other parts when you are
listing items or actions, or when you are comparing or
clarifying relationships between ideas. For example:

Incorrect:

I went to the store, bus stop, and to the train station. I like
to walk, swimming, and read novels.

Correct:

I went to the store, to the bus stop, and to the train station. I
went to the store, bus stop, and train station. I like to walk,
swim, and read novels. I like to walk, to swim, and to read
novels. I like walking, swimming, and reading novels.

Incorrect:

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 Many students try to take classes that interest them making
their semester more enjoyable.

Correct:

Many students try to take classes that interest them to make

their semester more enjoyable.

Exercise

Choose the answer that identifies the kind of error in

each of the following items:

Frag=fragment
CS=comma splice
FS=Fused sentence
OK=complete sentence

Frag
CS
Children need limits they respect adults who supply them.
OK
FS
Frag
CS
When trying on bathing suits, I always vow to begin a diet.
OK
FS
Frag
Moisture gets inside computers their chips begin to break
CS
down.
OK

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FS
Frag
CS
Darkness falls quickly at the edges of the forest.
OK
FS
Frag
CS Sharing the burden of domestic chores has become more
OK common in American marriages.
FS
Frag
CS
OK
FS
Although, some husbands may resist at first.

Frag
CS Since studies show that even working women feel they must do
OK most of the house work.
FS
Frag
CS
Growing impatiens takes very little patience at all.
OK
FS
Frag
CS
Knowing we would arrive on Thursday.
OK
FS
Frag
I can't tell you, I wasn't there.
CS

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OK
FS

Frag
CS
OK
Brazilians eat beans and rice every day.
FS

Frag
CS
That dress was too small, I gave it to Corinne.
OK
FS
Frag
CS Women's soccer has earned the world's attention this summer,
OK Americans have every reason to be proud.
FS
Frag
CS The player who signed a multi-million-dollar contract with a
OK breakfast cereal company.
FS

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 How to Write a Paragraph

Parts of a Paragraph

1- Topic Sentence

What is the topic sentence?

The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph.

What does it do?

It introduces the main idea of the paragraph.

How do I write one?

Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the
reader what your paragraph will be about.

Example:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best
countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent
health care system. All Canadians have access to medical
services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high
standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained
teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at
university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently
managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of
space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable
place to live.

2- Supporting Details

What are supporting sentences?

They come after the topic sentence, making up the body of
a paragraph.

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What do they do?
They give details to develop and support the main idea of
the paragraph.

How do I write them?

You should give supporting facts, details, and examples.

Example:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best
countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent
health care system. All Canadians have access to
medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada
has a high standard of education. Students are taught
by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue
studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean
and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many
parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result,
Canada is a desirable place to l

3- Closing Sentence

What is the closing sentence?

The closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph.

What does it do?

It restates the main idea of your paragraph.

How do I write one?

Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different
words.

Example:
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best
countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health
care system. All Canadians have access to medical services
at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard
20
of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers
and are encouraged to continue studying at university.
Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed.
Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for
people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to
live.

How to Write a Paragraph

Prewriting Paragraphs

What is the prewriting stage?

The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and

organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin
writing.

Six Prewriting Steps:

1. Think carefully about what you are going to write.

Ask yourself: What question am I going to answer in this
paragraph or essay? How can I best answer this question?
What is the most important part of my answer? How can I
make an introductory sentence (or thesis statement) from
the most important part of my answer? What facts or ideas
can I use to support my introductory sentence? How can I
make this paragraph or essay interesting? Do I need more
facts on this topic? Where can I find more facts on this
topic?

2. Open your notebook. Write out your answers to the

above questions. You do not need to spend a lot of time
doing this; just write enough to help you remember why
and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.

3. Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic.

Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer
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your question. Timesaving hint: make sure the facts you are
writing are related to the exact question you are going to
answer in your paragraph or essay.

4. Write down your own ideas. Ask yourself: What else

do I want to say about this topic? Why should people be
interested in this topic? Why is this topic important?

5. Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay.

Choose the most important point you are going to present.
If you cannot decide which point is the most important, just
choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph
or essay.

6. Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops

your main idea. Once you have chosen the most important
point of your paragraph or essay, you must find the best
way to tell your reader about it. Look at the facts you have
written. Look at your own ideas on the topic. Decide which
facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your
paragraph. Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you
plan to use, ask yourself which order to put them in the
paragraph. Write down your own note set that you can use
to guide yourself as you write your paragraph or essay.

Writing Paragraphs

What is the writing stage?

The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into
sentences.

Five Writing Steps:

1. Open your notebook and word processor.

2. Write the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and
closing sentence.
3. Write clear and simple sentences to express your
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meaning.
4. Focus on the main idea of your paragraph.
5. Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to
express your ideas.

Editing Paragraphs

What is the editing stage?

The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for
mistakes and correct them.

Grammar and Spelling

1. Check your spelling.

2. Check your grammar.
3. Read your essay again.
4. Make sure each sentence has a subject.
5. See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.
6. Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
7. Make sure that each sentence makes sense.

Style and Organization

1. Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.

2. Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main
idea.
3. Make sure you have a closing sentence.
4. Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
5. See if your paragraph is interesting.

Publishing Paragraphs

What is the publishing stage?

The publishing stage is when you produce a final copy of
your paragraph to hand in.

Three Publishing Steps:

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 1. Make a paper copy of your paragraph.
2. Show your work to your teacher, tutor, or parents.
3. Ask them for hints on how to improve your
writing.

Kinds of Paragraphs

Definition Paragraph

When writing a definition paragraph, you take a thing or an

idea and explain what it is.
Example: Write a paragraph giving the definition of a pest.

The following words can help you to write a good

definition paragraph:

1. "is defined as"

A pest is defined as any animal or plant that
Example:
damages crops, forests, or property.

2. "is a kind of"

A pest is a kind of animal or plant that
Example:
damages crops, forests, or property.

Exercise:

Write a paragraph defining the word homesickness

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Classification Paragraph

A method of paragraph development in which a writer

arranges people, objects, or ideas with shared
characteristics into classes or groups.

The following words can help you to write a good

classification paragraph:

is a kind of
Coal is a kind of non-renewable resource.

can be divided into

Energy resources can be divided into two types.

is a type of
Coal is a type of non-renewable resource.

falls under
Coal falls under the category of non-renewable resources.

belongs to
Coal belongs to the category of non-renewable resources.

is a part of
Coal is a part of the category of non-renewable resources.

fits into
Coal fits into the category of non-renewable resources.

is grouped with
Coal is grouped with non-renewable resources.

is related to
Coal is related to other non-renewable resources.

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is associated with
Coal is associated with other non-renewable resources.

Exercise

Write a paragraph discussing friendships.

Description Paragraph

In a description paragraph, you are writing about what a

person, place, or thing is like. Sometimes, you may
describe where a place is located.

Examples: Write a paragraph describing what a polar bear

looks like.

The following words can help you to write a good

description paragraph:

Helper Words:

Properties

size
Example: Polar bears are big in size.

colour
Example: Polar bears are usually white in colour.

shape
Example: Polar bears have a special shape.

26
purpose
Example: The purpose of the polar bear's fur is to keep
it warm.

Measurement

length
Example: The length of a polar bear's claws is 20 cm.

width
Example: The width of a polar bear's head is about 50
cm.

mass / weight
Example: Polar bears weigh up to 650 kg.

speed
Example: Polar bears can swim at a speed of 40 km per
hour.
Analogy

is like
Example: A polar bear is like other bears in shape.

resembles
Example: A polar bear resembles other bears in shape.
Location

in
Example: Most of Canada's manufacturing is located in
Ontario and Quebec.

above
Example: The ceiling is above us.

below
Example: Most of Ontario is below Hudson Bay.

27
beside
Example: Quebec is located beside Ontario.

near
Example: Many companies are located near Toronto.

north / east / south / west

Example: Ontario is west of Quebec.

Exercise:

Write a paragraph describing one of your dream house

Compare and Contrast Paragraph

In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about the

similarities and differences between two or more people,
places, things, or ideas.

The following words can help you to write a good

compare and contrast paragraph:

Helper Words:
Similarities

is similar to
Example: Spring weather in Vancouver is similar to
spring weather in Halifax.

both
Example: Both Vancouver and Halifax have rain in the
spring.

28
also
Example: Halifax also has a rainy spring season.

too
Example: Halifax has a rainy spring season, too.

as well
Example: As well, Halifax has rainy spring season.
Differences

on the other hand

Example: On the other hand, winter is much colder in
Halifax.

however
Example: However, winter is much colder in Halifax.

but
Example: Vancouver has a mild winter, but Halifax has a
cold one.

in contrast to
Example: In contrast to Vancouver, Halifax has a cold
winter.

differs from
Example: Halifax differs from Vancouver by having a
cold winter.

while
Example: While Vancouver has a mild winter, Halifax
has a cold winter.

Exercise

Write a paragraph comparing between two places you have

visited.

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Sequence Paragraph Or Narrative Paragraph

In a sequencing paragraph, you are writing to describe

a series of events or a process in some sort of order.
Usually, this order is based on time.

The following words can help you to write a good

sequence paragraph.

Helper Words:
Order

first, second, third, etc.

Example: First, you need to become a leader of a political
party. Second, you need to win a seat in the House of
Commons. Third, your party must have a majority of seats.

in the beginning
Example: In the beginning, you need to become a leader
of a political party.

before
Example: Before becoming the prime minister, you need
to become the leader of a political party.

then
Example: Then, you must win a seat in the House of
Commons.

after
Example: After winning a seat in the House of Commons,
you must make sure you have a majority of seats.

finally
Example: Finally, after all these steps, you can call
yourself the prime minister.

30
at last
Example: At last, you can call yourself the prime
minister.

subsequently
Example: Subsequently, you must make sure you have a
majority of seats in the House of Commons.
Time

recently
Example: She was recently elected prime minister.

previously
Example: She is the new prime minister. Previously, she
worked as a lawyer in Toronto.

afterwards
Example: She won the party leadership last year.
Afterwards, she won the election.

when
Example: When she won the party leadership, she was
still working as a lawyer.

after
Example: After winning a seat in the House of Commons,
you must make sure you have a majority of seats.

Exercise

Write a paragraph about being lost in a new place.

31
Choice Paragraph

In a paragraph where you have to make a choice, you need

to choose which object, idea, or action that you prefer.
Often, you will need to give your opinion on a choice of
actions or events.

The following words can help you to write a good choice

paragraph:

Helper Words:
Point of View

in my opinion
Example: In my opinion, hockey is more fun than
lacrosse.

belief
Example: My belief is that hockey is more fun than
lacrosse.

idea
Example: My idea is that hockey is more fun than
lacrosse.

understanding
Example: My understanding is that hockey is more fun
than lacrosse.

I think that
Example: I think that I would prefer to play hockey and
not lacrosse.

I consider
Example: I consider hockey to be more exciting than
lacrosse.

32
I believe
Example: I believe hockey is more exciting than
lacrosse.

it seems to me
Example: It seems to me that hockey is more exciting than
lacrosse.

I prefer
Example: I prefer hockey over lacrosse.

Personal Opinions

like/dislike
Example: I like the sport of hockey because it is fast and
exciting.

hope
Example: I hope that I can play hockey in the future.

feel
Example: I feel that hockey is my favorite sport.

Exercise

Write a paragraph stating whether you would prefer to play

football or volleyball.

Explanation Paragraph

In an explanation paragraph, you need to explain how or

why something happens. Very often in social studies class,
you will be asked to explore causes and effects of certain
events.

33
The following words can help you to write a good
explanation paragraph:

Helper Words:
Cause

because
Example: People moved to Canada from Europe during
the nineteenth century because they had poor living
conditions in Europe.

since
Example: Since living conditions in Europe were terrible,
many people moved to Canada.

as a result of
Example: People moved to Canada from Europe as a
result of poor living conditions in Europe.

is due to / was due to

Example: The large influx of people to Canada was due
to economic pressures in Europe.

Effect

therefore
Example: Living conditions in Europe were terrible.
Therefore, many people moved to Canada for a better life.

thus
Example: Living conditions in Europe were terrible.
Thus, many people moved to Canada for a better life.

consequently
Example: Living conditions were terrible in Europe.
Consequently, many people moved to Canada.

34
hence
Example: Living conditions were terrible in Europe.
Hence, many people moved to Canada.

it follows that
Example: Living conditions were terrible in Europe. It
follows that many people moved to Canada.

if ... then
Example: If living conditions were better in Europe, then
fewer people would have moved to Canada.

Exercise

Write a paragraph explaining why so many Egyptians

moved to the United States of America.

Evaluation Paragraph

In an evaluation paragraph, you make judgments about

people, ideas, and possible actions. You need to make your
evaluation based on certain criteria that you develop. In the
paragraph, you will state your evaluation or
recommendation and then support it by referring to your
criteria.

The following words can help you to write a good

evaluation paragraph:

Helper Words
Criteria

good / bad
Example: The use of pesticides such as DDT is bad for
the environment.

35
correct / incorrect
Example: The belief that pesticides must be used is
incorrect.

moral / immoral
Example: The use of pesticides to control pests is
immoral because it harms the environment.

right / wrong
Example: It is wrong to use pesticides because they harm
the environment.

important / trivial
Example: The issue of pesticides is an important one
because it affects the environment.
Recommendation

suggest
Example: I suggest that pesticides should not be used to
control pests.

recommend
Example: I recommend that pesticides should not be used
because they are harmful to the environment.

advise
Example: I would advise farmers not to use pesticides if
possible.

argue
Example: I would argue that pesticides should not be
used because they harm the environment.

Exercie

Write a paragraph evaluating a TV show.

36
Grammar

37
 1. MODAL VERBS

An aspect of English that troubles many learners is

the correct use of the modal verbs - must, may, can, should,
ought to, might etc. The difficulties are of two kinds -
firstly, there is the difficulty of learning which forms of the
modal verbs are possible in the various tenses, and
secondly, there is the more subtle difficulty of choosing the
correct modal to express the meaning that you want to
convey.

What are "modal verbs"?

They are verbs which help other verbs to express a
meaning: it is important to realize that "modal verbs" have
no meaning by themselves. A modal verb such as would
has several varying functions; it can be used, for example,
to help verbs express ideas about the past, the present and
the future. Therefore, it is wrong to simply believe that
"would is the past of will": it is many other things.
A few basic grammatical rules applying to modal verbs
 Unlike other verbs, modals are NEVER used with other
auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did etc. The negative is
formed simply by adding "not" after the verb; questions
are formed by inversion of the verb and subject:
o She can't come.
o You should not do that.
o Can you swim?
o Could you pick me up when I've finished?

38
 Modals never inflect, i.e.: they have no –ing or –ed
forms, and do not take –s in the third person singular
present.

 Modals are always followed by the base form of the

verb. They are NEVER followed by to, with the
exception of ought to.

Sometimes a modal is followed by the base form of

auxiliaries have or be, followed by a participle, e.g.:
o I might be playing tennis tomorrow.
o You ought to have told her.
o You shouldn't have left the windows open.

In passive structures, a modal is followed by be or have

been and a past participle, e.g.:
o She ought to be disqualified.
o The door might have been locked.

What sort of meanings do modals give to other verbs?

The meaning are usually connected with ideas of
doubt, certainty, possibility and probability, obligation and
permission (or lack of these). You will see that they are not
used to talk about things that definitely exist, or events that
definitely happened. these meanings are sometimes divided
into two groups:

Degrees of Certainty: certainty; probability; possibility;

impossibility
Obligation/Freedom to Act: permission, lack of permission;
ability; obligation.

39
 Let's look at each modal verb separately, and the
functions they help to express:

USES OF WILL:
1. Making personal predictions
o I think it will rain tonight.
o I don't think the Queen will ever abdicate.
o I doubt if I'll stay here much longer.

2. Talking about the present with certainty (making

deductions)
o I'm sure you will understand that there is nothing
the Department can do
o There's a letter for you. It'll be from the bank: they
said they'd be writing.

3. Talking about the future with certainty

o I won't be in the office until 11; I've got a meeting.
o Don't bother ringing: they'll have left for their 10
o'clock lecture.

4. Talking about the past with certainty

o I'm sure you will have noticed that attendance has
fallen sharply.

5. Reassuring someone
o Don't worry! You'll settle down quickly, I'm sure.
o It'll be all right! You won't have to speak by
yourself.

40
6. Making a decision
o For the main course I'll have grilled tuna.
o I'm very tired. I think I'll stay at home tonight.

7. Making a semi-formal request

o Will you open the window, please? It's very hot in
here.
o Sign this, will you?

8. Offering to do something
o You stay there! I'll fetch the drinks.

9. Insistence; habitual behaviour

o I'm not surprised you don't know what to do! You
will keep talking in class.
o Damn! My car won't start. I'll have to call the
garage.

10. Making a promise or a threat

o You can count on me! I'll be there at 8 o'clock sharp.
o If you don't finish your dinner off, you'll go straight
to bed!

USES OF SHALL:
Shall is a form of will, used mostly in the first
person. Its use, however, is decreasing, and in any case in
spoken English it would be contracted to "'ll" and be
indistinguishable from will. The only time you do need to
use it is in questions is when:

41
1. Making offers
o Shall I fetch you another glass of wine?
o Shall I open the window for you?

2. Making suggestions
o Shall we go to the cinema tonight?

MAY & MIGHT:

May & might sometimes have virtually the same
meaning; they are used to talk about possibilities in the
past, present or future. ("Could" is also sometimes used).

May is sometimes a little bit "more sure" (50%

chance); whereas might expresses more doubt (maybe only
a 30% chance).
May & might are used, then, for:
1. Talking about the present or future with
uncertainty
o She may be back in her office: the lecture finished
ten minutes ago.
o I may go shopping tonight, I haven't decided yet.
o England might win the World Cup, you never know.

2. Talking about the past with uncertainty

o I'm surprised he failed. I suppose he might have
been ill on the day of the exam.

42
 They can also sometimes be used for talking about
permission, but usually only in formal situations. Instead
of saying May I open a window? we would say Is it all
right/OK if I open a window? or Can I open a window? for
example. You might, however, see:
o Students may not borrow equipment without written
permission.

USES OF MAY:

1. Talking about things that can happen in certain

situations
o If the monitors are used in poorly lit places, some
users may experience headaches.
o Each nurse may be responsible for up to twenty
patients.

2. With a similar meaning to although

o The experiment may have been a success, but there
is still a lot of work to be done. (= Although it was a
success, there is still ...)

USES OF MIGHT:

1. Saying that something was possible, but did not

actually happen
o You saw me standing at the bus stop! You might
have stopped and given me a lift!
o

43
USES OF WOULD:

1. As the past of will, for example in indirect speech

o "The next meeting will be in a month's time."
becomes
o He said the next meeting would be in a month's time.

2. Polite requests and offers (a 'softer' form of will)

o Would you like another cup of tea?
o Would you give me a ring after lunch?
o I'd like the roast duck, please.

3. In conditionals, to indicate 'distance from reality':

imagined, unreal, impossible situations
o If I ruled the world, every day would be the first day
of Spring.
o It would have been better if you'd word processed
your assignment.

4. After 'wish', to show regret or irritation over

someone (or something's) refusal or insistence on
doing something (present or future)
o I wish you wouldn't keep interrupting me.
o I wish it would snow.

5. Talking about past habits (similar meaning to used

to)
o When I was small, we would always visit relatives
on Christmas Day.

6. Future in the past

44
 o The assassination would become one of the key
events of the century.

CAN & COULD

1. Talking about ability

o Can you speak Mandarin? (present)
o She could play the piano when she was five. (past)
2. Making requests
o Can you give me a ring at about 10?
o Could you speak up a bit please? (slightly more
formal, polite or 'softer')

3. Asking permission
o Can I use your pen?
o Can I ask you a question?
o Could I ask you a personal question? (more formal,
polite or indirect)

4. Reported speech
In reported speech, could is used as the past of can.
o "Can you pick me up after work?"
becomes
o He asked me if I could pick him up after work.

5. General possibility
o You can drive when you're 17. (present)
o Women couldn't vote until just after the First World
War.

45
6. Choice and opportunities
o If you want some help with your writing, you can
come to classes, or you can get some 1:1 help.
o We could go to Stratford tomorrow, but the
forecast's not brilliant. (less definite)

7. Future probability
Could (NOT can) is sometimes used in the same way
as might or may, often indicating something less definite.
o When I leave university, I might travel around a bit, I
might do an MA or I suppose I could even get a job.

8. Present possibility
o I think you could be right you know. (NOT can)
o That can't be the right answer, it just doesn't make
sense.

9. Past possibility
o If I'd known the lecture had been cancelled, I could
have stayed in bed longer.

USES OF MUST:
Examples here refer to British English; there is some
variation in American English.

1. Necessity and obligation

Must is often used to indicate 'personal' obligation;
what you think you yourself or other people/things must
do. If the obligation comes from outside (e.g., a rule or
law), then have to is often (but not always) preferred:

46
 o I really must get some exercise.
o People must try to be more tolerant of one another.
o If you own a car, you have to pay an annual road
tax.

We use must not to say that something is not

permitted or allowed, for example:
o Passengers must not talk to the driver.
o Policemen must not drink on duty.

2. Strong advice and invitations

o I think you really must make more of an effort.
o You must go and see the film - it's brilliant.
o You must come and see me next time you're in
town.

2. Saying you think something is certain

o This must be the place - there's a white car parked
outside.
o You must be mad.
o What a suntan! You must have had great weather.

The negative is expresses by can't:

o You're going to sell your guitar! You can't be
serious!
o She didn't wave - she can't have seen me.

47
USES OF SHOULD:
1. Giving advice
o I think you should go for the Alfa rather than the
Audi.
o You shouldn't be drinking if you're on antibiotics.
o You shouldn't have ordered that chocolate dessert -
you're not going to finish it.

2. Obligation: weak form of must

o The university should provide more sports facilities.
o The equipment should be inspected regularly.
o Children should look up to their parents.

3. Deduction
o The letter should get to you tomorrow - I posted it
first class.

4. Things which didn't or may/may not have happened

o I should have renewed my driving license last
month, but I forgot.
o You shouldn't have spent so much time on that first
question.

USES OF OUGHT TO:

Ought to usually has the same meaning as should,
particularly in affirmative statements in the present:
o You should/ought to get your hair cut.

Should is much more common (and easier to say!),

so if you're not sure, use should.

48
 EXERCISES

I. Choose the correct answer:

1. They ………. be away for the weekend but I'm not
sure.
a) can b) might.

2. You ………. leave now if you wish.

a) may b) might

3. ………. you open the window a bit, please?

a) May b) Could

4. He ………. be from Sheffield, judging by his accent.

a) can b) could

5. ………. play the piano?

a) May b) Can

6. Listen, please. You ………. speak during this exam.

a) may not b) might not
7. They ………. still be out!
a) can't b) might not

8. You ………. smoke on the bus.

a) couldn't b) might not
9. With luck, tomorrow ………. be a cooler day.
a) can b) could

10. You ………. be right but I'm going back to check the
times.
a) can b) might

49
II. Complete the sentences using the correct form of 'can',
'could' or 'be able to'.
1. When they came back form Paris, they ……….
speak perfect French.
2. They didn't come to the restaurant, they ………. not
afford it.
3. ………. I see you next Monday at ten.
4. After I had tried for a few hours, I ………. open the
door and get out.
5. He ………. not work after being ill.
6. I ………. write that letter tomorrow, I'm afraid I'm
too busy.
7. I tried to see her but I……….
8. I generally leave work at 6 but I ………. leave
earlier on Friday.
9. Good bye! I think I ………. see you tomorrow.
10. What? She's seven and she ………. tie her
shoelaces!
11. I'd like to ………. speak a little bit of every
language.
12. I went to the library, Mrs. Price, but I ………. find
the book you wanted.
13. After trying for many hours, they ………. rescue the
boy.
14. I ………. swim until I was fifteen.
15. If we're lucky we ………. see the whole match.

50
 2. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES

A gerund is a verb that functions as noun. It is

formed by adding -ing to the end of the bare infinitive, e.g.:

o I enjoy playing tennis.

o We practice speaking English every day.
o Stop talking, please.
o I gave up smoking five years ago.
o I'll do my homework before going to the club.

In English the infinitive is made of to and the verb,

e.g.:

o I want to learn a new language.

o You forgot to close the door.
o I didn't mean to hurt you.
o He stopped to help me carry the bag.
o John wants to have a drink.
Verbs are often followed by infinitives or gerunds
and choosing which to use has few fixed rules; it depends
mainly on the individual verb.

First- The Gerund:

The gerund (and not the infinitive) should be used:

1. After certain verbs such as:

acknowledge admit adore
anticipate appreciate avoid
51
 celebrate confess contemplate
delay describe detest
discuss dislike dread
endure enjoy fancy
finish imagine involve
keep justify mention
mind miss omit
postpone practice quit
recall recommend regret
report resent resume
risk suggest tolerate
tolerate

Examples:
o I adore reading your books.
o They anticipated winning the election.
o I detest going to discos.
o I imagine being a waitress is a difficult job.
o I don't mind waiting; we've got time.
o We postponed making any decision in the meeting.
o Jeff's always late. He risks losing his job.
o I quit smoking.
o I suggest having lunch first.

2. After prepositions, such as against, after, before, by, on,

instead of, without.
Examples:
o I am against smoking in public places.
o I went home after leaving the party.
o You can improve your English by using the Internet.
o You can't learn English without making mistakes.

52
3. After some after adjectives and verbs which regularly
take a preposition, such as fond of, good at, keen on,
tired of, interested in, insist on, succeed in, keep on,
give up.
Examples:
o I am tired of doing the work again.
o She’s good at using her hands.
o He’s keen on learning English.
o If keep on doing the same thing, you'll get the same
results.
o She wants to give up drinking coffee.
o He succeeded in killing the tiger.
4. After the adjectives busy and worth.
Examples:
o He was busy writing a book.
o This book is worth reading.

5. After certain phrases, such as feel like, be accustomed to,

be used to, it’s no use, it’s no good, would you mind,
look forward to.
Examples:
o I feel like sleeping.
o I think it’s no use trying again.
o I can’t help feeling angry about it.

Second- The Infinitive:

The infinitive (and not the gerund) should be used
after some common verbs, such as:

53
 afford agree aim
appear arrange ask
attempt care choose
claim come consent
dare decide demand
deserve determine elect
endeavor expect fail
get guarantee hate
help hesitate hope
hurry incline intend
learn long manage
mean need offer
plan prepare pretend
promise refuse resolve
say seem tend
threaten want wish

Examples:
o I can't afford to buy new clothes.
o I'm aiming to finish this book by the end of March.
o My boss agreed to give me a reference.
o We decided to have a baby.
o You deserve to have a better score.
o I hope to go to Harvard Business School.
o You should learn to express yourself.
o They managed to fix the problem.
o I'm sorry, I didn't mean to make you angry.
o He offered to help me carry these bags.
o He's pretending to be sick.
o They plan to go abroad next year.
o She promised to be here on time.
o Why do they always refuse to listen?

54
 o She seems to be really intelligent.

Gerunds and Infinitives: Verb + Gerund or Infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a
gerund. These verbs in turn can be subdivided into two
groups, verbs with little difference in meaning, and verbs
with a distinct change in meaning.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive: Little difference in

meaning.
Here are some common verbs that can be followed
by gerunds or infinitives with little change in meaning. A
change of meaning may still exist however, as there are
almost limitless combinations of verbs and
gerunds/infinitives.
begin:
o He began to learn English when he was eight.
o He began learning English when he was eight.
bother:
o Don't bother to wash the dishes. I'll do it.
o Don't bother washing the dishes. I'll do it.

continue:
o You can continue to live here for 6 months.
o You can continue living here for 6 months.

start:
o I started to learn the clarinet when I was 8.
o I started learning the clarinet when I was 8.
love / like / hate /prefer
55
 These four verbs use the gerund for situations or
actions in progress. The infinitive is used for factual
information.
hate
o I hate working at my new job (I'm working there
now.)
o I hate to work on Sundays. (specific time and
situation)
like
o I like playing the piano. (I like the process and
feeling of playing the piano.)
o I like to play the piano. (It's a fact I like to play the
piano.)

love
o I love living in the country. (I'm probably living there
now.)
o I love to live in the country. (Generally speaking I
like the country, maybe I'm not living there now.)
prefer
o I prefer to study by myself. (Sounds factual)
o I prefer studying by myself. (Sounds more personal,
perhaps I'm studying now.)

These verbs are also often used with would and the
infinitive, and refer to specific situations. For example:
o I would love to go to China.
o We would prefer to meet at 7.00.
Allow / permit
Allow and permit have one pattern for gerunds and
another for infinitives.

56
allow + gerund:
o My teacher doesn't allow eating in class.
allow + object + infinitive:
o My teacher doesn't allow us to eat in class.
permit + gerund
o My teacher doesn't permit eating in class.
permit + object + infinitive:
o My teacher doesn't permit us to eat in class.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive: Little difference in

meaning.
The following verbs can be followed by gerunds or
infinitives but with a change in meaning:

forget / regret / remember

When these verbs are used with a gerund they refer
to something that happened before a certain time. When
they are used with an infinitive they refer to something that
happens at or after a certain time.
forget
Forget with the gerund is often used with never for a
memorable previous action.
o I'll never forget going to Japan.

Forget with the infinitive means something happens

at or after a certain time.
o Don't forget to meet me at 5.00.

57
regret
Regret with the gerund refers to a previous action.
o I don't regret leaving my job.

Regret with the infinitive is used to give bad news in

a formal, polite way. It's often used with the verbs to say, to
announce, to tell you and to inform you.
o We regret to inform you the interview is cancelled.

remember
Remember with the gerund refers to a previous
action.
o I remember meeting you last year. (I met you before
now).

Remember with the infinitive is used for something

that happens at or after a certain time.
o Please remember to close the door. (in the future
please close the door.)

go on
Go on with the gerund means to continue an action
in progress. For example:
o I want to go on studying here.

Go on with the infinitive means to do something

new. For example:

58
 o After university, he went on to study law.
mean
Mean with the gerund shows negative consequence.
For example:
o You can buy a new car, but it means spending a lot
of money.

Mean with the infinitive shows intention.

o He means to leave his job next month.
o I didn't mean to make you angry.

try
Try with the gerund is used for suggestions.
o "I need to lose weight." "Try exercising and eating
healthy food".
o "I'm really hot." "Try sitting here, it's much cooler."

Try with the infinitive means to attempt something.

o I tried to lift it but I can't.
o I'll try to finish this by tomorrow morning.
stop
Stop with the gerund means to end an action.
o I stopped eating fast food last year.
o I can't stop loving you.
o Stop being so annoying!

Stop with the infinitive means to interrupt an action.

59
 o I was walking to the subway station, and I stopped to
say "Hi" to my friends.
o I was working at home, and I stopped to answer the
phone.

come
Come with the gerund means movement with a sense
of surprise or excitement.
o The ball came flying toward me - it almost hit me on
the head!
o Don't come running to me! (this means don't expect
sympathy)
Come with the infinitive means a change in perception.
o I thought he wasn't smart, but I came to realize he's
very talented.
o I didn't like teaching, but I came to like it.

Come with the infinitive can also mean just reason.

o Why did you come? - I came to watch a movie.

help
Help is often used with an infinitive.
o I helped to make dinner.

Help is also used without to, especially in American

conversational English.
o I helped make the dinner.

60
 Help is also used with the preposition with and the
gerund.
o I helped with making the dinner.
These three usages have similar meanings. Help with
the gerund is also used with can't to mean a reaction
beyond the subject's control.
o I can't help laughing.
o Those kids are noisy, but I can't help liking them.

EXERCISES
I. Choose the correct answer:
1. Do all of us need ……….?
a) to go b) going
2. Beth promised ………. to me.
a) to write b) writing
3. Joe doesn't mind ………. by himself.
a) to work b) working
4. Carol and her husband seem ………. the perfect life.
a) to have b) having
5. Do you really enjoy ………. to work on Monday
morning?
a) to go b) going
6. After eating its fill, the monkey decided ……….
home some food.
a) to carry b) carrying
7. The higher return you hope to achieve, the more you
must risk ……….
a) to lose b) losing

61
8. When Nick lived in Asia, he missed ……….
Christmas with his family.
a) to celebrate b) celebrating
9. I vehemently dislike ………. with morons, screw-
ups, deadbeats, crooks, and liars.
a) to deal b) deal
10. Although Susan has a good job, she can't afford
………. out of her parents' house.
a) to move b) moving
11. Group work allows students ………. about their
understandings and discoveries with peers.
a) to talk b) talking
12. Our teacher doesn't allow ………. in the study
hall.
a) to talk b) talking
13. Stop ………. mean to your sister!
a) to be b) being
14. On my way home, I stopped ………. some gas.
a) to get b) getting
15. After high school, Sally went on ………. medicine.
a) to study b) studying
16. Before you go to sleep, don't forget ………. the
door.
a) to lock b) locking
17. As soon as John turns 18, he means ………. to
Hollywood.
a) to move b) moving

62
 18. Jason remembered ………. in to me at a party two
years ago.
a) to move b) moving
19. We regret ………. you that we have suspended all
business activity.
a) to inform b) informing
20. I don't regret ………. up tennis and settling down
with my wife and children.
a) to give b) giving

II. Show the difference in meaning between the two

sentences in each of the following pairs:
1. a) I stopped to buy a newspaper.
b) I stopped buying newspapers.
2. a) He forgot to mail the letter.
b) He forgot mailing the letter.
3. a) I remembered to post the letter.
b) I remembered posting the letter.
4. a) I regret to tell you the truth.
b) I regretted telling you the truth.
5. a) Try to use a hammer.
b) Try using a hammer.
6. a) After university, he went on to study law.
b) After university, he went on studying law.

63
 3. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
Passive voice verbs are used in writing much more
often than in speech, and they are used in some types of
writing much more often than in others. Passives are used
more in journalism (newspapers, magazines) than in fiction
(novels, stories), but most journalists and fiction writers use
far more active than passive sentences.
However, passives are very common in all types of
scientific and technical writing. Scientific articles often
contain more passive than active sentences. You should not
use passive voice verbs unless you have a good reason.
A. Relationship between active and passive:
1. The object of the active verb is the subject of the
passive verb ("English" in the example sentences
below). Therefore, verbs which cannot be followed by
objects (intransitive verbs) cannot be used in passive
voice.
These are some common intransitive verbs: appear,
arrive, come, cry, die, go, happen, occur, rain, sleep,
stay, walk. These verbs cannot be used in passive voice.
2. The passive verb always contains a form of the auxiliary
verb be. The form of be in the passive verb phrase
corresponds to the form of the main verb in the active
verb phrase (see the underlined words in the example
sentences below). That is, if the active main verb is
simple present tense, then a simple present tense form of
be is used in the passive verb phrase; if the active main
verb is -ING, then the -ING form of be is used in the
passive verb phrase; and so on.

64
3. The main verb in a passive predicate verb phrase is
always the participle form of the verb.
4. Some examples of active and passive sentences:
ACTIVE: They speak English
PASSIVE: English is spoken.

ACTIVE: They spoke English.

PASSIVE: English was spoken.

ACTIVE: They will speak English.

PASSIVE: English will be spoken.

ACTIVE: They are going to speak English.

PASSIVE: English is going to be spoken.

ACTIVE: They are speaking English.

PASSIVE: English is being spoken.

ACTIVE: They were speaking English.

PASSIVE: English was being spoken.

ACTIVE: They have spoken English.

PASSIVE: English has been spoken.
65
 ACTIVE: They had spoken English.
PASSIVE: English had been spoken.

ACTIVE: They will have spoken English.

PASSIVE: English will have been spoken.

5. Perfect progressive verb forms are generally used in

active voice only. That is, these are good English
sentences:
ACTIVE: They have been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They had been speaking English.
ACTIVE: They will have been speaking English.
But sentences like these are rarely used:
PASSIVE: English has been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English had been being spoken.
PASSIVE: English will have been being spoken.
B. Most passive sentences do not contain an agent; all
active sentences contain an agent.
1. An agent is the subject of the active verb. In the
example sentences above, the agent is "they" in all the
active sentences; the passive sentences do not contain an
agent.
2. When a passive sentence contains an agent, it is in a
prepositional phrase following the verb. For example:
English is spoken by them.

66
 In the following sentences, the noun "teachers" is
the agent in both sentences. "Teachers" is also the subject
of the active verb, but "exams" is the subject of the passive
verb.
ACTIVE: Teachers prepare exams.
PASSIVE: Exams are prepared by teachers.
C. You should not use passive voice unless you have a
good reason. Here are some good reasons for using
passive voice:
1. Passive voice is often used when the agent (the doer of
an action; the subject of an active verb) is obvious,
unknown, or unnecessary:
Oranges are grown in California.
Toyotas are made in Japan.
Her purse was stolen.
2. Passive voice is often used when the agent is known,
but the speaker/writer doesn’t want to mention it:
She was given bad advice.
A mistake has been made.
3. Passive voice is often used when the agent is very
general such as people or somebody.
English is spoken here.
The door should be locked.
4. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer
wants to emphasize a result:
Several thousand people were killed by the earthquake.

67
5. Passive voice is often used when the speaker/writer
wants to keep the same subject for two or more verbs
but this would not be possible if both verbs were the
same voice (active or passive).
For example, in a conversation about George, a
speaker would probably use sentence a below rather than
sentence b (both sentences are correct).
a. George had several interviews before he was hired
by a software company.
b. George had several interviews before a software
company hired him.

EXERCISES
I. Change the following sentences from active to passive
voice. Be sure to keep the same tense with each
change.
1. The teacher punished the child severely.
2. The little boy ate the cake.
3. He returned the money last night.
4. Someone has stolen all his money.
5. Many students attended the lecture.
6. She has finished the report.
7. The postman is going to deliver the letter soon.
8. People think highly of him.
9. An earthquake destroyed the village.
10. The committee is going to hold its next session next
week.
68
II. Change the following sentences from passive to
active voice.
1. The entire city was destroyed by a hurricane.
2. The town will be captured by our army in a few days.
3. The National Bank has been robbed.
4. You’ll be punished if you don’t do your homework.
5. You’ll be given two hours to make your decision.
6. Have you been shown the new magazine?
7. He is said to be a big liar.
8. Honesty is believed to be the best policy.

69
 4. CONDITIONALS

Because conditional sentences are quite complex in

both form and meaning, they are a problem for most
learners of English. If you have a good understanding of
the English tense system and of the modal auxiliaries, you
will find it easier to understand and use conditional
sentences. (The sentence you just read is a predictive
conditional sentence.)

All conditional sentences contain a dependent

clause and an independent clause. The dependent clause
usually begins with if; it expresses a condition. The
independent clause expresses a result of the condition. The
if-clause is usually first, but the order of the clauses is
usually not important. Thus, these two sentences have
basically the same meaning:
- If she goes to the store, she will buy ice cream.
- She will buy ice cream if she goes to the store.

You have probably noticed that different teachers,

textbooks, and Web sites sometimes explain the same thing
in different ways. This seems to be especially true of
conditional sentences. However, two different explanations
can both be correct, especially if the difference is due to the
fact that complicated material has been organized in
different ways. This is often true of explanations of
conditionals that you find in your textbooks. Here
conditional sentences are divided into three types based on
their meanings: real, predictive, and imaginative
conditional sentences.

70
A. Real conditional sentences can express
generalizations and inferences.
1. Generalizations include facts that are always true and
never change, and they include present or past habitual
activities that are or were usually true.

Real conditionals expressing generalizations usually

have the same tense (usually simple present or simple
past) in both clauses. However, if the simple present tense
is used in the if-clause, will + verb can be used in the main
clause without changing the meaning.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing facts:
- If water boils, it turns to steam.
- If water boils, it will turn to steam.

Examples of real conditional sentences expressing habitual

activities:
- If he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.
- If he eats breakfast, he will feel better all day.
- If he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

These generalizations can also be expressed by using

when or whenever instead of if:
- When water boils, it turns to steam.
- When he eats breakfast, he feels better all day.

71
 - When he ate breakfast, he felt better all day.

2. Inferences are often expressed in real conditional

sentences. Real conditionals expressing inferences
usually have parallel verb phrases in both clauses.
However, if a modal which explicitly expresses an
inference (must or should, for example) is used in the
main clause, parallel verb phrases are not used.
Examples of real conditional sentences expressing
inferences:
- If today is Wednesday, it is George’s birthday.
- If I can do it, anyone can do it.
- If it is raining, the streets are getting wet.
- If he was at school, he saw the accident.
- If today is Wednesday, it must be George’s birthday.
- If I can do it, anyone must be able to do it.
- If it is raining, the streets must be getting wet.
- If he was at school, he must have seen the accident.
B. Predictive conditional sentences can express
predictions and plans.
1. Predictive conditional sentences usually contain simple
present tense in the if-clause and will or be going to in
the result clause. However, a weaker modal of
prediction (may or should, for example) can be used in
the result clause to express less certainty.

2. Examples of predictive conditional sentences:

72
 - If the exam is hard, many students are going to fail.
- If Mary does well on the final exam, she will get an A
in the class.
- If George does well on the final exam, he may get an
A in the class.
- If Fred studies, he should pass the exam.

C. Imaginative conditional sentences are the most

difficult for many learners of English because of
the unusual relationship between form (the tenses
used) and meaning.

In this type of conditional sentence, past tense

refers to present or future time; past perfect tense
refers to past time. Another problem for many learners of
English is that were (not was) is used with singular
subjects. Be is the only English verb with two past tense
forms, but only one of them (were) is used in imaginative
conditional sentences.

Imaginative conditional sentences can express

hypothetical or contrary-to-fact events or states.
1. Hypothetical events or states are unlikely but
possible in the present or future.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing
hypothetical events or states have a past tense verb in the
if-clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the
result clause.

73
Examples of hypothetical conditional sentences (present
and/or future time):
- If George had enough money, he would buy a new car.
- If I won the lottery, I would buy you a present.
- If she knew the answer, she would tell us.
(George probably does not have enough money; I
probably will not win the lottery; she probably does
not know the answer.)

2. Contrary-to-fact events or states are either

impossible in the present time or did not happen in
the past.
Imaginative conditional sentences expressing present
contrary-to-fact events or states have a past verb in the if-
clause and would + verb (or might or could + verb) in the
result clause. Some examples:
- If I were you, I would not do that.
- If she studied for exams, she would get better grades.
- If it were raining, the streets would be wet.
(I am not you; she doesn’t study for exams; it isn’t
raining.)

Imaginative conditional sentences expressing past

contrary-to-fact events or states have a past perfect verb in
the if-clause and would + have + verb (or might or could
+ have + verb) in the result clause. Some examples:

74
 - If George had had enough money, he would have
bought a new car.
- If I had won the lottery, I would have bought you a
present.
- If she had known the answer, she would have told us.
(George did not have enough money; I did not win the
lottery; she did not know the answer.)

EXERCISES

I. Complete the following sentences:

1. If I have time, ........................
2. If there are any tickets left, ........................
3. If he passed his exams, ........................
4. If it stops raining, ........................
5. He would study more if ........................
6. If she were here, ........................
7. If I were you, ........................
8. If he ............... (know) that, he would have waited for
you.
9. Unless I had had enough money, ........................
10. If I had seen him, I ........................ your message.

75
II. Put the verbs between brackets into their correct
forms:
1. They’re expecting us. They would be disappointed if
(not/come).
2. I’m sure she (understand) if you explained the situation
to her.
3. If it (be) nice this afternoon, we would go fishing.
4. I don’t have a fishing rod. If I (have) one, I would go
fishing.
5. If he (have) longer legs, he would have won the race.
6. He didn’t study for the exam. If he (study) well, he
(succeed).
7. If I (be) you, I would see a doctor.
8. Unless you study hard, you (not/succeed).
9. I (buy) the car if I had had enough money.
10. If water (be) heated up to 100°, it (evaporate).

76
Reading Comprehension
Passages

77
 "A Mystery"
“Something is very wrong,” says the detective.
“I know!” says Ms. Gervis. “It is wrong that someone has
stolen from me!”
The detective looks around Ms. Gervis’ apartment. “That is
not what I am talking about, ma’am. What is wrong is that I
do not understand how the robber got in and out.”
Ms. Gervis and the detective stand in silence. Ms. Gervis’
eyes are full of tears. Her hands are shaking.
“The robber did not come through the window,” says the
detective. “These windows have not been opened or shut in
months.”
The detective looks at the fireplace. “The robber did not
squeeze down here.”
The detective walks to the front door. He examines the
latch. “And since there are no marks or scratches, the
robber definitely did not try to break the lock.”
“I have no idea how he did it,” says a bothered Ms. Gervis.
“It is a big mystery.”
“And you say the robber stole nothing else?” asks the
detective. “No money, no jewelry, no crystal?”
“That’s right, detective. He took only what was important
to me,” Ms. Gervis says with a sigh. “There is only one
thing I can do now.”
“And what is that?” the detective asks with surprise.
“I will stop baking cakes,” Ms. Gervis says. “They are
mine to give away. They are not for someone to steal.”

78
“You can’t do that!” says the detective with alarm. “Who
will bake those delicious cakes?” “I am sorry. I do not
know,” says Ms. Gervis.
“I must solve this case immediately!” says the detective.

Questions:
1) Where does this story take place?
A. in a bakery
B. at the police station
C. in Ms. Gervis' house
D. in Ms. Gervis' apartment

2) Near the beginning of the story, “Ms. Gervis’ eyes are

full of tears. Her hands are shaking.” How does Ms. Gervis
probably feel?
A. She is upset.
B. She is tired.
C. She is hungry.
D. She is confused.

3) What makes the detective sure that the robber did not
come through the windows?
A. The windows are locked.
B. The windows face the police station.
C. The windows have not been used in months.
D. The windows are too small for a person to fit through.

4) "And the robber definitely did not use the front door."
Which is the best way to rewrite this sentence?
A. "And the robber may not have used the front door."
B. "And the robber probably did not use the front door."

79
C. "And the robber was not able to use the front door."
D. "And the robber certainly did not use the front door."

5) What else could the detective have asked Ms. Gervis in

order to solve the mystery?
I. Which types of cakes does Ms. Gervis know how to
bake?
II. Does someone else have a key to the apartment?
III. Does Ms. Gervis ever leave the door unlocked?
A. I only B. I and II C. II and III
D. I, II, and III

6) What does Ms. Gervis do with her cakes?

A. She eats them.
B. She sells them.
C. She hides them.
D. She gives them away.

7) What does the detective seem to think will happen if he

solves the mystery?
A. Ms. Gervis will start baking cakes again
B. Ms. Gervis will bake him extra cakes
C. Ms. Gervis will give him her secret recipe
D. Ms. Gervis will give him money and jewels

8) What is a mystery?
A. something that is wrong
B. something that happens at night
C. something a robber leaves behind
D. something that cannot be explained

9) What else was stolen from the apartment?

80
A. crystal
B. jewelry
C. money
D. nothing

10) If something is said with alarm, how is it said?

A. with fear and panic
B. with bells and whistles
C. with smiles and laughter
D. with sadness and tears

"Dreams"

The relationship between my mother, sister and me had

been cold and inimical for as long as I could remember.
To me, my mother was irrational, hurling hurtful invectives
for the slightest infraction. “Don’t matter,” my mother
grumbled when I asked her where she moved my
watercolor paints. “It ain’t like you got talent.” The time
our mailbox got knocked off she somehow got it in her
head that I was the culprit. “Never respected nothin’,” I
heard her say. And my sister took my mother’s side against
me every time. Five years my senior, Tammy seemed not to
have a brain in her head. She dithered about everything,
incapable of making any firm decision. No matter how
often my mother deprecated her— “dumb, ugly, fat”—
Tammy made futile attempts to fawn her way back into
mother’s good graces.
My father would pontificate, “You three are more alike
than you know.”

81
In April of 2000, my mother kicked us both out of the
house. (Dad had been exiled many years before.) After that,
my sister and I went our separate ways. It was then that I
began having recurring dreams.
In one, I am running to catch up with a woman. Each time I
get near, I trip and fall. Another woman, smiling and
shouting my name, comes with great alacrity and offers her
hand, but when I reach to grab it, she disappears.
In another, a female professor hands me a test. Although I
have spent hours studying for it, I know none of the
answers. The professor derides me for my poor
performance. I watch while she relays my ignorance to the
class with comic hilarity.
These dreams were not hard to understand. In fact, it was
just the opposite; they were pellucid, and absent any
knowledge of dream interpretation, I was still able to devise
their significance. I knew that they both reflected the
pugnacious relationship I shared with my mother and sister.
However, there was one dream I could never quite
construe. I bite into an apple. All my teeth fall out. I had
this dream far more than any of the others.
Years later, in an effort to heal our fractious relationship,
Mom, Tammy and I elected to go to counseling together.
After several sessions, I told my dream about teeth
tumbling out of my head.
“My God, Crystal,” said my mother. “I’ve had the exact
same dream many times.” “Me, too,” said Tammy
solemnly.
Breakthrough? No idea. But I was reminded of the words
of my now-dead father. Maybe the three of us are more
alike than we know.

82
Questions
1) Which is most likely to make a relationship inimical
(paragraph 1)?
A. great pathos
B. frequent maledictions
C. magnanimous gestures
D. ingenious discussions
E. heated debates

2) As used in paragraph 2, which is the best synonym for

invectives?
A. insults
B. names
C. profanity
D. words
E. misfortunes

3) If the story were true, which would best describe its

genre?
A. literary essay, based on a piece of literature
B. memoir essay, centered on a significant memory from
the past
C. persuasive essay, characterized by choosing a side and
refuting other arguments
D. expository essay, meant to inform the reader of a body
of knowledge
E. satire, in which human folly and vice are held up to
scorn, derision, or ridicule

4) The father's comment in paragraph 3 is best described as

A. hyperbole, an obvious exaggeration for effect
B. a paradox, an idea that contains two conflicting concepts
C. symbolism, using one thing to represent something else
83
D. foreshadowing, a hint at what is to come
E. a simile, comparing two

5) What is the tone of this story?

A. matter-of-fact B. sentimental
C. pompous D. uncertain
E. comical

6) How does the relationship between the narrator, her

mother, and her sister seem to change from the beginning
of passage to end?
A. from brusque to florid
B. from egregious to impassive
C. from enervating to rejuvenating
D. from destructive to collaborative
E. from convivial to estranged

7) As used in paragraph 7, which is the best antonym for

pellucid?
A. dirty
B. frightening
C. enlightening
D. strange
E. unclear

8) "The professor derides me for my poor performance."

Which of the following is the best way to rewrite the above
sentence (from paragraph 7) while keeping its original
meaning the same?
A. The professor is in disbelief due to my poor
performance.

84
B. The professor laughs mockingly at my poor
performance.
C. The professor announces my poor performance.
D. The professor gives me a failing grade for my poor
performance.
E. The professor gives me a tutorial because of my poor
performance.

9) "I bite into an apple. All my teeth fall out."

Which of the following is the best way to rewrite the above
sentences (from paragraph 9) while keeping their original
meaning the same?
A. I bite into an apple, so all my teeth fall out.
B. I bite into an apple, yet all my teeth fall out.
C. I bite into an apple, and all my teeth fall out.
D. I bite into an apple, because all my teeth fall out.
E. I bite into an apple, but all my teeth fall out.

10) Which of the following words from the story has/have a

negative connotation?
I. deprecated (paragraph 2)
II. alacrity (paragraph 5)
III. pugnacious (paragraph 7)
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and III
D. II and III
E. I, II, and III

85
11) If the professor in the narrator's dream (paragraph 7)
represented someone in her life, who would that person
most likely be, and why?
A. the sister, because she was described in the passage as
dithering
B. the mother, because she was described in the passage as
mean-spirited
C. the narrator, because she seems to be testing everyone in
the passage
D. the father, because he understood that that the three
women were alike
E. herself, because she was hyper-aware of her own
problems
12) Breakthrough? No idea.
Which is the best way to rewrite the above sentence
fragments so that they are grammatically correct, while
keeping their original meaning as used in the final
paragraph?
A. Breakthrough, no idea.
B. Was this a breakthrough? I have no idea.
C. If this was a breakthrough; I have no idea.
D. I had no idea. This was a breakthrough.
E. Breakthrough or not, I have no idea.

13) What kind of dreams do you have? What do they

mean—anything? Explain.

86
 "Seeing Clearly"

The announcement that Donna had reached middle age

came stealthily and without warning.
Donna, at 42 years old, was in perfect health. She was fit,
trim, and ate only the healthiest of foods, eschewing soda
and candy. She was still asked for her identification when
buying wine at the grocery store. She ran several miles
every day; in local road races, she was known for beating
people half her age.
“Forty is the new twenty!” her friends would say of
Donna’s seeming agelessness.
Donna heard the quip so often that a part of her believed
that this aging thing was surely only for other people.
That all changed during what should have been a fairly
innocuous event: a trip to the Department of Motor
Vehicles to renew her driver’s license.
“Name?” the clerk asked, without looking up. Donna
replied.
“Address?”
Donna gave it to her.
“Look through there, please,” The clerk gestured toward an
eye-testing machine perched at the edge of the desk. “Read
the first four lines,” she sighed.
Donna pushed her head against the contraption.
“Go ahead.”

87
Donna was perplexed. Everything was fuzzy. “I think the
glass is dirty,” Donna said, searching the desk for a tissue
to wipe off the lens.
“It’s not dirty,” the clerk said, her voice dripping with
condescension.
“There must be some problem,” Donna said, pressing her
head against the machine once more.
“Ma’am, do you wear glasses?”
“No, no, I don’t,” Donna responded, a little embarrassed
now, as other people in the room began turning to see what
was going on.
The clerk glanced down at Donna’s old license and back up
at her. “Welcome to middle age, sweetheart. Come back
when you’ve had an eye exam and gotten glasses.”

Questions:

1) What proverb best fits this story?

A. Time marches on.
B. Time heals all wounds.
C. A stitch in time saves nine.
D. There is no time like the present.

2) As used at the beginning of the passage, which is the

best antonym for stealthily?
A. secretly
B. patiently
C. blatantly
D. sneakily

88
3) As stated near the beginning of the story, if Donna is
eschewing candy and soda, she is
A. overindulging in them
B. avoiding them
C. eating them in moderation
D. eating them responsibly

4) Using the passage as a guide, which best describes the

meaning of "Forty is the new twenty"?
A. If you are in good shape and health, being 40 can feel
like 20.
B. When people turn 40, they are likely to say they are in
their 20s.
C. If you are 20 and are not in great shape, you can feel like
you are 40.
D. If you stay away from junk food, you can look 40 even
when you are 20.

5) As used in the middle of the passage, which is the best

antonym for innocuous?
A. dangerous
B. difficult
C. juvenile
D. mature
6) What is the difference between the first four paragraphs
and the rest of the passage?
A. The first four paragraphs portray Donna's pride while
the rest of the passage displays her frustration.
B. The first four paragraphs highlight the good life Donna
has had while the rest of the passage shows her regret.
C. The first four paragraphs emphasize Donna's youth
while the rest of the passage shows that she has aged.
D. The first four paragraphs outline Donna's fitness while
the rest of the passage shows she is out of shape.

89
7) Which best describes the clerk's attitude?
A. hostile
B. incoherent
C. patronizing
D. domineering

8) As the word is used at the end of the story, which of the

following statements suggest condescension?
I. Peter is a bright student, he simply does not apply
himself.
II. Ingrid is not invited to the party; she has no sense of
style.
III. Cindy’s not too dumb, for a sixth grader.
A. I only
B. I and II
C. II and III
D. I, II, and III

9) The tone of the passage is best described as

A. wry
B. dark
C. lighthearted
D. passionate

10) What is ironic about the clerk calling Donna "ma'am"?

A. It is not proper English.
B. The clerk does not know Donna's name.
C. It is a term often reserved for older people.
D. It is unclear to whom the clerk is speaking.

11) Do you feel younger than you actually are? Do you feel
older? Explain.
_______________________________________________
_______________________________________________

90
 "The Mini-Problem"

Lily’s anger could not have been more palpable.

She awakened Christmas morning and, along with her
brother, ran down to see the gifts under the tree.
In the living room sat a magnificent mini bike. It was red
with a pearly white gas tank and side panels. For a brief
moment, Lily was filled with what seemed like
insurmountable excitement. She couldn’t imagine
anything better than getting that bike. Then, her eyes
caught sight of a baby doll sitting on the couch with a huge
bow.
She knew. She knew that the mini bike belonged to her
brother and that she had been relegated to that doll. It was
par for the course.
Tommy always got cool things: skateboards, gliders,
science kits. The mini bike was just the latest cool thing.
Lily always got the boring gifts: a doll with a gown, a doll
with a tutu, a doll with a puppy. This doll seemed unusually
blah. The doll wore a petticoat. The doll had short, straight
black hair.
Tommy had seen that mini-bike in the front window of
Moore’s Bike Shop, but hadn’t Lily too? Both had begged
for the bike. Both had said it was the only thing they
wanted for Christmas. Hadn’t Lily asked for it with as
much fervor as her twin brother?
Tommy’s eyes grew wide at the sight of the bike he knew
was his—no doll for him. He ran into his parents’ room and
jumped excitedly on the bed.
“Thank you, Mama! Thank you, Papa!” he yelled.
91
Meanwhile Lily simmered in the other room. She was
furious. She was enraged. She was incensed. It took a
while for anyone to even realize she was missing. “What’s
wrong, Lil?” Papa asked. “Did you see your pretty doll?”
“I saw it,” she said sulkily. “What’s wrong?” asked Mama.
Silence. Lily’s jaw was fixed. Her hands clenched. Her
whole body trembled.
“Oh, Mama, you know Lily is never excited by presents!”
her brother laughed. “Come out and watch me ride!”
And so they did.

Questions:
1) In the beginning of the story, Lily's anger was described
as palpable because it was
A. unusual
B. irrational
C. difficult to understand
D. easy to feel

2) As used in the beginning of the story, which is the best

antonym for insurmountable?
A. sane
B. phony
C. unjustified
D. surpassable

3) As used in the beginning of the story, which best

describes the act of being relegated?
A. A star athlete is given a coveted award.
B. A disobedient dog is put in the garage to sleep.
C. After being tested, swimmers are put into groups
according to their ability levels.
D. The birthday boy is taken to his favorite restaurant.
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4) As used in the beginning of the story, the expression par
for the course implies that something
A. is to be expected
B. cannot be undone
C. is sure to cause anger
D. was meant to be hurtful

5) What is ironic about the title of this passage?

A. Lily has a big problem.
B. Tommy is perfectly happy.
C. Lily does not get a mini bike.
D. Lily’s parents do not realize there is actually a problem.
6) What could the author have written if she wanted to
show Lily taking steps to improve her situation?
A. a scene with Lily storming out of the house
B. a description of Lily getting to ride the mini bike first
C. a paragraph describing Lily pretending to appreciate the
doll
D. a dialogue with Lily explaining to her family why she
was so angry

7) As used in the middle of the story, which is the best

antonym for fervor?
A. gluttony
B. indifference
C. politeness
D. passion

8) Using the information in the story as a guide, it can be

inferred that Lily's parents could reasonably be accused of
being
I. unloving
II. insensitive

93
III. gender biased
A. I only
B. I and II
C. II and III
D. I, II, and III

9) In paragraph 6, the author most likely repeats the word

"doll" to
A. highlight how extravagant the dolls were
B. juxtapose the number of dolls with just one mini bike
C. emphasize how common this gift had become for Lily
D. make it clear that the doll she got

10) As used at the end of the story, which is the best

antonym for incensed?
A. pleased
B. annoyed
C. patient
D. indignant

Marcia says that all of her friends have a cell phone, but
Marcia’s mom doesn’t want to buy her one. Marcia’s mom
doesn’t want Marcia to play video games either. What is
more, the Internet scares her. Marcia’s mom says, “If
Marcia has a cell phone, how do we know whom she is
talking to? Video games are bad for you. The Internet is
dangerous and uncontrolled. It’s like having a gun in the
house. We should just ban her from using the computer,
and I'm not buying her a cell phone until she is eighteen.
This is the only way we can be sure that Marcia is safe."
Marcia’s dad disagrees with Marcia’s mom. Although he
agrees that there are some dangers to it, he likes the
Internet, and finds it to be very useful. “The trouble is,” he
says, “We just can’t stop Marcia from using the Internet, as
94
this would put her at a disadvantage. What is more, I like
video games. I think that, when played in moderation, they
are fun. Obviously, it is not good to play them without
restraint or self-control. Finally, I think Marcia needs a cell
phone. We can’t take these things away.”

1) Which of the following best describes the difference

between Marcia’s mom and Marcia's dad?
A. Mom wants to ban Marcia from using the computer,
while dad likes to play video games.
B. Mom thinks technology is dangerous, while dad thinks it
can be useful.
C. Mom cares little about Marcia's future, while dad is very
supportive.
D. Mom is very strict while Dad is open minded.

2) Which of the following best describes the similarity

between Marcia's mom and Marcia's dad?
A. Mom and dad both like technology.
B. Mom and dad both think video games are bad.
C. Mom and dad both think the internet is dangerous.
D. Mom and dad both care about Marcia's wellbeing.

3) In paragraph 1, Marcia's mom says, "It's like having

a gun in the house." She says this in order to….
A. support the idea that the Internet is dangerous
B. reject the claim that guns can be safe if used responsibly
C. encourage Marcia's dad to purchase a gun
D. explain why the Internet is uncontrolled

4) In paragraph 2, Marcia's dad says, "We just can’t

stop Marcia from using the Internet, as this would put
her at a disadvantage." What does Marcia's dad mean
by this?
A. Marcia needs to learn how to use the internet if she
wants to have friends in the future.

95
B. Marcia should not stop using the internet because this
will seriously slow her learning.
C. If a person's ability to use the internet becomes
important in the future, Marcia will be at a loss.
D. If Marcia does not learn to use the internet on her own,
then she will never learn to recognize its dangers

5) As used in the passage, the word ban

means…………….
A. prohibit B. use C. allow
D. disagree
6) Marcia's mom can best be described as
………………………
A. ridiculous B. careful C. cruel
D. rude

7) Marcia's dad can best be described as ………………

A. shameless B. irresponsible C. wild
D. reasonable

8) In paragraph 2, Marcia's dad says, "Finally, I think

Marcia needs a cell phone." Given what you know
about Marcia’s mom’s concerns, what is the best reason
Marcia's dad can provide to convince Marcia's mom
that Marcia needs a cell phone?
A. Marcia can use her cell phone to talk to her friends,
instead of needing to borrow one of ours.
B. Having a cell phone will teach Marcia how to use new
technology.
C. Because all of her friends have one, it would be unfair to
disallow Marcia to have a cell phone.
D. If Marcia's is in trouble she can use her cell phone to
call for help.

9) Which of the following describes a level of game play

that Marcia's dad would disapprove of?

96
A. On Saturday, Marcia plays video games all evening. The
next day, she wakes up early and goes for a walk through
the woods near her house. When her friend calls Marcia,
they talk about the what they are going to wear to school on
Monday.
B. Marcia plays video games for an hour or two. Then she
eats lunch and meets her friends at the skating rink. That
night, Marcia and her friends go to see a movie.
C. Marcia plays video games all morning. When her friends
ask her to come play outside, Marcia tells them that she is
too busy and continues to play.
D. Marcia plays video games for an hour every day for five
days straight. During these days, she does not watch any
TV.

10) Which of the following would be the best way for

Marcia to change the way her mom thinks about
technology?
A. Read her a newspaper article that talks about the
importance of technology.
B. Provide her an instruction manual detailing how the
latest cell phone functions.
C. Take her to the library and show her the top five most
popular internet websites.
D. Spend the weekend playing video games with her.

The tiniest bird in the world is the male bee hummingbird.

Because it is so small, it is often mistaken for a bee or some
other type of insect of that size. As a hummingbird, it is
able to flap its wings extremely quickly, up to eighty times
per second. With this really fast wing speed, the bee
hummingbird can hover like a helicopter; fly forward, fly
backward, or even fly upside down.

97
1. What is the topic of this passage?
(A) The bee
(B) One type of hummingbird
(C) How fast hummingbirds fly
(D) How helicopters fly

2. The word “tiniest” in line I is closest in meaning

to……………….
(A) fastest (B) most dangerous
(C) noisiest (D) smallest

3. It can be inferred from the passage that the female

bee hummingbird…………………….
(A) is really a bee (B) does not exist
(C) is larger than the male (D) eats insects

4. According to the passage, when people see a male bee

hummingbird, they often incorrectly think it is..
(A) a bird
(B) an insect
(C) a bat
(D) a helicopter

5. In line 2, to “flap” wings is to……………………….

(A) hold them still
(B) stretch them out
(C) fold them
(D) move them up and down

6. In line 3, to “hover” is to……………………

(A) fly forward quickly (B) land
(C) stay in place in the air (D) use fuel

7. The passage indicates that a bee hummingbird can do

98
all of the following EXCEPT…………
(A) hover
(B) fly backward
(C) fly in an inverted position
(D) fly a helicopter

When Columbus arrived in the Americas in 1492, there were

already an estimated thirty to forty million people living in North and
South America. It has therefore been quite easy for some to refute
the idea that Columbus “discovered” America. How and when these
inhabitants came to America has been the source of much scientific
research and discussion. Most archeologists agree that the first
Americans, the true “discoverers” of America, came from
northeastern Asia. There is also a considerable amount of proof that
inhabitants have been in the Americas for at least 15,000 years. To
get to the Americas, these people had to cross over the 55-mile-wide
Bering Strait that separates Asia and North America. According to
one theory, these people crossed over during periods when a land
bridge existed between the two continents. During Ice Ages, so
much of the Earth’s water was frozen that the sea levels dropped,
and it was possible to walk from Asia to North America.

1. What is the author’s main purpose?

(A) To explain how Columbus discovered America
(B) To show how people came to America before Columbus
(C) To demonstrate the importance to archeologists of northeastern
Asia
(D) To explain how to cross the Bering Strait

2. In 1492, how many people were probably in the Americas?

(A) Fewer than thirty million
(B) Exactly thirty million
(C) Forty million or fewer
(D) At least forty million

99
3. The word “refute” in line 2 is closest in meaning
to………………….
(A) theorize
(B) support
(C) contradict
(D) defend

4. It is implied in the passage that……………………

(A) Columbus was really the first person in America
(B) scientists are sure about America’s first inhabitants
(C) Columbus arrived at almost the same time as America’s
first inhabitants
(D) all is not known about America’s first inhabitants

5. There is general agreement that the first people who

came to North America came from…………………….
(A) Europe
(B) South America
(C) northeastern Asia
(D) Africa

6. The word “considerable” in line 4 could best be replaced by

which of the following?
(A) Large
(B) Weak
(C) Well-known
(D) Considerate

7. The word “separates” in line 6 is closest in meaning

to…………………
(A) differentiates
(B) divides
(C) joins
(D) crosses

100
8. Which of the following is NOT stated about the Bering
Strait?
(A) It is 55 miles wide.
(B) It separates North America and Asia.
(C) It was probably a land bridge during the Ice Ages.
(D) It is a land bridge today.

9. The word “frozen” in line 7 could best be replaced

by……………………….
(A) cool
(B) dirty
(C) solid
(D) wet

Joseph Pulitzer was born in 1847 in Makó, Hungary. He

emigrated to the United States when he was seventeen
years old, and was naturalized on his twentieth birthday. He
spent his career in journalism working in the mid-west and
New York. From 1871 he was also the owner or part-owner
of many newspapers. His most famous newspaper was
the New York World (which many believe was the model
for the Daily Planet of the Superman stories).
The World campaigned against corruption, and exposed
many scandals. It was also a strong supporter of the rights
of the working man.
In later life, Joseph Pulitzer collapsed from
overwork, and lost his sight. He became dedicated to
improving the quality of journalism in America, and
donated $1 million to Columbia University to found a
school of journalism. However, his most significant
contribution was the establishment of the Pulitzer prizes in
his will.
These prizes for excellence in journalism have been
given every year since 1917 by Columbia University. Since
1942 there have been extra categories for press
photography, and later still for criticism, feature writing

101
and commentary. The prize was originally for $500, but
today the winners of the prize receive a gold medal.
However, the real value of the prize is that it confirms that
the journalist who has received the award is the best
American journalist of the year - a fact that is worth much
more than $500 to the journalist and to the newspaper that
employs him or her.

1. Joseph Pulitzer came to America

because………………….
A) he was with his parents
B) he wanted to be a journalist
C) Hungary was being attacked by Austria
D) the text does not say.

2. As well as writing for newspapers Pulitzer

……………………..
A) wrote the Superman stories.
B) was the boss of some newspapers.
C) won prizes for press photography.
D) worked in the mid-west.

3. The prize is worth………………………….

A) $500.
B) a gold medal.
C) more in prestige than money.
D) a job with a good newspaper.

4. Pulitzer became an American

citizen………………………
A) twenty years after he arrived in the United States.
B) in 1867.
C) after contributing $1 million to a university
D) when he was 17 years old.

5. What did the New York World not do?

102
A) Investigate wrongdoing by public officials.
B) Establish a famous prize for journalism.
C) Probably provide a model for a famous fictional
newspaper.
D) Stand up for the common people.

6. The Pulitzer prizes are for……………………………

A) the best writing in America.
B) press photography and commentary.
C) high quality journalism.
D) none of the above.

7. This article is about……………………

A) journalism in America.
B) the life of Joseph Pulitzer.
C) the Pulitzer prize.
D) B and C together.

Steamships were first introduced into the United States in

1807, and John Molson built the first steamship in Canada
(then called British North America) in 1809. By the 1830's
dozens of steam vessels were in use in Canada. They
offered the traveler reliable transportation in comfortable
facilities-a welcome alternative to stagecoach travel, which
at the best of times could only be described as wretched.
This commitment to dependable river transport became
entrenched with the investment of millions of dollars for
the improvement of waterways which included the
construction of canals and lock systems. The Lachine and
Welland canals, two of the most important systems, were
opened in 1825 and 1829, respectively. By the time that
Upper and Lower Canada were united into the Province of
Canada in 1841. The public debt for canals was more than
one hundred dollars per capita, an enormous sum for the
time. But it may not seem such a great amount if we
consider that improvements allowed steamboats to remain

103
practical for most commercial transport in Canada until the
mid-- nineteenth century.
1. What is the main purpose of the passage?
(A) To contrast travel by steamship and stagecoach
(B) To criticize the level of public debt in nineteenth -
century Canada
(C) To describe the introduction of steamships in Canada
(D) To show how Canada surpassed the United States in
transportation improvements

2. The word "reliable" in line 3 is closest in meaning to

which of the following…………………..
(A) Quick
(B) Safe
(C) Dependable
(D) Luxurious

3. Which of the following can be inferred from the

passage about stagecoach travel in Canada in the
1831's?
(A) It was reasonably comfortable.
(B) It was extremely efficient.
(C) It was not popular.
(D) It was very practical.

4. According to the passage, when was the Welland

Canal opened?
(A) 1807 (B) 1809
(C) 1825 (D) 1829

5. The word "sum" in line 9 is closest in meaning to

which of the following?
(A) Size (B) Cost
(C) Payment (D) Amount

104
6. According to the passage, steamships became
practical means of transportation in Canada because of..
(A) improvements in the waterways
(B) large subsidies from John Molson
(C) a relatively small population
(D) the lack of alternate means

Bacteria are extremely small living things. While we

measure our own sizes in inches or centimeters, bacterial
size is measured in microns. One micron is a thousandth of
a millimeter a pinhead is about a millimeter across. Rod
shaped bacteria are usually from two to tour microns long,
while rounded ones are generally one micron in diameter
Thus if you enlarged a founded bacterium a thousand times,
it would be just about the size of a pinhead. An adult human
magnified by the same amount would be over a mile(1.6
kilometers) tall.
Even with an ordinary microscope, you must look
closely to see bacteria. Using a magnification of 100 times,
one finds that bacteria are barely visible as tiny rods or dots
One cannot make out anything of their structure. Using
special stains, one can see that some bacteria have attached
to them wavy - looking "hairs" called flagella. Others have
only one flagellum. The flagella rotate, pushing the bacteria
though the water. Many bacteria lack flagella and cannot
move about by their own power while others can glide
along over surfaces by some little understood mechanism.

From the bacterial point of view, the world is a very

different place from what it is to humans To a bacterium
water is as thick as molasses is to us. Bacteria are so small
that they are influenced by the movements of the chemical
molecules around them. Bacteria under the microscope,
even those with no flagella, often bounce about in the water.
This is because they collide with the water molecules and

105
are pushed this way and that. Molecules move so rapidly
that within a tenth of a second the molecules around a
bacterium have all been replaced by new ones even bacteria
without flagella are thus constantly exposed to a changing
environment.

1. Which of the following is the main topic of the passage?

(A) The characteristics of bacteria
(B) How bacteria reproduce
(C) The various functions of bacteria
(D) How bacteria contribute to disease

2. Bacteria are measured in

(A) inches (B) centimeters
(C) microns (D) millimeters

3. Which of the following is the smallest?

(A) A pinhead
(B) A rounded bacterium
(C) A microscope
(D) A rod-shaped bacterium

4. According to the passage, someone who examines

bacteria using only a microscope that magnifies 100 times
would see
(A) tiny dots
(B) small "hairs"
(C) large rods
(D) detailed structures

5. The relationship between a bacterium and its flagella is

most nearly analogous to which of the following?
(A) A rider jumping on a horse's back
(B) A ball being hit by a bat
(C) A boat powered by a motor
(D) A door closed by a gust of wind

106
6. In line 16, the author compares water to molasses, in
order to introduce which of the following topics?
(A) The bacterial content of different liquids
(B) What happens when bacteria are added to molasses
(C) The molecular structures of different chemicals
(D) How difficult it is for bacteria to move through water

One of the most popular literary figures in American

literature is a woman who spent almost half of her long life
in China, a country on a continent thousands of miles from
the United States. In her lifetime she earned this country's
most highly acclaimed literary award: the Pulitzer Prize,
and also the most prestigious form of literary recognition in
the world, the Nobel Prize for Literature. Pearl S. Buck was
almost a household word throughout much of her lifetime
because of her prolific literary output, which consisted of
some eighty - five published works, including several dozen
novels, six collections of short stories, fourteen books for
children, and more than a dozen works of nonfiction. When
she was eighty years old, some twenty - five volumes were
awaiting publication. Many of those books were set in
China, the land in which she spent so much of her life. Her
books and her life served as a bridge between the cultures
of the East and the West. As the product of those two
cultures she became as the described herself, "mentally
bifocal." Her unique background made her into an
unusually interesting and versatile human being. As we
examine the life of Pearl Buck, we cannot help but be aware
that we are in fact meeting three separate people: a wife and
mother, an internationally famous writer and a humanitarian
and philanthropist. One cannot really get to know Pearl
Buck without learning about each of the three. Though
honored in her lifetime with the William Dean Howell
Medal of the American Academy of Arts and Letters in

107
addition to the Nobel and Pulitzer prizes. Pearl Buck as a
total human being, not only a famous author. is a
captivating subject of study.

1. What is the author's main purpose in the passage?

(A) To offer a criticism of the works of Pearl Buck.
(B) To illustrate Pearl Buck's views on Chinese literature
(C) To indicate the background and diverse interests of
Pearl Buck
(D) To discuss Pearl Buck's influence on the cultures of the
East and the West

2. According to the passage, Pearl Buck is known as a

writer of all of the following EXCEPT
(A) novels (B) children's books
(C) poetry (D) short stories

3. Which of the following is NOT mentioned by the author

as an award received by Pearl Buck?
(A) The Nobel Prize
(B) The Newberry Medal
(C) The William Dean Howell medal
(D) The Pulitzer prize

4. According to the passage, Pearl Buck was an unusual

figure in American literature in that she
(A) wrote extensively about a very different culture
(B) published half of her books abroad
(C) won more awards than any other woman of her time
(D) achieved her first success very late in life

5. According to the passage, Pearl Buck described herself as

"mentally bifocal" to suggest that she was
(A) capable of resolving the differences between two
distinct linguistic systems
(B) keenly aware of how the past could influence the future

108
(C) capable of producing literary works of interest to both
adults and children
(D) equally familiar with two different cultural
environments

6. The author's attitude toward Pearl Buck could best be

described as
(A) indifferent (B) admiring
(C) sympathetic (D) tolerant
When we accept the evidence of our unaided eyes and
describe the Sun as a yellow star, we have summed up the
most important single fact about it-at this moment in time.

It appears probable, however, that sunlight will be the

color we know for only a negligibly small part of the Sun's
history. Stars, like individuals, age and change. As we look
out into space, We see around us stars at all stages of
evolution. There are faint blood-red dwarfs so cool that
their surface temperature is a mere 4,000 degrees
Fahrenheit, there are searing ghosts blazing at 100, 000
degrees Fahrenheit and almost too hot to be seen, for the
great part of their radiation is in the invisible ultraviolet
range. Obviously, the "daylight" produced by any star
depends on its temperature; today(and for ages to come) our
Sun is at about 10,000 degrees Fahrenheit, and this means
that most of the Sun's light is concentrated in the yellow
band of the spectrum, falling slowly in intensity toward
both the longer and shorter light waves.
That yellow "hump" will shift as the Sun evolves, and the
light of day will change accordingly. It is natural to assume
that as the Sun grows older, and uses up its hydrogen fuel-
which it is now doing at the spanking rate of half a billion
tons a second- it will become steadily colder and redder.
1. What is the passage mainly about?
(A) Faint dwarf stars
(B) The evolutionary cycle of the Sun

109
(C) The Sun's fuel problem
(D) The dangers of invisible radiation

2. What does the author say is especially important about

the Sun at the present time?
(A) It appears yellow
(B) It always remains the same
(C) It has a short history
(D) It is too cold

3. Why are very hot stars referred to as "ghosts"?

(A) They are short- lived.
(B) They are mysterious.
(C) They are frightening.
(D) They are nearly invisible.

4. According to the passage as the Sun continues to age, it is

likely to become what color?
(A) Yellow (B) Violet
(C) Red (D) White

The Nobel prizes, awarded annually for distinguished

work in chemistry, physics, physiology or medicine,
literature, and international peace, were made available by
a fund bequeathed for that purpose by Swedish
philanthropist, Alfred Bernhard Nobel.
The prizes, awarded since 1901, are administered by the
Nobel Foundation in Stockholm. In 1969, a prize for
economics endowed by the Central Bank of Sweden was
added. Candidates for the prizes must be nominated in
writing by a qualified authority in the field of competition.
Candidates are judged by Swedish and Norwegian
academies and institutes on the basis of their contribution
to mankind.

110
The awards are usually presented in Stockholm on
December 10, with the king of Sweden officiating, an
appropriate tribute to Alfred Nobel on the anniversary of
his death. Each prize includes a gold medal, a diploma, and
a cash award about one million dollars.
1.What does the passage mainly discuss?
a-Alfred Bernhard Nobel
b-The Nobel prizes
c-Great Contributions to mankind
d-Swedish philanthropy

2.A Nobel prize would not be given to ………………

a-a writer who wrote a novel
b-a doctor who discovered a vaccine
c-a composer who wrote a symphony
d-a diplomat who negotiated a peace settlement

3.The word distinguished is closest in meaning to

…………………
a-condemned
b-related
c-notable
d-disclaimed

4.The word tribute is closest in meaning to

…………………………..
a-compliment
b-obscenity
c-variety
d-originality
5. Which individual or organization serves as
administrator for the trust?
a-The king of Sweden
b –The Nobel Foundation
c-The Central Bank of Sweden

111
d- Swedish and Norwegian academies and institutes
6. Why were the prizes named for Alfred Bernard
Nobel?
a-He left money in his well to establish a fund for the
prizes.
b-He won the first Nobel prize.
c-He is now living in Sweden.
d-He is the first chairman of the committee to choose the
recipients of the prize.

7- Each Nobel prize include ………………….

a-a gold medal
b-a diploma
c-one million dollars
d-all of them

112
Translation

113
 Short English Passages for Translation

1) Learning foreign languages needs never stop. One

shouldn’t learn a foreign language merely to achieve an
immediate professional or academic aim and then give it
up. He should carry on learning as it is a valuable
experience that enriches his life.

2) Celebrating the new millennium at the foot of the

Pyramids of Giza was marvelous. That was the best place
from which we could pass to the new century. The
celebration aimed at combining the ancient and the modern
and reviewing the history of human civilization.

3) To be interested in something is a golden rule in life. If a

person is always chained to his office, he will grow
physically and mentally weak. If such a person has a
hobby, his daily work will no longer be tiring.

4) The government is trying to solve the transport problem

by constructing new roads and flyovers. The number of
vehicles is increasing every day. Roads are becoming too
crowded for drivers to use.

5) It is said that television has destroyed the art of

conversation and made people unhappy by forcing them to
want things they don’t need. On the other hand, it helps
people to update their knowledge of the world affairs, as

114
they can see current events in different parts of the world
the moment they occur.

6) Cutting off trees in cities is an ill deed. Trees give us

shade in summer and the green colour makes us feel at
ease. Trees also purify the air and they give off oxygen by
day. That’s why we should do our best to spread the green
colour all over our country.

7) The establishment of public libraries and school

libraries contributed to improving the learning process as a
whole and helped many citizens to read freely. Public
libraries play an important role in spreading culture and
awareness among people of all ages.

8) Some of the most important aims of education are to

build up an Egyptian citizen who is able to face the future
and to create a productive society. Education also aims at
preparing a generation of scientists for the service of
humanity.

9) Practicing activities at school is of great importance.

Teachers should encourage their students to participate
effectively in school activities. Such activities help students
to learn some values like co-operation, respect for others,
self-confidence and perseverance.

10) Over-population in Egypt has led to many other

problems like illiteracy, heavy traffic and unemployment.
The government should exert more efforts to bring down
115
the population growth rates. It should also pay more
attention to the development of human resources.

11) Cigarette smoking is linked directly with lung cancer.

Today, in many countries, as many as one third of all
cancer deaths are attributed to cigarette smoking. It is also
known that smoking increases the risks of other diseases of
the heart and lungs.

12) Healthy food should include vitamins and proteins. It

has to be fresh and low in fat and salt. It shouldn’t contain
harmful chemical additives. If we don’t eat the right food,
we will get ill and lose our ability to do our work well.

13) Only the individual himself can develop his given

potentials. But, like any other living being, he needs an
atmosphere of warmth to give him a feeling of inner
security to express himself.

14) Energy is necessary for development. It is essential for

all productive activities required to achieve higher
standards of living. Man’s great progress in industry and
agriculture is due to energy.

15) The Egyptian woman has acquired all her rights. She is
also represented in all international organizations
concerned with women’s affairs. Moreover, services are
rendered to provide family guidance and child’s welfare.

116
16) Great achievements have been made in Egypt to move
population from narrow inhabited areas to new wider
expanses. New cities near Cairo have been constructed and
large areas of the desert have been reclaimed.

17) Every year Egypt celebrates the International Child’s

Day in November. Prizes are given to children who
successfully take part in the “Reading for All” competition.
Creative children in the different branches of knowledge
are honoured.

18) Egypt has always been known as the “Birthplace of

Civilization” because of its long and rich history. We are
now keen on restoring our glories to keep pace with
progress in developed countries.

19) Health is a splendid treasure that completes our

happiness. It’s worth saying that we can’t really enjoy our
life if we are unhealthy, however wealthy we may be.
Healthy people are always proud of what they can achieve
in the fields of sports and hard work. For unhealthy people,
life is no more than pain and suffering.

20) The world’s ever increasing population means more

houses, more roads, more factories, and this means less
land for animals and plants. Over-population also means
more waste and pollution, and this makes life increasingly
difficult for many creatures.

117
21) Distance learning makes use of educational experts in
the various branches of knowledge all over the world. We
can make use of distance learning in all fields including the
different branches of science.

22) We should try to discover our talents before we select

our career. We should do the work that appeals to us. Some
people prefer to do any work in governmental offices
although they can become successful businessmen.

23) Vast areas of the desert have recently been reclaimed.

The government is trying to plant these areas. So it sends
university graduates to these new communities to achieve
food security for Egypt in the coming years.

24) The promotion of international co-operation and peace

through education is one of UNESCO’s basic aims. It is the
only means for the accomplishment of prosperity, real and
lasting peace among the peoples of the world.

25) The government sets up industrial projects to increase

our local production. It encourages the private sector to
invest capital. It also demolishes the barriers that hinder
economic progress.

26) Undoubtedly, tourism is a chief source of national

income and hard currency. The government exerts great
efforts to develop the tourist industry. The aim is to attract
a greater number of tourists to visit Egypt, the land of
civilization.
118
Common Sentence
Problems

119
 Common Sentence Problems

Sentence fragments, run-on sentences and comma splices,

the passive voice, lack of subject-verb agreement, shifts in
pronoun usage and tense, and lack of parallelism are all
writing problems that need to be understood so that you can
avoid them in your own writing.

Sentence fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that is incorrectly

punctuated as a complete sentence.

For example, "Because it was important to me." would be a

sentence fragment. "Because it was important to me." is
called a dependent clause - it is "dependent" on more
information in order to be a complete thought. However, "I
studied for the test for hours, because it was important to
me." would be a complete sentence. The dependent clause
has been hooked on to an independent clause (a group of
words that can stand alone as a complete sentence) in order
to make a complete thought.

Another type of sentence fragment is a phrase, which

consists of a subject (who or what the sentence is about)
without a predicate (a verb that shows tense and includes
what the verb accomplishes, a word or group of words that
describes or renames what the verb accomplishes , or a
word modifying the verb in some way). A phrase can also
consist of a predicate without a subject. For example, "To
120
understand her point." would be a phrase, because it lacks a
subject. However, "I tried very hard to understand her
point." would be a complete sentence, because it includes
both the subject (I) and the predicate (tried very hard to
understand).

An easy way to think about sentence fragments is to do the

following: Try imagining yourself saying the sentence to a
complete stranger who just walked into the room. If the
stranger would be confused by the sentence you wrote, and
would need more information to understand your point, you
probably have a sentence fragment.

There are several easy ways to fix sentence fragments. The

first is to connect your sentence fragment to the preceding
complete sentence with a comma, if the meaning that is
then created is what you are looking for.

Incorrect:

I studied for the test for hours. Because it was important to

me.

Correct:

I studied for the test for hours, because it was important to

me.

Another way to fix a sentence fragment is to add more

information to the fragment to make it a complete thought.

Incorrect:

121
Because it was important to me.

Correct:

Because it was important to me, I studied for the test for

hours.

A third way to fix sentence fragments is to add a predicate

or a subject, if either one is missing.

Incorrect (missing a predicate):

Snow on the road.

Correct:

Snow was drifting on the road.

Incorrect (missing a subject):

Wanted to get to class on time.

Correct:

The students wanted to get to class on time.

Run-on sentences and comma splices

A run-on sentence combines two complete sentences (or

independent clauses) without any punctuation. If two
independent clauses are connected by a comma, then a
comma splice has occurred. There are several ways to
correct run-on sentences and comma splices:
122
Run-on sentence:

I felt awful about hitting this man today he didn't even

seem to notice.

Comma splice:

I felt awful about hitting this man today, he didn't even

seem to notice.

How to fix comma splices and run-on sentences:

Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or,

nor, for, so, yet, either...or, neither...nor, both...and, not
only...but also).

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today, but he didn't
even seem to notice.

Use a semicolon.

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today; he didn't even
seem to notice.

Make the clauses into separate sentences.

Ex: I felt awful about hitting this man today. He didn't even
seem to notice.

Restructure the sentence, perhaps by subordinating one of

the clauses.

Ex: Even though he didn't seem to notice, I felt awful about

hitting this man today.

123
Passive voice

The passive voice occurs when the sentence explains what

is done to the subject, instead of what the subject did.
Using the passive voice de-emphasizes the actor in a
sentence and usually makes the sentence vague. Therefore,
try to use the active voice instead as much as possible.

Ex: Weak passive:

The exam was thought by us to be unfair because we were

tested on material that was not covered in the course.

Strong active:

We thought the exam unfair because it tested us on material

the course did not cover.

Ex: Weak passive:

The paper was written by a freshman.

Strong active:

A freshman wrote the paper.

All of these nouns act instead of someone/something acting

upon them.

The passive voice is normally used only when the writer

wants to emphasize the receiver of the action or doesn't
know the identity of the subject, or when the subject doesn't
provide important information.

124
Shifts in pronoun usage

When you are writing a paper, be consistent in your use of

pronouns, and be sure to use the appropriate pronoun to
match your noun.

Incorrect:

A person should be careful so that he or she doesn't fall

behind in their classes.

Correct:

People should be careful so that they don't fall behind in

their classes.

"A person" is a singular noun and "their" is a plural

pronoun, so the writer needs to use the plural noun
"people" with the plural pronoun "their."

Incorrect:

One often doesn't know what will happen to them next.

Correct:

One often doesn't know what will happen to one next.

Don't switch from "one" to "them;" if you begin by using

one kind of pronoun, you must be consistent with the use of
that pronoun to represent the noun in the rest of your
sentence.

125
Subject-verb agreement

Within your sentences your subject (who or what the

sentence is about) must agree with your verb (the action
word in the sentence).

Example:

Incorrect:

The pattern of the stars in the Milky Way are analyzed by

scientists around the world.

Correct:

The pattern of the stars in the Milky Way is analyzed by

scientists around the world.

"The pattern" represents one subject, so the verb needs to

be singular (is), not plural (are).

Shifts in tense

When you are writing a paper, use either the past tense or
the present tense, but use whichever tense you choose
consistently. Shift tenses only to signal a time before or
after the tense you have chosen to use.

Example of shifting tense to signal a time change:

I felt silly for not understanding the plot of the novel, but I
feel better after talking to some other students in the class
about it. I feel badly for not doing the reading assignment,
but I was sick all last week.

126
When you are referring to a work of fiction, a poem, a play,
or a film, use the present tense consistently, even though
the work was written in the past, and even if the author is
no longer alive. When you write your own narrative, use
the past tense to describe actions that already happened.

Lack of parallelism

Parallelism is just a fancy way of saying that each part of

your sentence needs to match the other parts when you are
listing items or actions, or when you are comparing or
clarifying relationships between ideas. For example:

Incorrect:

I went to the store, bus stop, and to the train station. I like
to walk, swimming, and read novels.

Correct:

I went to the store, to the bus stop, and to the train station. I
went to the store, bus stop, and train station. I like to walk,
swim, and read novels. I like to walk, to swim, and to read
novels. I like walking, swimming, and reading novels.

Incorrect:

Many students try to take classes that interest them making

their semester more enjoyable.

Correct:

Many students try to take classes that interest them to make

their semester more enjoyable.
127
WORDS OFTEN

CONFUSED

128
 WORDS OFTEN CONFUSED

There are different reasons why we may confuse words

that have different meanings or different uses in English. The
following list attempts to bring together many that you might
want to keep in mind. With the presentation of each set of
confused words, sentences or explanations are provided to help
you remember how they should be used. You can keep this list
to refer to when you want. For now, read through the list
making a small mark to the side of words you have misused
before or words you feel you could misuse sometime. Then
perform the exercise as described at the end of this sheet.

Some people don’t agree with the idea of a list of

“mistakes”. They say one should never draw students’ attention
to mistakes in this way, because that will confuse them and
make them make mistakes they would not have made otherwise.
This is simply not true. People who think it is have clearly very
little practical experience of teaching English as a foreign
language. The truth is that most students will make and continue
to make these classic mistakes until they are warned about
them.

129
1. A, An -- Use a before any word or acronym beginning with a
consonant sound: a young man; a teacher; a hypothesis. Use
an before any word beginning with a vowel sound,
regardless of whether the word begins with a vowel: an
elephant; an LWR; a HEPA filter (because HEPA is
pronounced as a word rather than as letters); an honest man.

2. Able, Capable -- The word "able" means having the ability

to perform a given act. The word "capable" means (1)
having adequate capacity to do or to make or (2) having
adequate capacity to receive an action:

- I am able to walk through that swamp.

- He is a capable leader.
- This book is capable of being translated.

3. Accept, Except, Expect -- “Accept” is a verb meaning to

bear, or to receive something offered, especially with
approval; “Except” is a preposition meaning but, excluding;
"Expect" is a verb meaning anticipate, demand, assume:

- This client expects (demands) nothing except

(but) the most sophisticated options available.
- Will you accept (bear) the responsibility for this
decision?

130
 - We expect (anticipate) everyone to come except
(excluding) John.

4. Adapt, Adopt -- To adapt means to make apt or suitable; to

adjust. To adopt means opt or choose as one’s own; to
accept:

- Have you adapted to your new surroundings in the

city?
- They decided to adopt a child from the orphanage.

5. Advice, Advise -- Advice is a noun meaning suggestion, and

advise is a verb meaning to suggest to or to warn. When you
advise someone, you give that person advice.

- We advise (suggest to) you to proceed carefully.

- That was the best advice (suggestion) I’ve

received so far.

6. Affect, Effect -- Affect is a verb meaning influence, alter,

inspire or move emotionally, imitate. Affected, besides
being the past tense of affect, can also be used as an
adjective meaning imitated, pretentious. Effect as a noun
means result or consequence. As a verb, it means cause:

131
 - How will this plan affect (alter) our jobs? What
effect (consequence) will this restructuring have
on profits? Will it effect (cause) an increase?
- The movie affected (moved emotionally) Marian.
- He affected (imitated) an English accent.
- The affected (pretentious) speech fooled no one.

7. Agree to, with, on -- You agree to something such as a plan.

You agree to do something. You agree with someone else.
You agree with others on a course of action.

- Both sides in the conflict have agreed to the terms

of the peace treaty.
- I don't agree with you on this point.

8. Allusion, Illusion, Delusion -- You make an allusion when

you refer to something indirectly. An illusion is something
that is not really there. Delusion is a noun meaning a false
belief held in spite of invalidating evidence.

- Ben's sudden silence was an allusion to his recent

affair.
- The magician's trick was just an optical illusion.
- You have a serious delusion if you think your
cooking is good.

132
9. Already, All Ready -- Already is an adverb meaning as
early as this, by this time or previously; All ready is an
adjective phrase meaning completely ready or totally ready:

- At age four, George is reading already (as early

as this).
- I’ve already (by this time, previously) finished my
homework.
- I’m all ready (completely ready) to go now.

10. Altogether, All Together -- Altogether is an adverb

meaning entirely, completely or on the whole. All together
means simultaneously or together in a single group.

- When he first saw the examination questions, he was

altogether baffled.
- The wedding guests were gathered all together in the
garden.

11. Among, Between -- Among is used with more than two

items. Between is used with two items, except in some
close collective relationships:

- We quarreled among the five of us, but the real

argument was between Bob and Harold.

133
 - An alliance was effected between Germany, Italy, and
Japan.

12. Amount, Number – Use amount to describe uncountable

items, such as sugar, flour, soil, peace, etc. Use number to
describe countable items such as lemons, sacks, rocks,
war, etc.

- Your actions show a great amount of courage.

- A large number of Americans were in favor of the new
law.

13. Assure, Ensure, Insure – Assure means “to convince;” “to

guarantee.” Insure means “to guard against loss.” Ensure
means “to make certain.” Assure and ensure are often
used interchangeably, but they actually have different
meanings. Assure takes a direct object – usually a person
or group of persons. You assure someone that something
has been done. Ensure does not imply that you are giving
assurance to someone else. You ensure that something has
been done.

- I assure you of my good intentions.

- Please insure this package.
- Ensure that you lock your car.

134
14. Bad, Badly – Use the adjective bad after linking verbs: He
felt bad (not badly). Use the adverb badly to modify action
verbs, adjectives and adverbs: He injured his knee badly.
He was badly injured.

15. Beside, Besides - Beside means “by the side of”, and
besides means “in addition to”:

- He stood just beside me.

- Besides good looks, the contestants must have
talent.

16. Borrow, Lend – To borrow is to get something from

someone, and to lend is to give something to someone:

- He borrowed some money from me.

- I lent him some money.

17. Breath, Breathe - “Breath” is a noun, “breathe” is a verb:

to take a deep breath is to breathe deeply.

18. Cite, Site, Sight -- Site is a noun meaning location,

position. Cite is a verb meaning quote, make reference to.

135
 Sight as a noun means ability to see. As a verb, it means
see, spot

- This is the proposed site (location) for the new

building.

- You must cite (make reference to) the source of

your information.

- At ninety-five, my grandmother’s sight (ability to

see) was acute enough to sight (spot) even the
smallest error in a crocheted doily.

19. Compare to, Compare with – Compare to means “assert

a likeness”; Compare with means “analyze for similarities
and differences”:

- He compared the precipitate to chocolate

pudding; both are brown and gooey
- He compared the precipitate with chocolate
pudding to decide which one tasted better.

20. Complement, Compliment – Complement implies some-

thing that completes: The adjective “great” functions as a
complement in the sentence “You look great today.” A
compliment is flattery or praise:

- John: You look great today.

136
 - Mary: Thanks a lot for this compliment.

21. Compose, Comprise, Consist of, Include – Parts compose

a whole. A whole consists of or comprises parts.
Comprise may refer to all parts or only major parts.
Consist means that all parts are listed, but include does
not.

- Cement, aggregate, and water compose concrete.

- Concrete is composed of cement, aggregate, and water.
- Concrete comprises (or consists of) cement, aggregate,
and water.
- Concrete includes cement and aggregate.
(Is comprised of is always incorrect).

22. Conscience, Conscious -- Conscience is a noun

designating a moral sense of right and wrong; Conscious is
on adjective describing something that is awake or aware:

- My conscience hurt me.

- The driver of the wrecked car was still conscious.

23. Continuous, Continual -- Continuous means without

interruption. Continual means to occur repeatedly, but is
not interrupted:

137
 - There is a continuous stretch of desert across
North Africa
- There were continual sounds of hammering.

24. Council, Counsel - A council is a group of people who

meet to consider, debate, or instruct. Counsel is advice.
Also, a lawyer is a legal counsel, or adviser.

25. Detract, Distract - To detract (from) is to reduce, to take

something away; To distract is to draw attention away:

- The muddy field detracted from the usual

crispness of the marching band
- The scent of a rabbit does not distract a well-
trained bird dog.

26. Differ from, with -- One thing or person differs from

another in characteristics. You differ with someone when
you disagree.

27. Economic, Economical – Economic applies to material

wealth and to business or household enterprise.
Economical means “prudent in management,” “not
wasteful,” “thrifty.” Thus, say “economic resources” but

138
 “economical management” or “economic problems” but
“economical living.”

28. Either . . . or, Neither . . . nor -- Either means “one of

two”; neither means “not one of two.” Or goes with
either; nor, with neither.

- Either Sarah or I will go, but neither Bill nor Jan

will.”

When used alone, both either and neither take verbs in the
singular.

- Either is ready to go with you. Neither is now

ready.

When one element of the either . . . or/neither . . . nor

construction is singular and the other is plural, the verb
should agree with the element closest to it.

- Either he or his assistant is going to the

reception.
- Neither I nor my cats are leaving!

29. Eminent, Imminent – An eminent person is famous.

Something is imminent; it will happen soon.
139
30. Farther, Further – Farther, the comparative form of far,
refers to physical distance or physical space in actual
measurements. Further refers to thought or discussion and
indicates additional or greater detail. It may also refer to
figurative space, but not to physical space.

- John hiked farther along the trail than he had

originally intended.

- As you go farther away, your ability to hear is

further decreased.

- Let's discuss the matter further tomorrow.

- Your assertion could not be further from the

truth.

31. Fewer, Less -- Use the adjective fewer to modify plural

nouns, things that can be counted. Use less for singular
nouns that represent a quantity or a degree. Most nouns to
which an s can be added require the adjective fewer:

- The promotional staff had fewer innovative ideas

[plural noun] than the marketing staff.

- The marketing staff had less time [singular noun]

to brainstorm than the promotional staff.

140
32. Grow, Grow up -- To grow means “to develop and
become bigger, taller or longer over a period of time”; to
grow up means “to become a man or a woman”:

- George has grown two inches this year.

- When I grow up I shall be a doctor.

Other meanings of “to grow”:

(1) to cultivate: Rice grows in Egypt.

(2) to cause to grow: We grow flowers in our garden

(3) to allow to grow: He grew a beard.

(4) to become: The nights grow cold in winter.

33. Imply, Infer - To imply is to suggest or hint at. To infer is

to deduce or conclude.

- His tie and shirt colors imply (suggest) that he is

colorblind.
- He is not colorblind, so we infer (surmise) that he
merely has wretched taste.

34. Its, It’s -- Its is possessive adjective; It’s means “it is” or
(sometimes) “it has”:

- The dog dropped its bone

- It’s here.

141
 - It’s been here for three weeks.

35. Lay, Lie -- Lay (lay, laid, laid, laying) means “to put” or
“to place.” This verb requires a direct object to complete
its meaning:

- Please lay the boxes on the pallets with extreme

care.
- I laid the message right on your desk.
- I had laid two other notes there yesterday.
- He is always laying the blame on his assistants.

Lie (lie, lay, lain, lying) means “to recline, rest, or stay” or
“to take a position of rest.” It refers to a person or thing as
either assuming or being in a reclining position. This verb
cannot take an object:

- Now he lies in bed most of the day.

- The mountains lay before us as we proceeded
west.
- This letter has lain unanswered for two weeks.
- Today’s mail is lying on the receptionist’s desk.
36. Learn, Teach – To teach means “to give instruction”, but
to learn means “to receive instruction:

- Prof. Smith teaches us linguistics.

142
 - I’ve been learning English for about ten years
now.

37. Loose, Lose, Loss -- Loose is an adjective meaning free,

unrestrained, not tight. It rhymes with goose. Lose is a
verb meaning misplace, to be defeated, fail to keep. It
rhymes with shoes. Loss is a noun meaning defeat,
downturn, the opposite of victory or gain. It rhymes with
toss:

- The chickens ran loose (free) in the yard.

- The knot holding the boat to the dock was loose

(not tight).

- Where did you lose (misplace) your gloves?

- The investors will lose (fail to keep) considerable

capital if the market suffers a loss (downturn).

38. Made of, Made from -- Made of is used if the material of

which the thing is made can still be seen. Made from is
used if the material can no longer be seen:

- Tables are usually made of wood.

- Bread is usually made from wheat.

143
39. Maybe, May Be -- Maybe is an adverb meaning perhaps.
May be is a verb phrase meaning might be:

- Maybe (perhaps) the next batch will be better

than this one. On the other hand, it may be (might
be) worse.

40. Passed, Past -- Passed is a verb, the past tense of pass,

meaning transferred, went ahead or by, elapsed, finished.
Past as a noun means history. As an adjective, it means
former.

- The first runner passed (transferred) the baton to

the second just as she passed (went by) the stands.
Three seconds passed (elapsed) before the next
runner came by.
- Harriet passed (finished) her bar exam on the first
try.
- I must have been a dolphin in a past (former) life.
- Avoid digging up the past (history) if you can.

41. Personal, Personnel -- Personal is an adjective meaning

private. Personnel as a noun means staff, employees or as
an adjective means dealing with staff or employees.

144
 - The director of personnel (staff) keeps all the
personnel (employee) files in order and guards
any personal (private) information they contain.

42. Plain, Plane -- Plain as an adjective means ordinary, clear,

simple. As a noun, it refers to flat country, also sometimes
written as plains. Plane is a noun meaning airship or flat
surface. It is occasionally used as a verb or adjective
meaning level.

- It was plain (clear) to us that the enemy did not see

our plane (airship) sitting on the open plain (flat
country).

43. Presently, At Present -- Presently means shortly or soon;

at present means now:

- The doctor will be here presently.

- His uncle is in London at present.

44. Prescribe, Proscribe -- Prescribe is a verb used in favor of

an idea or action. It means (1) to set rules, (2) to advise or
recommend, or (3) to allow by law. Proscribe is a verb
used against an idea or action. It means (1) to forbid or
prohibit, (2) to condemn, or (3) to not allow by law:

145
 - The doctor prescribed a treatment of exercise and
hot baths.

- Doctors are proscribed from taking bribes from

patients.

45. Principal, Principle -- Principal as a noun refers to the

head of a school or an investment. As an adjective, it
means primary, major. Principle is a noun meaning rule,
law, belief.

- The principal (head) of Northwood Primary

School used the principal (investment) of an
endowment fund to cover this month’s salaries.

- The principal (primary) objective is to make

decisions that are in keeping with our principles
(beliefs).

46. Quiet, Quite, Quit -- Quite is an adverb meaning

completely, very, entirely. It rhymes with fight. Quiet as
an adjective means calm, silent, not noisy. As a verb, it
means soothe, calm. As a noun, it means tranquility,
peacefulness. It almost rhymes with riot. Quit is a verb
meaning stop, cease or stopped, ceased. It rhymes with sit.

146
 - The firm was quite (very) surprised when its most
productive investment specialist quit (stopped)
work and opted for the quiet (calm) life of a
monk.

47. Stationary, Stationery -- stationary = in a fixed position;

stationery = writing supplies.

- The only time most children are stationary is

when they are asleep.
- The stationery store sells fancy writing paper and
envelopes.

48. Steal, Rob -- The object of the verb to steal is the thing
taken away, whereas the object of the verb to rob is the
person from whom or the place from which the thing is
taken away.

- My wallet has been stolen.

- Some men robbed a bank last night.

49. Suppose, Supposed (to) -- Suppose is a verb meaning

assume, imagine. Supposed as a verb is the past tense of
suppose and means assumed, imagined. As an adjective, it
means expected, obligated.

147
 - I suppose (assume) you’ll be late, as usual.
- We all supposed (assumed) you would be late.
- He's supposed to be in class in twenty minutes.
- You were supposed (expected) to have picked up
the copies of the report before you came to the
meeting.

50. Than, Then -- Than is a conjunctive word used to make a

comparison. Then is an adverb telling when or meaning
next.

- Then (next), the group discussed the ways in

which the new procedures worked better than
(conjunction making a comparison) the old.

51. There, Their, They’re -- There is an adverb telling where

an action or item is located. Their is a possessive adjective
meaning belonging to them. They’re is a contraction for
the words they are.

- There [here] is my paycheck.

- The new chairs are in there [here].
- Their [belonging to them] time has almost run
out.
- This is their [belonging to them] problem, not
mine.

148
 - They’re [they are] planning to finish early in the
morning.

52. To, Too, Two -- To is a preposition or part of an infinitive.

Use it only to introduce a prepositional phrase, which
usually answers the question where, or before a verb. Use
to for introducing a prepositional phrase: to the store, to
the top, to my home, to our garden, to his laboratory, to
his castle, to our advantage, to an open door, to a song, to
the science room, etc. Use to as an infinitive (to followed
by a verb, sometimes separated by adverbs): to run, to
jump, to want badly, to seek, to propose, to write, to
explode, to sorely need, to badly botch, to carefully
examine, etc. Too is an adverb meaning also, very. Two is
an adjective, the name of a number, as in one, two, three.

- The couple went to (preposition) the deli to

(infinitive) pick up two (the number) plate dinners
because both of them were too (very) tired to
(infinitive) cook dinner.

53. Use, Used -- Use as a verb means utilize, deplete. It rhymes

with ooze. As a noun, it rhymes with goose and means
purpose. Used as a verb is the past tense of use and means
utilized, depleted. As an adjective, it means secondhand.

149
 Used to can be used as an adjective, meaning accustomed
to, or as an adverb meaning formerly. (Note that you never
write use to when you mean accustomed to or formerly):

- Just use (utilize) the same password we used

(utilized) yesterday.
- What’s the use (purpose) in trying yet another
time?
- We should consider buying used (second-hand)
equipment.
- We used to (formerly) require a second opinion.
- Residents of Buffalo, New York, are used to
(accustomed to) cold temperatures.

54. Your, You’re -- Your is a possessive adjective. You're is a

contraction for you are:

- This is your life.

- You’re late!

55. Whether, If -- Whether implies a condition of doubt. If

implies no alternative.

- If it does not rain, we will decide whether to have

a picnic.

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56. Weather, Whether -- Weather is a noun referring to the
condition outside. Whether is an adverb used when
referring to a possibility.

- The weather (condition outside) took a turn for

the worse.
- Let me know whether (a possibility) you are
interested in this new system.

57. Who, That, Which -- Who refers to people. That refers to

things. Which is generally used to introduce nonrestrictive
clauses that describe things. Look at the following
sentences to see how each of these words is used.

- There is the woman who helped me fix my flat

tire.
- The man who invented the polio vaccine died in
1995.
- This is the house that Jack built.
- The book that I wanted is no longer in print.
- The teacher asked us to read Lord of the Flies,
which is my favorite novel.
- Mt. Massive, which is the tallest peak in the
Rocky Mountains, looms above Leadville,
Colorado.

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58. Whose, Who’s -- Whose is a possessive pronoun that
means belonging to whom. Who’s is a contraction for the
words who is or who has. Take time to make this
substitution, and you will never confuse these two words.

- Who’s [Who is] in charge of the lighting for the

show?
- Whose [belonging to whom] car was that?

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 EXERCISES

I. Fill in the spaces with the correct form of lie or lay in each
of the following sentences:

1. After the alarm sounded, I --------- in bed for another

hour.
2. --------- the packages on the mailroom floor.
3. The latest edition of the newspaper --------- on the desk.
4. The paper carrier --------- the latest edition of the
newspaper on the desk.
5. No one had any idea how long the sandwiches had -------
-- in the sun or who had --------- them there in the first
place.

II. Fill in the spaces with the correct form of rise or raise in
each of the following sentences:

1. The guard --------- the flag every morning before the

sun.
2. The couple --------- seven of their own children and
adopted three more.
3. By late morning the fog had --------- enough for us to
see the neighboring farm.
4. The sun --------- a little bit earlier each day of the
spring.
5. Without realizing it, we began to --------- our voices.

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III. Correct the mistakes in the following sentences and
explain:
1. He learned us how to play hockey.
2. Divide the apple between you three.
3. He was standing just besides me.
4. I’m going to lay down for an hour.
5. He raises very early in the morning.
6. What would you like to be when you grow?
7. I want to lend a book from you.
8. My wallet has been robbed.
9. The teachers accepted to go with us.
10. My father is presently in London.
11. He didn’t accept to go to the cinema with me.
12. The teacher was so angry with his misconduct.

V. Circle the correct word in the parentheses:

1. Surely you didn’t (accept, except, expect) Weldon to

(accept, except, expect) responsibility for this decision
when everyone (accept, except, expect) him was
consulted.
2. We (accept, except, expect) the delivery to arrive early in
the morning.
3. Who (learns, teaches) you grammar this year?

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4. (There, Their, They’re) scheduled to arrive in London
next week.
5. The teller who gave me the deposit slip is over (there,
their, they’re).
6. The soothsayer will (advice, advise) you to seek her
(advice, advise) often.
7. The new work schedule (affected, effected) production in
a positive way.
8. Don’t forget (your, you’re) umbrella when you leave the
house this morning.
9. What (affect, effect) will this new work schedule have on
production?
10. (Its, It’s) a ripe banana when (its, it’s) peel is yellow
instead of green.
11. We never release (personal, personnel) information
about our (personal, personnel).
12. The employees’ (principal, principle) concern is
workload.
13. The new legislation violates the basic (principals,
principles) upon which the country was founded.
14. (Who’s, Whose) idea was it to throw a surprise party?
15. (Who’s, Whose) been handling the supply orders for
our department?
16. I’ll never believe you; you always (lie, lay) to me.

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 PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized

and coherent, and are all related to a single topic. Almost every
piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences
should be organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs
show a reader where the subdivisions of an essay begin and end,
and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and
grasp its main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of

information. A paragraph could contain a series of brief
examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might
describe a place, character, or process; narrate a series of events;
compare or contrast two or more things; classify items into
categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the
kind of information they contain, all paragraphs share certain
characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic
sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCES:

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a

single controlling idea, which is expressed in a sentence called
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the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important
functions: it substantiates or supports an essay's thesis
statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and directs the
order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to
be discussed and how the paragraph will discuss it. Readers
generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to
determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That's
why it's often best to put the topic sentence at the very
beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it's more
effective to place another sentence before the topic sentence--
for example, a sentence linking the current paragraph to the
previous one, or one providing background information.

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence,

there are a few situations when a paragraph might not need a
topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic
sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a
paragraph continues developing an idea that you introduced
(with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the
sentences and details in a paragraph clearly refer--perhaps
indirectly--to a main point. The vast majority of your
paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.

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PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE:

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure--

introduction, body, and conclusion. You can see this structure in
paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing,
contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the
paragraph plays an important role in communicating your
meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include

the topic sentence and any other sentences at the beginning of
the paragraph that give background information or provide a
transition.

Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea,

using facts, arguments, analysis, examples, and other
information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections

between the information discussed in the body of the paragraph
and the paragraph's controlling idea.

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 The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of
organization. In this paragraph the topic sentence and
concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader
keep the paragraph's main point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE

SENSE OF SIGHT IN NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny
pupil of the eye they put, on Mount Palomar, a great monocle
200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into
the depths of space. Or they look through a small pair of lenses
arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood, and
magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures
there, many of which are among man's most dangerous
enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth, they
use some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to
carry television images which they re-create as light by
whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum.
Or they can bring happenings of long ago and far away as
colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms and color-
absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns of
original reality. Or if we want to see into the center of a steel
casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the
information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and
then convert it back into images we can see on a screen or
photograph. THUS ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF

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ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS
BEEN USED TO EXTEND OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME
WAY.

George Harrison, "Faith and the

Scientist"

COHERENCE

In a coherent paragraph, each sentence relates clearly to

the topic sentence or controlling idea, but there is more to
coherence than this. If a paragraph is coherent, each sentence
flows smoothly into the next without obvious shifts or jumps. A
coherent paragraph also highlights the ties between old
information and new information to make the structure of ideas
or arguments clear to the reader.

Along with the smooth flow of sentences, a paragraph's

coherence may also be related to its length. If you have written
a very long paragraph, one that fills a double-spaced typed page,
for example, you should check it carefully to see if it should
start a new paragraph where the original paragraph wanders
from its controlling idea. On the other hand, if a paragraph is
very short (only one or two sentences, perhaps), you may need

160
to develop its controlling idea more thoroughly, or combine it
with another paragraph.

A number of other techniques that you can use to

establish coherence in paragraphs are described below.

Repeat key words or phrases. Particularly in paragraphs in

which you define or identify an important idea or theory, be
consistent in how you refer to it. This consistency and repetition
will bind the paragraph together and help your reader
understand your definition or description.

Create parallel structures. Parallel structures are created by

constructing two or more phrases or sentences that have the
same grammatical structure and use the same parts of speech.
By creating parallel structures you make your sentences clearer
and easier to read. In addition, repeating a pattern in a series of
consecutive sentences helps your reader see the connections
between ideas. In the paragraph above about scientists and the
sense of sight, several sentences in the body of the paragraph
have been constructed in a parallel way. The parallel structures
(which have been emphasized) help the reader see that the

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paragraph is organized as a set of examples of a general
statement.

Be consistent in point of view, verb tense, and number.

Consistency in point of view, verb tense, and number is a subtle
but important aspect of coherence. If you shift from the more
personal "you" to the impersonal "one," from past to present
tense, or from "a man" to "they," for example, you make your
paragraph less coherent. Such inconsistencies can also confuse
your reader and make your argument more difficult to follow.

Use transition words or phrases between sentences and

between paragraphs. Transitional expressions emphasize the
relationships between ideas, so they help readers follow your
train of thought or see connections that they might otherwise
miss or misunderstand. The following paragraph shows how
carefully chosen transitions (CAPITALIZED) lead the reader
smoothly from the introduction to the conclusion of the
paragraph.

I don't wish to deny that the flattened, minuscule head of

the large-bodied "stegosaurus" houses little brain from our
subjective, top-heavy perspective, BUT I do wish to assert that
we should not expect more of the beast. FIRST OF ALL, large
animals have relatively smaller brains than related, small

162
animals. The correlation of brain size with body size among
kindred animals (all reptiles, all mammals, FOR EXAMPLE) is
remarkably regular. AS we move from small to large animals,
from mice to elephants or small lizards to Komodo dragons,
brain size increases, BUT not so fast as body size. IN OTHER
WORDS, bodies grow faster than brains, AND large animals
have low ratios of brain weight to body weight. IN FACT,
brains grow only about two-thirds as fast as bodies. SINCE we
have no reason to believe that large animals are consistently
stupider than their smaller relatives, we must conclude that
large animals require relatively less brain to do as well as
smaller animals. IF we do not recognize this relationship, we
are likely to underestimate the mental power of very large
animals, dinosaurs in particular.

(From Were Dinosaurs Dumb? By Stephen Jay

Gould)

SOME USEFUL TRANSITIONS

To show addition:

again, and, also, besides, equally important, first (second,

etc.), further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place,
moreover, next, too

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To give examples:

for example, for instance, in fact, specifically, that is, to

illustrate

To compare:

also, in the same manner, likewise, similarly

To contrast:

although, and yet, at the same time, but, despite, even

though, however, in contrast, in spite of, nevertheless, on
the contrary, on the other hand, still, though, yet

To summarize or conclude:

all in all, in conclusion, in other words, in short, in

summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to sum up

To show time:

after, afterward, as, as long as, as soon as, at last, before,

during, earlier, finally, formerly, immediately, later,
meanwhile, next, since, shortly, subsequently, then,
thereafter, until, when, while

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 To show place or direction:

above, below, beyond, close, elsewhere, farther on, here,

nearby, opposite, to the left (north, etc.)

To indicate logical relationship:

accordingly, as a result, because, consequently, for this

reason, hence, if, otherwise, since, so, then, therefore,
thus

References

1.“Exercises on Topic Sentences.”

https://www.academia.edu/27150735/EXERCISES_ON_PAR
AGRAPH_WRITING_A_TOPIC_SENTENCES

2. “Exercises on Topic Sentences.” https://Nuke_farida.

Staff.gunadarma.ac.id

3. Brandon, Lee, and Kelly Brandon. Sentences, paragraphs, and

beyond: With integrated readings. Cengage Learning, 2013.

4. “Grammar Exercises.”
college.cengage.com/devenglish/brandon/writing_connecti
ons2/1e/students/grammar_exercises/exe02.html

165
5. “Commonly Confused Words.” www.tri-
valley.k12.oh.us/userfiles/243/Classes/724/Confused%20
Words.pdf

6. Mc Donald, Karl. “Different Reading Techniques And When

To Use Them.”
https://www.howtolearn.com/2012/08/different-reading-
techniques-and-when-to-use-them/

7. “Reading Comprehension Passages.”

https://englishforeveryone.org/PDFs/

8. “Exercises on Translations.”
https://www.modars1.com/t36996-topic

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