Fracturas Regionales (Juntas)

Las fracturas regionales se desarrollan en grandes áreas de la corteza

terrestre con pocos cambios en la orientación, no muestran evidencia
de desplazamiento en el plano de la fractura y son siempre
perpendiculares a las superficies de las capas.

Las fracturas regionales parecen ser fracturas de extensión con el

esfuerzo principal máximo actuando en la dirección vertical. El rumbo
de las fracturas se alinea con el esfuerzo horizontal máximo en el
momento de la formación de la fractura.

Las fracturas regionales se han utilizado para mapear los campos de

paleo-esfuerzos en la escala de cuenca.

Las fracturas regionales en la superficie se desarrollan comúnmente en

conjuntos ortogonales y, a menudo, cambian el rumbo de una
formación a otra. El conjunto ortogonal puede deberse a la historia de
carga y descarga de la roca.
1
 Orientación del Sistema de Fracturas Regionales en
Piceance Basin, Colorado
The basin is an elongate asymmetric structural basin whose synclinal axis trends NW- SE but has
at least two axis bifurcations.
Laramide tectonism was characterized predominately by differential vertical displacements along
faults. Numerous thrust faults are present on the northern & eastern sides of the basin. Thrusts
have been related to uplift
of basement blocks & NE-SW directed
crustal shortening.
 Red de Fracturas Regionales en la Roca
Carbonatada en la Costa de Normandía, Francia

3
 Red de Fracturas Regionales en Wyoming
Fracture permeability is of primary importance to producibility of gas from many low-permeability-
sandstone producibility of gas from many low-permeability-sandstone gas reservoirs, but the
location, orientation, spacing, and connectedness of fractures in the subsurface is difficult to
measure directly. The Upper Cretaceous Pictured Cliffs Sandstone (San Juan Basin, Colorado and
New Mexico) and Frontier Formation (Green River Basin, Wyoming) form low-permeability gas
reservoirs for which production data indicate locally important fracture permeability.
Photo of Regional
fractures on the outcrop
at the Muddy Gap

4
Red de Fracturas Ortogonales Regionales en
Utah

5
 Fracturas de Extensión Verticales Regionales en
un Núcleo de Mesaverde, Rulison Field, Colorado
Regional fractures have great economic significance, since they may enhance or, if tightly
mineralized, obstruct permeability in any formation in which they are found. In either case,
preferential direction of fractures will create permeability anisotropy in a reservoir. Permeability
anisotropy of more than 100 to I in tight-gas reservoirs of the Mesaverde Formation in the Rulison
fiel. SPE 39911.

6
Interconnected Vertical Regional Fracture Network
in Mesaverde Sandstone Core from the
Rulison Field, Colorado

Regional fractures have great economic significance, since they

enhance permeability especially if they are interconnected. SPE 39911.

7
 Fracturas Regionales
Verticales Parcialmente-
Llenas en un Núcleo de la
Arenisca Mesaverde de
Piceance Basin, Colorado

Fractures are present in core or visible on

borehole-imaging logs. Insight into the
types of fracture patterns that may occur in
these rocks could help guide exploration,
completion, and stimulation strategies.

8
Orientaciones de Fracturas Naturales en un
Núcleo de la Arenisca Mesaverde del Campo
Rulison, Colorado
N

W E

S 9
 Mapa de la Red de Fracturas de un Afloramiento mostrando la
Tendencia Unidireccional de Fracturas Regionales
Maps of fractures provide the most accurate representation of fracture spatial distribution, trace
length, connectivity, and size and shape of fracture-bounded blocks. Fracture patterns were
characterized by mapping large exposures of Pictured Cliffs and Frontier sandstone along the
margins of San Juan Basin. In contrast to the conventional map pattern of regional fractures, in
which fractures are arranged in regularly spaced, orthogonal arrays, these fractures occur in
discrete swarms separated laterally by domains that either lack fractures or that have only rare
fractures. These less fractured domains may be as much as several hundreds of meters wide.
Within swarms, fractures are well interconnected
along the length of the swarm, but poorly
interconnected across the width of the swarm.
Fractures between swarms are commonly isolated.

10 m
 Mapa de la Red de Fracturas Regionales
de la Arenisca Mesaverde en un Afloramiento
For the Pictured Cliffs outcrops that were studied, the fracture pattern is self-similar over scales
ranging from to interwell scale with fractal dimension D=1.2. In the low-permeability sandstones of
the Rocky Mountain region, irregularly spaced fracture swarms are potential targets for gas
exploration and should be incorporated into NFR models.

0 feet 25

0 meters 8

11
 Red de Fracturas es Dominada por
Fracturas Cortas
45
Regional Fractures
40 Mesaverde Sandstone
Piceance Basin, Colorado
35
Number of Fractures

30

25

20

15

10

0
1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 34 37 40
Fracture Length (m)
Cumulative frequency distribution of fracture lengths from Mesaverde Sandstone. Fracture lengths
show a continuous curve which approximate a log-normal distribution. The length distribution
should show a straight line segment indicative of a power-law with an exponent of -1.27
 Red de Fracturas es Dominada por
Fracturas Cortas
45
Regional Fractures
40 Mesaverde Sandstone
Piceance Basin, Colorado
35
Number of Fractures

30

25

20

15

10

5 y = 109x-1.27

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fracture Length (m)

Cumulative frequency distribution of fracture lengths from Mesaverde Sandstone. Fracture lengths
show a continuous curve which approximate a log-normal distribution. The length distribution
should show a straight line segment indicative of a power-law with an exponent of -1.27
 Red de Fracturas es Dominada por
Fracturas Cortas
100
90
80
Cummulative Percent

70
60
50
40
30 Regional Fractures
Mesaverde Sandstone
20 Piceance Basin, Colorado
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fracture Length (m)

14
Red de Fracturas Regionales y Gráfica de
Frecuencia de Longitud

15
Influencia de la Litología y Espesor de la
Capa en el Espaciamiento de Fracturas

SAND

SHALE
16
Fractura de Extensión Vertical
Regional en una Arenisca
Frágil Termina en una Capa
de Lutita Dúctil

17
Estratigrafía Mecánica Afecta el Comportamiento
de Deformación y el Desarrollo de Fractura

Arenisca Frágil

Lutita
Dúctil

18
 Red de Fracturas Regionales de la Arenisca
Frontier en Scullys Gap, Wyoming
Significant gas reserves are present in low-permeability sandstones of the Frontier Formation,
Wyoming. Successful exploitation of these reservoirs requires an understanding of the
characteristics & fluid-flow response of the regional natural fracture system that controls reservoir
productivity. Fracture characteristics were obtained from outcrop studies at 5 locations in the basin.
Fracture characterization involved construction of detailed fracture network maps that provided
information on the fracture orientations, lengths, and spatial distribution. SPE 30573
Two sets of fractures are present.
The size of the grid was determined by the average
fracture spacing & was of sufficient size to obtain a
representative spatial distribution of the fracture network.
The grid ranged in size from 4 m by 18 m at Scullys Gap
where the average fracture spacing is less than 0.5 m
 Red de Fracturas Regionales de la Arenisca
Frontier en Flaming Gorge, Wyoming
To map the fracture networks a rectangular grid was laid out on the surface pavement. Orientation
of the grid was placed so that one side of the grid was parallel to the dominant regional fracture
trend. Dominant set of subparallel fractures is the regional fracture trend. The azimuth of the
regional fractures is N12°E. Fracture network maps clearly demonstrate that regional fractures are
a unidirectional set of fractures that are perpendicular to bedding & have varying length & spacing.
SPE 30573
 Red de Fracturas Regionales de la Arenisca
Frontier en Muddy Gap, Wyoming
The size of the grid was 59 m by 317 m at Muddy Gap where the average fracture spacing is
greater than 10m. The orientation of each grid was referenced to true north & the strike & dip of
each outcrop bedding plane was measured. SPE 30573
 Espaciamiento de Fracturas se Incrementa
con el Incremento del Espesor de las Capas
Spatial distribution of regional fractures is controlled by bed thickness, with fewer and longer
fractures per unit area as bed thickness increases. Fracture data was combined with matrix
permeability data to compute an anisotropic horizontal permeability tensor (magnitude and
direction) corresponding to an equivalent reservoir system in the subsurface. SPE 30573
3
Regional Extension Fractures
Mesaverde Formation - Sandstones
Piceance Basin, Colorado
Fracture Spacing (m)

2 y = 0.55x

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Bed Thickness (m)
 Espaciamiento de Fracturas se Incrementa
con el Incremento del Espesor de las Capas
Maximum & minimum horizontal permeability is controlled by fracture intensity & decreases with
increasing bed thickness. Relationship between bed thickness & the calculated fluid-flow properties
was used in a reservoir simulation to predict gas production from vertical, hydraulically-fractured
wells and horizontal wells of different lengths in analogous naturally fractured gas reservoirs. SPE
30573
8
Regional Extension Fractures
7 Frontier Formation - Sandstones
Green River Basin, Wyoming y = 1.64x
6
Fracture Spacing (m)

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
23
Bed Thickness (m)
 Espaciamiento de Fracturas se Incrementa con
el Incremento del Espesor de las Capas
Putting together several fracture spacing vs. bed thickness, of some formations, we can observe in
all cases lineal trends Simulation results show that horizontal wells drilled perpendicular to the
maximum permeability direction can maintain a high target production rate over a longer time &
have higher cumulative production than vertical wells. Longer horizontal wells are required for
the same cumulative
production with 14
Regional Extension Fractures
decreasing bed Cretaceous Sandstones y = 2.01x
thickness. SPE 30573 12
Colorado and Wyoming
Fracture Spacing (m)

10

8 y = 1.64x

4 y = 1.09x
y = 0.55x
2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Bed Thickness (m) 24
 Modelo Elástico muestra que Propagación de Fracturas y su
Espaciamiento están Controlados por el Contraste en Propiedades
Mecánicas de la Roca
Local crack-normal tensile stress in dolostone is reduced near the joint whereas in shale there is an
increase in the stress near the joint. At the joint wall the stress is 0 & near each end of the joint the
stress is elevated due to the stress concentrating effect of the sharp crack tip. Because the joint is
elliptical, the greatest amount of elastic
strain (& hence stress) is relieved by crack opening
along the middle bed A. Consequently, the stress
reduction is greatest & extends farthest along the
centre of bed A. For cases when p net is relatively
small compared with the existing stress differences
(e.g., < 50% of ∆σ), there is little vertical fracture
growth & the hydraulic fracture is perfectly confined.
This gives a simple fracture geometry & increasing
net pressure. For cases when p net is >> existing
stress differences, vertical fracture height growth is
unrestrained. Contours diagram showing the 2D
distribution of crack-normal tensile stress in MPa
for a portion of the dolostone & shale model to the
right of the joint. Model subjected to a strain of
5X 10-4. (Factors Controlling joint spacing).
 Bloque Esquemático de Fracturas de Extensión
Regionales Pobremente Connectadas en una Arenisca
Compacta Heterogénea
Modelo de fracturas subparalelas se ha desarrollado a partir de una base de datos y de la historia
tectónica de la Cuenca Piceance Creek. Aunque la permeabilidad de fracturas domina la
permeabilidad total del yacimiento, las fracturas en estos yacimientos no son el mecanismo de
producción ideal. Se tienen las siguientes características del modelo de fracturas:
1.- Las fracturas son subparalelas con intersecciones, de ángulos bajos, poco frecuentes .
2.- La conectividad ortogonal de las fracturas es rara. La continuidad de permeabilidad transversal
de la red de fracturas dentro del yacimiento no existe, pero se requiere que los fluidos viajen a lo
largo de las fracturas. Tales trayectorias son un orden de magnitud o más grandes que la ruta
directa.
3.- Fracturas colineales son
generalmente conectadas por
fracturas aisladas.
4.- Fracturas ocurren en un
espectro de longitudes, anchos,
y espaciamientos.
5.- La mayoría de las fracturas
y sus interconecciones son muy
angostas, resultando en un
sistema sensitivo a esfuerzos.
6.- Muchas fracturas terminan
verticalmente dentro del
yacimiento en discontinuidades
litológicas. Lorenz, 1989
 Desarrollo de Fracturas Regionales es Mejorado por el
Incremento Local en Deformación Debida a Flexión
Progressive folding leads to the development of additional active slip surfaces &, therefore, to an
increased number of mechanical units which each develop bending strains. Most reservoirs appear
to be affected by fracture networks created during flexure, & their fluid flow characteristics are
probably related to a fracture-dominated, flexural deformation state which is disposed relative to the
layering, is inhomogeneous, & is not distributed stochastically throughout the whole rock volume.
(Strain partitioning during flexural-slip folding)

27
 Morfología de la Superficie de Juntas

Las Juntas, particularmente aquellas que no están rellenas, tienen

una morfología de superficie distintiva llamada patrón plumoso,
que permite la interpretación de la ruptura, la propagación y la
detención. El patrón plumoso se desarrolla en gran parte a partir
de giros y declives locales durante la propagación que de otra
manera serían planares.

28
 Morfología de la Superficie de Juntas
Plumes form on the surface of extension fractures (joints) where the plume records the
development of the joint whose rupture front is perpendicular to the barbs of the plume. Because
the plume is contained within individual beds, it extends horizontally a greater distance than
vertically. Its barbs reach outward from the axis in the vertical joint plane toward the upper & lower
boundaries of the bed. The direction of each barb away from the axis marks the local direction of
propagation of the joint. The plume axis is seldom in the center of the bed so that the barbs above
& below the axis are asymmetrical.
(Surface morphology of cross…)
Relationship of Regional Fractures to
In Situ Stress State

30
Posible Deformación Geológica
Historias de Iniciación de
Fracturas

A. Aumentar el esfuerzo efectivo

máximo

B. Disminuir el esfuerzo efectivo

mínimo

C. Aumentar la presión local del poro

y disminuir el estado de esfuerzos
efectivo

D. Combinaciones de A, B, y C.

31
 Fracturas de Extensión se pueden Desarrollar con
Esfuerzos Efectivos Bajos (Alta Presión de Poro) con
Deformación Extensional Reduciendo el Esfuerzo
Horizontal Mínimo

Increasing Effective Confining Pressure

Axial Spliting Shear Fracture Compaction

Extension Fracture
Joint
32
Fracturas Regionales Están Alineadas con el Máximo
Esfuerzo Horizontal In-Situ Stress en la Formación
Mesaverde, Rulison Field, Colorado

W E

σ H max

S 33
 Efecto de la Anisotropía en Permeabilidad en
el Área de Drene y Terminaciones de Pozo
Both a horizontal well & a vertical with a hydraulic fracture drain an ellipsoidal volume, when there
is a permeability anisotropy. When Prats' correlation is applied, an equivalent fracture half-length in
a vertical well can be calculated to match the production from a horizontal well of any fixed length.

Pozo Vertical con

Pozo Horizontal Fractura Hidráulica
Fracture

Kmin 34
 Stylolite - Associated Fractures

Las zonas de Estilolitas a menudo tienen una variedad de

fracturas naturales e inducidas asociadas con ellas. Las fracturas
naturales íntimamente asociadas con la zona de la estilolita deben
su origen al mismo estado de esfuerzos que causó la estilolita.
Estas fracturas tienen una morfología distinta y pueden usarse,
como las mismas estilolitas, es decir como indicadores del paleo-
esfuerzos.
Understanding the importance of stylolites to fractured reservoirs, depends more
on understanding the timing of their origin relative to that of fracturing and
hydrocarbon migration, than on their actual origin. (Fundamentals of Fractured
Reservoir)

35
 Estilolitas – Fracturas de Tensión Asociadas en
el Yeso del Mar del Norte
Generally, stylolites are recognized as irregular planes of discontinuity between 2 rock units;
the irregularities display the shape of “stylas,” the Greek word for columns & pyramids.
Consequently, the 2 rock units appear to be interlocked or mutually interpenetrating along a
very uneven surface. This surface is referred to as a stylolite, which is most commonly
characterized by the concentration of relatively insoluble constituents of the enclosing rock.
A stylolite is a
common
diagenetic rock
feature that occurs
most frequently in
limestones,
dolomites, and
sandstones.
Example of typical
stylolite
morphology: core
sample of
Cretaceous chalk
from a well in the
North Sea
(Geologic Analysis of
NFR)

36
Proceso de Desarrollo de Estilolitas
Simplified history of a sediment from deposition to
stylolithification is schematized in figure as a function of
depth.
Phase I - deposition of sediments represents very loose
packing.
Phase 2 - due to the continuously increasing overburden
load, a tighter packing of grains takes place. Large
amounts of water have been expelled, but sediments are
still highly porous. ϕ is still 100% water unsaturated.
During the phase l /phase 2 interval, the rock is submitted
to compaction.
Phase 3 - compaction continues, together with hardening,
lithification & a slight cementation. During the phase 2/
phase 3 interval, the rock is submitted to induration, when
the sediments are hardened and lithified.
Phase 4 - pressure solution at grain to grain contact is
reached & CaCO, is dissolved. Water in the pore space
moves from high pH zones to low pH zones.
Stylolitization is completed by the removal of bulk volume
& replacement by stylolites.
Phase 5 - cement is deposited in the area surrounding
the stylolites, & stylolithification takes place. The material
may be transported by diffusion & then precipitated; or if
the material is insoluble it may become concentrated on
the seam as the rock progressively dissolves.
 Solución Presurizada Disuelve la Roca para
Formar Estilolitas
Most formative pressure of stylolitesis the weight of overburden pressure when sediments are
located at approx 2000-3000 feet deep. End of stylolitization process is due to various conditions,
but it is certain that in absence of water, or in the case of complete cementation of pore space by
calcite, stylolitization ceases. The thinning process is a reduction in volume by dissolution of up to
30%. Schematization of rock volume changes due to stylolitization

(Fundamentals of Fractured Reservoir)

 Diagrama Esquemático Mostrando Fracturas de
Tensión Asociadas con Estilolitas en un Núcleo
Stylolite zones often have a variety of natural & induced fractures associated with them. Natural
fractures intimately associated with the stylolite zone owe their origin to the same stress state that
caused the stylolite.
Tension Gashes.- Columns or “peaks & valleys”
of a stylolite parallel the maximum stress or strain direction
during formation. In some cases, there is a set of parallel
fractures associated with stylolites that also follows this
same maximum stress direction. These were called
“tension gashes”. They are probably not true tension
fractures but extension fractures derived from same
compressive state of stress as the stylolite.
Unloading Fractures.- A 2nd fracture set associated
with some stylolites is made up of unloading fractures.
While these fractures trend roughly parallel to the
stylolite seam, they occur more precisely perpendicular to
the maximum paleo-stress direction. They occur either at
the seam itself or within the rock in the vicinity of
the stylolite. Schematic diagram showing geometric
relation of stylolites, tension gashes, unloading
fractures, & the paleo-state of stress that caused them.
Nelson: Geologic Analysis of NFR
 Diagrama Esquemático Mostrando el Efecto de
Estilolitas en la Permeabilidad de un Núcleo
Effect of Stylolite Zones on Porosity & Permeability
Major effect of a stylolite is the creation of a highly
directional, narrow zone of reduced ϕ & k. Because of the
lower-ϕ surrounding many stylolites & the presence of the
fine-grained seam material, stylolite zones have a more
reduced k compared to the adjacent underformed rock
above & below. This k reduction is greater perpendicular Nelson: Geologic Analysis of NFR
to the stylolite than parallel to it. The presence of tension
gashes & unloading fractures can drastically increase
laboratory-measured k near stylolites. Therefore, great
care should be taken in analyzing such data. Many of the
associated unloading fractures are induced during or after
coring & are not, therefore, reservoir features. Likewise,
tension gashes related to one period of stylolitization are
always parallel (therefore, not interconnected) & their k is
Effect of stylolites and associated fractures on
relevant only to the size of the sample (plug or whole-
laboratory permeability analyses
core) & not to reservoir k. For example, three 4-inch-long,
open parallel fractures will have a great effect on
permeability in any laboratory-size sample but will have
no significant effect on reservoir flow.
 Fracturas Poligonales en Roca Ignea
Thermal Contractional Fractures, macroscopic thermally induced fractures are those caused by
contraction of hot rock as it cools. Depending on the depth of burial, these can be either extension
or tension fractures & their
generation is usually dependent
on the existence of a thermal
gradient across the material.
The classic example of natural
thermally induced fractures is
columnar jointing in fine-
grained igneous rocks.

Nelson: Geologic Analysis of NFR

Efecto de Fracturas Regionales y
Permeabilidad Anisotrópica del Yacimiento en

Optimización de Pozos de Relleno en

Yacimientos de Areniscas Compactas
Naturalmente-Fracturadas en la Cuenca de San
Juan

Reservoir studies of areas in the Mesaverde that have significantly different well/reservoir
productivity demonstrate the range of importance that natural fractures and the
associated reservoir permeability and permeability anisotropy have on drainage efficiency
and infill well potential, and that proper evaluation methods are useful in identifying the
best well locations. (Teufel 2004)

42
 Fracturas Regionales en Yacimientos de
Gas Compactos Crean Permeabilidad
Anisotrópica

• Matriz Compacta (0.01 mD)

• Fracturas Unidireccionales
• Anisotropía en
Permeabilidad 10:1 to
kmin 1000:1
kmax

Fracture network with a strong permeability anisotropy. Maximum and minimum permeability were
calculated to be 10 and 0.01 md respectively, resuiting in a 1000:1 permeability ratio.
 Comparación de Áreas de Drene
Size & shape of well drainage areas in NFR that have strong k anisotropy are not represented by
radial flow. Instead of being circular, drainage area is better described as being elliptical. Aspect
ratio of the elliptical drainage area is given by the square root of the k ratio of the maximum to
minimum horizontal reservoir k. For a 9:1 k ratio, the aspect ratio of the drainage ellipse is 3:1.
Knowledge of the shape & size of the elliptical drainage area of wells can be used to determine well
spacing, location & number of infill wells needed to effectively drain a reservoir with k anisotropy.
(Teufel 2004)

Isotropic Anisotropic

b
kmin a
k kmax
 Área de Drene Elíptica está Determinada por la
Anisotropía en Permeabilidad Horizontal
Knowledge of the shape and size of the elliptical drainage area of wells can be used to determine
well spacing, location and number of infilI wells needed to effectively drain a reservoir with
permeability anisotropy. Elliptical drainage should therefore be used as input when well patterns are
set up and also when planning in-fill drilIing to reduce overlapping and avoid leaving undrained
areas.
(SPE 39911)

Anisotropic Elliptical drainage

kmax =100 mD
kmin = 1 mD
b

a
a k max 100
= = = 10
b k min 1
 Área de Drene Elíptica
Conceptual simulation models by Harstad (1998) demonstrated that knowledge of the orientation &
magnitude of horizontal permeability anisotropy & the size and shape well drainage area of a
producing well has significant economic importance in optimizing the number & location of infill
wells. Square well pattern shifted -45 degrees from maximum permeability axis. (Teufel 2004)

• Dirección
• Forma
• Tamaño
K min
• Superposición
K max
• Áreas no drenadas
• Línea de arrendamiento
 Ubicación Óptima de un Pozo de Relleno es
Dependiente de la Forma del Área de Drene
A purely geometric relation will place the infill well in the center of the four existing wells. In a
reservoir with permeability anisotropy this can lead to the worst possible placement because a
geometric relation will give the location of the infill well in an area already depleted by production
from two adjacent wells. SPE 39974. Rotation of well alignment from maximum permeability
aligned with directional permeability reduces recovery. Having the well pattern gives more drainage
overlap (SPE 39911)

kmin
k kmax
 Rotación de Pozos Elimina la Superposición de
Áreas de Drene e Incrementa el Drenaje de
Yacimientos con Permeabilidad Anisotrópica
Locating the infill well away from the maximum permeability direction reduces production
interference & drainage overlap between adjacent wells, increases reservoir drainage efficiency &
decreases the potential for leaving parts undrained. Example shows that a 20o angular rotation in
well alignment away from kmaxdirection increased cumulative gas production by more than 20 % for
a tight-gas reservoir with a k anisotropy ratio of 10:1. Rotation of well alignmentavoids well pattern
aligned with kmax direction. Having the well patlern aligned with kmax gives more drainage overlap &
therefore reduces recovery. SPE 39974

kmin
kmax
 Distribución de Presión después de 30 años de Producción en
Modelo de Yacimiento Compacto de Gas con 10:1 de Anisotropía
de Permeabilidad y Ubicaciones de Pozos Rotados 25 grados de
la Dirección de Máxima Permeabilidad
A reservoir model was developed from a reservoir simulator to capture the variations in net pay
thickness & k. After successfully matching historical production with this model, forecasting was
performed 30 years into the future with the actual drilled locations & as an alternative, with
proposed new infill well locations. After history matching the production, a 30-year forecast was
generated. To Presión
improve this recovery by
selecting areas appearing 900
less drained (higher
pressure) on the pressure 800
map from the simulation.
Fig shows the changes 600
in well locations. The
approach was applied 500
considering 10:1 E-W
permeability anisotropy &
well drainage areas rotated Well
25o from kmax..
(Teufel 2004)

kmin
0.5 Mile
kmax
 Incremento en Producción Acumulada para Pozos
Rotados 10° de la Dirección de Permeabilidad
Máxima
Incremental cumulative gas recovery for the anisotropic case and an offset well rotated 10o from
kmax direction, more than 1,5 BSCF. (Teufel 2004)

1.8
Cumulative Production [BSCF]

1.6
Mesaverde
1.4 Formation
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Kmax / Kmin = 10
0.4
0.2
0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
 Incremento en Recuperación de Gas con Pozos
Rotados de la Dirección de Permeabilidad
Máxima
Increase in cumulative production after 30 years with a 20 degree change in well alignment
cumulative can be increased by more than 20 %. SPE 39974

45

40
Increased Recovery [%]

35 Mesaverde
Formation
30
25
20
15
Kmax / Kmin = 10
10
5
0
0 10 20 30 40
Well Alignment [deg]
 Grupo Mesaverde de la Cuenca de
San Juan
• Yac. Compacto Naturalmente Fracturado
- Permeabilidad de la Matriz Compacta (0.001 -
0.1 mD)
- Gastos y áreas de drene dependientes del
sistema de fracturas

• 1950 - 320 acres de espaciamiento

• 1974 - 160 acres de espaciamiento
• 1998 - 80 acres de espaciamiento
Yacimientos Compactos de Gas de la
Cuenca de San Juan

Yacimientos de Arenisca Compactos

Naturalmente Fracturados
Formación Mesaverde

Porosity : 4 – 12%
Permeability : < 0.01 mD (Matrix)
< 0.01– 60 mD (Reservoir)
Pore Pressure : 0.23 psi/ft
Overburden Stress : 1.03 psi/ft
Registro de Rayos Gamma del Grupo Mesaverde en
la Cuenca de San Juan

Difference between clean sand & shaly sand can be

detected by gamma ray logs, but in order to certify that this
sand can be productive, other factors such as ϕ & resistivity
need also to be considered. It is common to use cutoffs of
6% for ϕ & 20 ohm-m for resistivity. A constant value for
gamma ray is frequently applied to estimate a clean sand
cut off. Widely accepted cut off for clean sand is a gamma
ray reading < 100 API. Identified clean sand intervals are
then subject to ϕ & resistivity cutoffs to determine the net
pay for the given formation. (Teufel 2004).
Figure shows a log through the Point Lookout (lower
shorefaces), Menefee (middle coastal plain deposits) & Cliff
House (upper sandstones) Formations. This succession
ranges from 150 – 240 m in thickness. The NW-SE Upper
Cretaceous shoreline trends in this area can be mapped by
a variety of methods. (Multidisciplinary Evaluation… Teufel)
 Fracturas Naturales y Área de Drene
• La producción a partir de yacimientos compactos de arenisca
de gas depende en gran medida de la distribución, la
orientación, el espaciamiento y la interconexión de las
fracturas naturales.

• Las fracturas no solo mejoran la permeabilidad efectiva de

estos yacimientos, sino que también pueden crear una
anisotropía de permeabilidad importante.

• Las pruebas de presión indican que la permeabilidad del

yacimiento puede variar desde isotrópica (matriz, sin fracturas)
hasta más de 100: 1 de anisotropía (altamente fracturada).

• La anisotropía de permeabilidad hace que el área de drenaje

alrededor de los pozos sea elíptica.

• El drenaje alargado crea más interferencia en la producción y la

superposición del drenaje entre los pozos adyacentes y
aumenta la posibilidad de dejar grandes secciones del
yacimiento sin drenar.
Orientaciones de Fracturas Naturales en la
Arenisca Mesaverde en Heron Lake, NM

N
 Pruebas Piloto en San Juan Basin
In 1997, pilot studies were conducted to determine the feasibility of reducing spacing to 80 acres.
Results of this study demonstrated the importance of reservoir k anisotropy on drainage area &
shape, & in determining optimal location & number of infill wells in a given area. The 2 pilot areas
are located adjacent the NW-SE trending Mesaverde fairway that has good producing wells.
Reservoir net thickness, k & production characteristics are different for the 2 pilots. First pilot is
adjacent to the Fairway & has moderate well/reservoir productivity
in comparison to the fairway.
2nd pilot is farther away from the
Fairway & has lower well/reservoir
productivity. Pressure interference tests
in 1st pilot indicate kmax & kmin of
0.348 & 0.035 md, respectively.
Observed horizontal k
anisotropy ratio is 10:1, with kmax direction
trending N-S. Calculated
equivalent reservoir k
from these tests is
0.110 md, which is more than an
order of magnitude or greater than
km.
 Prueba de Interferencia
Optimum production strategies involving well pattern/spacing and infill drilling are highly influenced
by flow anisotropy. Multiwell interference testing is the best method to determine the permeability
anisotropy (magnitude and orientation) at the well-reservoir scale. (Teufel 2004)

Well B
Well A

ky

Pressure
Observation Well
kx
 Área de Drene en un Yacimiento con
Anisotropía en Permeabilidad
Effect of k anisotropy on drainage is illustrated. Wells drilled on 160-acres spacing have a typical
distance of about 2,500 feet between an old well & a new well. Initial pressure in new well is a
function of where new well intersected the elongated drainage from existing well. (Teufel 2004)
New infill well relative to elongated drainage from an existing well (from Harstad, 1998)

Deviation from north

`
Kmax
New infill well

N
Existing well

Kmin
Drainage
 Presión de la Formación en Pozos se
Incrementa con el Incremento en Rotación
de la Dirección de Máxima Permeabilidad
Initial pressure in new well is a function of where new well intersected the elongated drainage from
the existing well. An increase in initial pressure in new wells is observed with increasing angular
deviation from N/S & kmax direction. Knowledge of magnitude & orientation of reservoir k anisotropy
a priori can optimize location of new infill wells in areas of higher-pressure potential & increase
drainage efficiency. Plot showing initial shut-in pressure (SICP) vs angular deviation from N/S of
new well alignment relative to an existing well (Harstad, 1998). kmax & elongated drainage direction
is approx N/S. (Teufel 2004)
45
` 40
Deviation from N/S [deg]

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800
SICP [psi]
 Predicción del Modelo de
Simulación del Yacimiento
• Pozos Existentes (160 • Con Pozos de
acre) Relleno
– No compresión – 1 pozo por sección
– Compresión – 2
– 3
– 4 => 80 acre de
espaciamiento

1954 1997 2040

After successfully matching historical production with this reservoir numerical model, forecasting
was performed with the actual drilled locations & as an alternative, with proposed new infill well
locations. A total of 40 wells were simulated in a 9-section area, to evaluate infill well locations in
the 80 acre-pilot area. Both isotropic & anisotropic reservoir k cases were conducted in these
simulations. (Teufel 2004)
 Drenaje Elíptico de Pozos está Alineado con la
Dirección de Máxima Permeabilidad
Simulation models were run to determine the number of infill wells that were required to effectively
drain the reservoir & forecast the contribution of each well to the increased cumulative gas
recovery. Infill evaluation involved using the output pressure-distribution map from simulation to
determine areas of higher pressure. Areas of higher pressure are an indication that the reservoir is
not sufficiently drained by the current well spacing & additional reserves can be recovered if 80-acre
infill wells are drilled.
(Teufel 2004)

Kmax
`

N
Kmin
Drainage
Existing well

Model boundary
1 mile
 Perforación de Pozos de Relleno Incrementarán
la Recuperación Acumulada de Gas
Simulation results predicted that 80-acre infill wells would increase recoverable gas by 23 to 46 %
for the 4 section pilot areas. Largest potential increase in recoverable gas was in the area with
lower well/reservoir productivity. Models predicted that 80-acre infill wells would recover at least one
Bscf/infill well. Results of pilot tests coupled with simulation prompted the approval of 80-acre
spacing in 1998. Extrapolation of results from these 2 pilots across Mesaverde producing area
provides a preliminary estimate of an additional 7.8 Tscf that could be recovered by optimal infill
drilling. (Teufel 2004)

` 70

60
Proposed 80 4
acre spacing 3
50
2
1
40
BCF

30

20
Existing wells on
160 acre spacing
10

0
1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
 Perforación de Pozos de Relleno Incrementarán la
Recuperación Acumulada de Gas con
Menor Interferencia de Pozos Existentes
70

60 New wells
Old wells
50

40
BCF

` 30

20

10 160 acre 80 acre

spacing spacing

0
Current wells 1 well per 2 wells per 3 wells per 4 wells per
section section section section

More simulations were conducted & run until year 2030. 1st model was run without new infill wells drilled on 160 acr
2nd model included 1 infill well per section. 3rd model 2 infill wells per section. 4th model 3 new wells per section. La
new wells per section. Fig shows comparison between models for pilot SJ27-5. It can be seen that new infill drilling
an additional gas recovery if k anisotropy was taken into account & infill wells had been drilled at locations not aligne
direction from existing wells, if the k anisotropy was not taken into account the additional gas production would be si
 Drenaje Elíptico de Pozos está Alineado con la
Dirección de Máxima Permeabilidad, Piloto 29N7W

Kmax

`
N
Kmin

Drainage
Existing well

POW Model boundary

1 mile
Perforación de Pozos de Relleno Incrementarán la
Recuperación Acumulada de Gas, Piloto 29N7W

100
90 Proposed 80
acre spacing 4 3
80 2
1
70
60
BCF

50
Existing wells on
40 160 acre spacing

30
20
10
0
1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050
 Perforación de Pozos de Relleno Incrementarán la
Recuperación Acumulada de Gas con
Mayor Interferencia de Pozos Existentes en Piloto
29N7W
Figure shows the comparison between the models for pilot 29N7W. It can be seen that the new infill
drilling may produce an additional 33.5 Bcf of gas for Pilot 29N7W. SPE 60295

90
80
70
60
50
BCF

40
30
20
160 acre 80 acre
10 spacing spacing

0
Current wells 1 well per 2 wells per 3 wells per 4 wells per
section section section section
 Potential de Recuperación Incremental es Mayor en
Yacimientos con Menor Intensidad de Fracturas
Figura indica que el potencial de perforación varía en la cuenca. Areas con menor intensidad de
fracturas tendrán menor permeabilidad efectiva pero tendrán mas espesor neto y menos
interferencia entre pozos. Así, la intensidad de fracturamiento tiene un efecto positivo cuando el
número de pozos nuevos por sección es menor a 3, pero para 3 o 4 pozos nuevos la interferencia
entre pozos hace la recuperación por pozo sea menor que si se tuviera una menor intensidad de
fracturamiento. El punto rojo indica que si se ignora la anisotropia en k, la recuperación para 4
pozos nuevos por sección será menor. SPE 39974
1.8

1.6 High Fracture Intensity

Recovery per Well [BCF]

1.4

1.2

1.0

0.8 Low Fracture Intensity

0.6

0.4 High Fracture Intensity

(With Isotropic Permeability)
0.2

0.0
1 2 3 4
Number Infill Wells/Section
Ubicaciones de Pozos para el Piloto SJ29-7 de
Mesaverde, San Juan Basin

93A 47
85A 84

47B

93R 85
47A 84AC

85B 85C
Section 2 Section 1
64B
64C 37A

57C
38
57A 64

37B
37C

38A
57 64A
Existing Wells
37
Infill Wells
57B
Section 11 Section 12
 Predicción de la Producción de Pozos de Relleno
for Mesaverde Pilot SJ29-7, San Juan Basin
Incremental gas recoveries of each of the new infill wells in Pilot 29N7W are shown in Figure.
Clearly, knowledge of the magnitude & orientation of k anisotropy is important when developing
infill-drilling strategies in Mesaverde reservoirs. SPE 60295

80 Acre Infill Drilling

Cum. Gas Production, MMcf

3500 7%
95%
3000
69% Actual Well
2500 Location
29%
2000 49%
39% 12% 50%
62%
1500
Hypothetical
Well on NS
1000
67%
Direction
500

0
57A 57B 64B 85C 47B 57C 93R 37B 64C 85B

Infill Wells
Predicción de Producción Acumulada de Gas para el
Pilot SJ29-7 de Mesaverde, San Juan Basin
If permeability anisotropy had not been taken into account & infill wells had been drilled at locations
in N/S direction from existing wells, the additional gas production would be significantly less. For the
29N7W pilot area, total cumulative production would be reduced by 4.9 Bcf of gas or 17 %.
Comparison between different well locations for Pilot 29N7W. SPE 60295

80 Acre Infill Drilling

80
Cum. Gas Production, BCF

70

60

50

40
30

20

10

0
No Infill Wells Hypothetical Actual Well
Wells On Locations
NS Direction
Con la predicción del comportamiento de nuevos pozos de relleno en un espaciamiento de 80
acres en el piloto SJ 29-7, el gas recuperable por pozos se incrementó de 0.88 a 1 BCF integrando
la anisotropía en permeabilidad determinada de la prueba de interferencia. SPE 39974

Elipses de
Drenaje

Undrilled

Post-1997

Pre-1997
Histogram of Cumulative Gas Production for
Mesaverde Wells in Study Areas
150

Cumulative Production
# of Observations

125
Mesaverde Group
100

75

50

25

0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 More
Gas (BCF)
Strike Curvature Map of the Point Lookout Horizon of
Mesaverde Group in Study Area of San Juan Basin
 High-Productivity Wells Aligned along Structural
Feature Defined by Strike Curvature in the Mesaverde

Location of 2 “sweet-
spot” wells (i.e., Well #2
cumulative production
approx 10 BCF greater
than neighboring wells)
along a structural
feature defined by
strike curvature. (Teufel
2004)

Well #1

ß 2 Miles à

~ 1.5 miles
Definition of Various Curvature Attributes

KD - Dip Curvature

KS - Strike Curvature

KMax - Maximum Curvature

KMin - Minimum Curvature

KC - Contour Curvature
Ma p Vie w

A Fra c ture
Swa rm

A’
A’

C ross-Sec tion View

A Fra c ture Swa rm A’
 Interferencia de Producción entre Pozos de Alta Productividad
Alineados con la Tendencia del Enjambre de Fracturas
Analysis of production from 2 wells shows that there is drainage interference between them. The structural feature
identified by strike curvature is associated with an open fracture network that connects the 2 wells. s. (Teufel
2004)

1 2 3
mcf/month

1000000
Well #1 Well #2
mcf/mo

100000

10000
rate,

1000
Rate,

100
FlowFlow

Well 1
10
Well 2
1
10 Years
1 30
 Representación Esquemática de una Situación de
Perforación de un Pozo de Relleno
Existing wells have elliptical drainage areas (grey) due to the presence of a regional natural fracture
network. Yellow bars show location of fracture-swarm sweet spots identified through 3-D seismic
attribute analyses. Drainage areas in fracture swarms are more highly elliptical than those outside
of the fracture swarms. Location 1 shows the originally planned location of a new well. It should be
moved to avoid drainage interference with the well to the SW that is already draining the fracture
network. Location 2 shows the planned location of another new well. It should be moved slightly to
the left to target the undrained fracture swarm. (Teufel 2004)

2
Drainage
Existing well

Fracture swarm 1 mile

 Efecto de la Anisotropía en Permeabilidad en el
Área de Drenaje
Both a horizontal well & a vertical with a hydraulic fracture drain an ellipsoidal volume, when there
is a permeability anisotropy. When Prats' correlation is applied, an equivalent fracture half-length in
a vertical well can be calculated to match the production from a horizontal well of any fixed length.

Vertical Well with

Horizontal Well Hydraulic Fracture

Kmin
Orientación Área de Drene de una
Fractura Vertical Hidráulica

σHmin

σHmax
 RESUMEN
Optimización de la perforación de relleno en yacimientos
compactos de gas naturalmente fracturados requiere un
enfoque multidisciplinario para

(1) Definir el tamaño, la forma y la orientación del área de drenaje

del pozo y gas recuperable para pozos existentes,

(2) Determinar la ubicación óptima, el tipo y la cantidad de nuevos

pozos de relleno para maximizar la recuperación económica,

(3) Pronosticar el aumento en la producción total acumulada de gas

de la perforación de relleno en diferentes lugares del
yacimiento.

Perforación óptima de relleno del Grupo Mesaverde en la Cuenca

de San Juan puede aumentar el gas recuperable adicional en
7.8 TCF.