Anatomy and Physiology

- Complimentarily of structure and function

o What it’s made up of determines what it does
o Function is linked to structure
Levels of Structural Organization
- Chemical  Cellular  Tissue  Organ  Organ System  Organismal
Homeostasis
- Necessary to sustain life
- Organ systems work together to provide stable internal environment
o All organ systems EXCEPT reproductive system
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
- Sensor: Monitor variables to detect changes
o Receptors
- Control Center: Communicate changes
o Chemical messengers  Hormones  Endocrine System
o Electrical messages  Nerve impulses  Nervous system
- Effector: Response to solve problem
o Effector organs
- Usually negative feedback loop
Feedback Mechanisms
- Negative feedback
o Response reduces intensity or shuts off original stimulus
o Ex) use of thermostat in house
- Positive feedback
o Increase original stimulus
o Ex) Deposit and interest
Negative Feedback Regulation of Blood Glucose by Insulin
- Receptors @pancreas detect increase in blood glucose  pancreas secretes insulin 
insulin causes body cells to absorb more glucose  blood glucose level decreases
o Cycle no longer continues when blood glucose levels normalize
o Pancreas/receptors on pancreas is control center, releasing insulin, a chemical
messenger
o Cells that up took glucose is effector organ
Positive Feedback of Labor
- Oxytocin binds to receptors to cause contractions  contractions trigger more release
of oxytocin  bigger contractions triggered
Positive feedback of clotting injured site
 - 1 platelet leaves and becomes star shaped and sticky  blocks injured site  attract
more platelets
Anatomical Variability
The Language of Anatomy
Anatomical Position
- Standard body position
o Body erect
o Feet slightly apart
o Arms at side
o Palms facing forward
 Thumbs point away from body
- Right and left refer to patient, not of observer
Directional Terms
- Superior
o Towards head, upward
- Inferior/*Caudal
o Away from head, downward
o *Caudal = towards tail
 Only interchangeable for humans b/c we are bipedal
- Ventral/*Anterior
o Ventral = Towards belly
o Anterior = Towards front
- Dorsal/*Posterior
o Towards backside
- Medial
o Towards midline
- Lateral
o Away from midline
- Proximal
o Close to site of attachment
- Distal
o Farther from attachment
- Superficial/External
o Toward body surface
- Deep/Internal
o More internal
- Ipsilateral
o On same side
- Contralateral
o Found on opposite sides
Body Planes and Sections
 - Sagittal section
o Left and right parts
- Midsagittal/Median section
o Into EQUAL left and right parts
- Frontal section
o Anterior and posterior parts
- Transverse section
o Superior and inferior parts
Regional Terms
- FLASHCARD ALL TERMS
Body Cavities
- Dorsal body cavity
o Cranial
o Spinal
- Ventral body cavity
o Thoracic cavity
o Abdominopelvic cavity
o NOT CONTINUOUS
 Separated by diaphragm
Ventral Body Cavity
- Serous membrane: double layered membrane:
o Parietal serosa: outer balloon wall
o Visceral serosa: inner balloon wall
o VIP
- Serous membrane covers organs of ventral body cavity
o Lubricate and reduce friction of moving organs
o Separates organs
o Isolates diseases
 2/4/20
Quickfire question
- There are many potential sagittal cuts but only 1 midsagittal cut
Biochemistry: Essentials for Life
Important Inorganic Compounds
- Water
o High specific heat capacity  amount of heat/energy per unit mass required to
raise temp by 1 degree Celsius
pH: Potential of Hydrogen
- pH = -log[H+]
- pH is -log10 of hydrogen ion conc in mol/l of solution
- lower pH has higher conc of hydrogen ions
- Blood plasma pH = 7.4
o 7.35 - 7.45
- Buffers
o Chemicals regulating pH change by accepting/donating extra H+ ions
o HCO3- + H+  H2CO3
Cells
- 50 – 100 trillion cells
- Starts out as Totipotent cells
o Ability to become any cell in the body
- More than 200 types of cells
o Serve different functions  look different
Generalized Cell
- 3 basic parts
o Plasma membrane
o Nucleus
o Cytoplasm w/ organelles
Functions of Membrane Proteins
- Transport
- Receptors for signal transduction
o Binds to protein and make changes inside cell
- Attachment to cytoskeleton & extracellular matrix
o Anchor the cell to the environment
- Enzymatic activity
 o Facilitate chemical reactions  enzymes  released by proteins
- Intercellular joining
o Cell Adhesion Molecule (CAMS) glue neighboring cells together
- Cell-cell recognition
Cell Physiology: Membrane Transport
- Passive transport
o NO ENERGY
- Active transport
o ENERGY REQUIRED
o ATP
Cytoskeleton
- Internal framework
- Give cell strength and associated w/ motion
- Protein rods throughout cytosol
o Microtubules
 Largest
 Dynamic hollow tubes
 Radiate from centrosome
 Overall shape of cell
 Distribution of organelles
o Intermediate filaments
 Rope-like
 Tough, insoluble
 Resist pulling forces on cell
 Attach to desmosomes
 Anchor one cell to another, keeping them in contact
 Intermediate cells attach to desmosomes to prevent cell from
breaking b/c tensile strength and help resist that force
o Microfilaments
 Dynamic actin
 Attached to plasma membrane
 Movement of actual cell
 Movement in and out of cell
 Endo/Exocytosis
Cellular Projections
- Not found in all cells
- Microvilli
o Finger-like
o On surface of single cell
o Contain actin
o Increase surface area, more relative contact with environment
 - Movement
o Cilia
 Main portion of cell does not move
 Creates current for that cell surface to glide through and move
o Flagella
 Actual cell moves
 Sperm is only human cell with flagella
Membrane Junctions
- Tight junctions
o Impermeable
o Bind cells together  makes leakproof sheets
- Desmosomes
o Anchoring junctions
o Prevent cells from being pulled apart against mechanical stress
- Gap junctions
o Couples cells together
o Communication between cells
 Transport message to its neighbors for unified action
o Composed of connexon
Tonicity
- Osmotic gradient of 2 solutions separated by semi permeable membrane
- Ratio of solute to water
- Solution can cause cell to shrink or cell
- Isotonic
o Solute : Water = cytosol solute : water
o Cells retain normal size
 *no NET movement but still movement in equilibrium
- Hypertonic solution
o Solution solute: water > cytosol solute : water
o Cells lose water  SHRINK
- Hypotonic solution
o Cells take on water  BLOAT
Osmolality of fluids
- # of solute in 1 kg of water
- Water moves towards high osmolality/osmolarity
o Water follows solutes
 2/6/20
Bladder
- about 2in; can stretch to 5in
- can hold up to 1L
Body Tissues
- 4 types
o Muscle
o Nervous
o Epithelial
o Connective
Muscle Tissue
- Lot of blood supply
o Arteries, vessels, and capillaries
Skeletal Muscle
- Voluntary motion
Cardiac Muscle
- Make high pressure environment in heart to pump blood around
- Found on walls of heart
- Intercalated discs
o Desmosomes
 Prevent separation during stress
o Gap Junctions
 Electric coupling cells for cell-cell communication
Smooth Muscle
- Tapered off at the end  Spindle-shaped
o Thickest in the middle
Create a Dichotomous Key for Muscle Tissue
Simple Epithelia: Simple Squamous
- Help minimize friction as blood moves across it
 - LUNGS emphasized, lymphatic not so much
Stratified Epithelia: Stratified Squamous
- Many layers
- Flattened
- Exist where lots of friction
Stratified Epithelia: Cuboidal and Columnar
- Almost always 2 layers, maybe 3 sometimes
Naming Rule Exceptions
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
o Pseudo false
o Looks stratified and 2 layers b/c of how nuclei are placed and at diff heights
but it’s not
- Transitional epithelium
 2/18/20
Mini Test
- Language, cells, tissues pt 1 and pt2 (online Panopto)
- 20 min
- 1 page front and back
- Normal test format
o T/F
o Multiple Choice
o Short answer
- THIS TEST
o Fill in blank (word or phrase)
o T/F
o Multiple Choice
o NO short answer
- Test will start at 12:45PM

- Ozone (O3) in atmosphere can absorb UV light

- UVC most dangerous
o But do not make it after being absorbed by Ozone
- UVA and UVB make it down
Integumentary
- Skin is largest organ of body
- Cutaneous sensation
o Having receptors in our skin to detect info about the world around us
- Metabolic functions
o Chemical reactions to build things in our skin
Functions of the Integumentary System Skin as a Barrier
- Lining of skin slightly acidic
o secrete acidic products to make it hard for bacteria to live
- Defensins
o Has antibacterial properties
Incomplete Barrier
 - Substances that can penetrate through skin
o Lipid-soluble substances
o Plant oleoresins
 Urushiol (poison ivy, mangoes kind of)
o Organic solvents
o Salts of heavy metals
 Mercury
o Some drugs
 Patch medication
o Drug agents (allows substances to be more able to penetrate skin)
 Alcohol
 Oleic acid  impacts salicylic acid
Functions of the Integumentary System
- Evaporative cooling
o Water leaves surface cooler than it was
- 12L of water can be lost on HOT day
- Sweat can make blood vessels wider
o More blood per min can go towards skin
o More warm blood moves toward surface of skin and cool through
evaporative cooling
Functions More
- Vitamin D
o One of the steps of making Vitamin D HAS to come from skin
o Cholesterol coming in contact with UV light  cholecalciferol
- Collagenase
o Activated by UV light
o More collagen broken down
o Connective tissue gets its strength from collagen  less support of top cells
 wrinkles, sagging
- Non-verbal communication/emotional cues
o When shy, rush of blood to capillaries of skin  blush
Skin (Integument)
- Hypodermis is NOT part of skin
Summary of Strata of the Epidermis
- Stratum corneum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum basale
- “Before Signing, Get Legal Counsel” (deep  superficial)
Epidermis Cell Types
- Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium
o Keratin added to give strength towards force of friction and make more
durable
- Cells of epidermis
o Keratinocytes
o Melanocytes
o Phagocyte
 Alert immune system
o Tactile (merkel) Cells
 Tells us about shape of what we are touching
Layers of the Epidermis: Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
- Deepest
- Give rise to all other cells we see in skin
o Only layer where cells can replicate, metabolically active
o Everything on top is dead or dying
o Every cell starts as newly made keratinocytes in this layer
- Keratinocytes
- Tactile cells
- Melanocytes
o Branch and spread out to deposit pigment into next layer
- Also known as Stratum germinativum
o Bc it grows rest of the epidermis
- Epithelial tissue is avascular, no blood supply to epidermis
o Below basal is connective tissue, vascularized
o Allows nutrients to be delivered to epidermis
Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)
- Desmosomes
o Joining cells together and anchoring them
- Melanin granules
o Products of melanocytes
- Looks pointy and spiny under microscope bc it’s dead and moisture sucked out
Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)
- Keratohyaline
- Lamellted
o Help cells be more water resistant
- Cells are dying
Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)
- Only in thick skin, everywhere else in body will have 4 layers
o Palms of hands
 o Soles of feet
Stratum Corneum
- No nuclei anymore
- 2/3 of thickness of epidermis
- But they have keratin and glycolipids
o Durable
o Waterproof

Think Pair Share

- Thick skin has extra layers of cells in EACH stratum layer
Why do you need sunscreen?
- Important to protect metabolically active tissue (basal layer and deep skin)
- Melanin only absorbs 50-75% of UV light
- Amount of melanin produced will depend on UV exposure
o More UV light triggers melanocytes to produce more melanin
o But during 1st exposure, not sufficient protection
- People with darker skin do not have more melanocytes
o Still 10-25% of cells in stratum basale
o But it’s about how much are active
- Lighter skin WHY?
o You need UV to make vitamin D and maintain balance

Integumentary Part 2
Dermis
- It is connective tissue, but also flexible
- 2 layers
o Papillary Dermis
o Reticular Dermis
- Biological layer preventing pathogen
Papillary Layer
- Areolar Connective Tissue
o Contain blood vessels
o Allows Stratum basale to replicate by supplying it with nutrients
- Dermal Papillae
o Blood vessels
o Capillary loops
o Tactile corpuscles (not expected to identify but be able to distinguish
between connective tissue and epithelial tissue)
 o Tactile (Meissner’s) Corpuscles
 Detect vibrations
o Nociceptors
 Pain receptors
o In thick skin: Dermal ridges  Epidermal ridges

2/20/20
Dermal Papillae
Layers of the Dermis:
- Tears within that collagen fibers in the dermis
Accessories of the Skin
 3/3/20
Why are older women more at risk of osteoporosis than younger women?
- Osteoblast activity hindered by decreasing level of estrogen
o Estrogen promotes osteoblasts
o Greater levels of osteoclast compared to osteoblast
o Estrogen also prevents osteoclast formation  DOUBLE WHAMMY
- Men start with more bone mass, density and calcium deposit and doesn’t decline as
rapidly

SKELETAL STYSTEM: Bone Remodeling—Wolff’s Law and Bone Repair

What is the purpose of “conditioning” hands in martial arts?
- Increase osteoblast activity, bone will remodel stronger and less likely to break the
bone
- Can also impact function and cause loss of mobility if drastic deviation from
standard bone growth
Bone remodeling
- Can happen at any point during lifespan of individual
Factors that Control Bone Remodeling
- Calcitriol
o Increase absorption and decrease excretion of calcium from kidneys
Mechanical Stress
- Bone models around that mechanical stress, strengthening the bones around it to
prevent damage due to the stress
TPS
- What happens to the bones of bedridden individuals? Which bones are most
 impacted?
o Less bending stress
o Less pulling forces and stresses placed in bones
o Bones remodel to be weaker
o Stress placed on lower lumbar area
- Based on the images provided, identify how the leg bones would differ between
individuals shown below?
o Larger muscle provides more pull forces on bones and have more mineral
deposits to have stronger, thicker bones
- Tuberosity exists at the attachment site for muscles
Stages in the healing of a bone fracture
- Bones are each individual organ
- Clot (hematoma) forms
o Make blood into gel by making fibers inherent of connective tissue
- Continued osteoblast activity until whole region filled with spongy bone
o At increased risk for fracture because not fully compact bone yet
o Take cast off during this time and regular use promotes mechanical stress
Mini Lab Review and Hints Axial Skeleton
- Process is a projection/extension coming off of a surface/body
- Facet is a smooth spot
- Clavicle, conoid tubercle points down towards back part of curve
- Radius on the side of thumb in anatomical position
- Ulna on the side of pinky in anatomical position