Electronics

FE Exam Prep Course

© Kaplan, Inc. © Kaplan, Inc.

ELECTRONICS
Lesson Overview
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
• Semiconductor Devices • Zener Diodes
• pn Junctions • Transistors
• Bias • Bipolar Junction Transistors
• pn Junction Characteristics • Small-Signal BJT Model
• Diodes • Field-Effect Transistors
• Diode Circuits • Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
• Junction Capacitance • Small-signal JFET Model
• Diode Models • MOSFETs

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Lesson Overview
Amplifiers • Measurement Accuracy
• Amplifiers • Measurement Precision
• Operational Amplifiers • Measurement Stability
• Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers • Measurement Uncertainty
• Differential Amplifiers • Sensors
Measurement and Instrumentation • Resistance Temperature Detectors
• Instrumentation • Strain Gages
• Sensitivity
• Linearity

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Learning Objectives
You will learn • about bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
mathematical models
• about pn junction physics
• how to calculate BJT biasing
• how to calculate pn junction
characteristics • how to calculate BJT small-signal
approximation circuits
• about concepts of diode circuits
• about field effect transistor (FET)
• about diode piecewise linear models
mathematical models
• about models of special models
• how to calculate FET biasing
(tunnel and Zener diodes)
• how to calculate FET small-signal
approximation circuits

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Learning Objectives
You will learn • about junction (JFET) mathematical
models
• about operational amplifiers (op
amps) and op amp circuits • about instrumentation and
measurement concepts
• how to calculate op amp circuits
• how to calculate measurement
• about differential amplifier
uncertainty
mathematical models
• about sensors and instrumentation
• how to calculate common mode
circuit concepts
rejection ratio problems in differential
amplifier problems • how to calculate bridge circuits

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Prerequisite Knowledge
You should already be familiar with
• engineering mathematics
• basic physics
• properties of electrical materials
• material science
• circuit analysis and linear systems

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Semiconductor Devices
semiconductor
• has conductivity less than conductor The electrical conductivity of a
but greater than insulator semiconductor is
• current conducted through movement • poor in its natural state
of charge carriers
• easily modified by adding impurities
• free electrons (negative charge) (doping)
• holes (positive charge) • easily controlled by applying an
electric field
• electrons and holes flow in opposite
directions

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Semiconductor Devices
semiconductor device
• a device constructed so that its Two basic and common semiconductor
conductivity can be controlled by an devices are
electric field
• diodes
• essentially, a controllable resistor
• transistors

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Semiconductor Devices
diode
• passes current in only one direction
Figure 30.1 Diode Symbol
• conductivity between terminals
controlled by voltage between
terminals
The conductivity of a diode is either
• very high (diode is forward biased) The direction of current flow when the
diode is forward biased is the direction
• very low (diode is reverse biased) the symbol is pointing.

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Semiconductor Devices
transistor
• voltage or current applied to one pair
of terminals controls conductivity Figure 30.9 Two-Port Transistor
between another pair of terminals
• can be used to switch current on/off
• small signal can control much larger
signal, so can be used as amplifier
• can be modeled as a two-port (three-
terminal) device with three
variables—current, voltage, and
impedance—for each port

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Semiconductor Devices
performance model
• The performance of all semiconductor
devices is inherently nonlinear over
the full range of response.
• In small-signal analysis, performance
is evaluated over small variations in
input (signal) voltage.
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• Within each of these smaller
performance regions, a straight line
can approximate the device’s
behavior.
• For this reason, a linear model is used
within each performance region, and
the overall model is called a piecewise
linear model.
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Poll: Semiconductor Devices
Which of the following is NOT true for intrinsic semiconductors?
(A) There are holes in intrinsic semiconductors.
(B) There are free electrons in intrinsic semiconductors.
(C) They make good insulators.
(D) Increasing thermal energy increases their conductivity.

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Poll: Semiconductor Devices
Which of the following is NOT true for Solution
intrinsic semiconductors?
Intrinsic semiconductors will carry
(A) There are holes in intrinsic current, so option (C) is not true.
semiconductors.
The answer is (C).
(B) There are free electrons in intrinsic
semiconductors.
(C) They make good insulators.
(D) Increasing thermal energy increases
their conductivity.

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pn Junctions
doping pn junction
adding impurities to a semiconductor • layer of p-type material adjacent to
material to increase number of free layer of n-type material
electrons or holes
• basic building block of semiconductor
• increasing number of free electrons devices
produces n-type material
• increasing number of holes produces
p-type material

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pn Junctions
n-type material p-type material
The conduction band contains a high The valence band contains a high density
density of electrons (negative charge), of holes (positive charge), which are the
which are the majority charge carriers. majority charge carriers.

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pn Junctions
depletion region
• region immediately around junction
• few holes, few free electrons
• also called space charge region

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pn Junctions
diffusion current
• free electrons flow from n-type
material to holes in p-type material
• dope atoms retain charge, resulting in
potential difference across junction,
called built-in potential, Vbi

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pn Junctions
drift current
• free electrons pushed by electric field
from p-type to n-type material
• direction depends on polarity of field
equilibrium
• when diffusion current and drift
current exactly balance
• occurs only with forward bias voltage

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Poll: pn Junctions
In the depletion region of a
semiconductor pn junction, there
(A) is an electric field
(B) are more holes than there are outside
the depletion region
(C) are more free electrons than there
are outside the depletion region
(D) is current perpendicular to the
current outside the depletion region

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Poll: pn Junctions
In the depletion region of a
semiconductor pn junction, there
(A) is an electric field
(B) are more holes than there are outside
the depletion region
(C) are more free electrons than there
are outside the depletion region
(D) is current perpendicular to the
current outside the depletion region
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Solution
There is an electric field in the depletion
region, so option (A) is true.
The depletion region has fewer holes and
free electrons than there are outside the
depletion region, so options (B) and (C)
are false.
Option (D) is nonsensical; current travels
through the depletion region in the same
direction as it travels outside it.
The answer is (A).
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Bias
bias
the DC voltage applied to a
semiconductor junction
zero bias
• no externally applied voltage
• equilibrium condition: diffusion
current creates built-in potential,
which creates electric field that
opposes diffusion process

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Bias
forward bias
• positive voltage applied to p-type
material
• strong force pushes holes in p-type
material and electrons in n-type
material toward junction
• static charge on depletion region must
be overcome
• results in current from p-type material
to n-type material

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Bias
reverse bias
• positive voltage applied to n-type
material
• strong force pushes holes in p-type
material and electrons in n-type
material away from junction
• depletion region widens
• results in strong barrier to current
flow

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Diodes
built-in potential of a pn junction, V0

• In natural state, there is no significant • V0 is due to equilibrium between

current across junction; free electrons diffusion current and drift current,
and holes in n-type and p-type which depend on doping
materials are in equilibrium. concentrations, Na and Nd, and
intrinsic concentration of carriers, Ni.
• To obtain significant current, free
electrons and holes must overcome
built-in potential, V0.

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Diodes
thermal voltage, Vt

• useful quantity for establishing the

behavior of pn junction
• affects many important
semiconductor parameters

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Example: Diodes
A pn junction of silicon semiconductor
has doping concentrations of 5.0 × 1021
per m3 in the p-type material and 4.0 ×
1021 per m3 in the n-type material. The
intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon is
1.5 × 1016 per m3. The temperature is
20°C. Most nearly, what is the junction
voltage?
(A) 0.36 V (B) 0.49 V
(C) 0.64 V (D) 1.7 V

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Example: Diodes
A pn junction of silicon semiconductor Solution
has doping concentrations of 5.0 × 1021 kT N a N d
per m3 in the p-type material and 4.0 × V0 = ln 2
q ni
1021 per m3 in the n-type material. The  −23 J 
intrinsic carrier concentration of silicon is 1.38 ×10  ( 20°C + 273° )
 K
=
1.5 × 1016 per m3. The temperature is 1.6022 × 10−19 C
20°C. Most nearly, what is the junction  21 carrier   21 carrier 
voltage?  5.0 × 10  4.0 × 10 
 m3   m3 
× ln 2
 16 carrier 
(A) 0.36 V (B) 0.49 V 1.5 ×10 
 m3 
(C) 0.64 V (D) 1.7 V = 0.637 V (0.64 V)
The answer is (C).

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Diodes
characteristic curve
Figure 30.2 Semiconductor Diode Characteristics
A real diode exhibits leakage current, Is,
when reverse biased.
In reverse bias region, leakage current is
small, consisting mainly of drift current.
When diode is reverse biased beyond its
breakdown voltage, VR (also called Zener
voltage, VZ, or avalanche voltage), diode
enters its breakdown region (also called
avalanche region).

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ELECTRONICS
Diodes
Shockley equation leakage current, Is
• depends on construction of diode
• also called saturation current or
• gives approximate current through
reverse saturation current
diode, iD, as function of voltage across
diode, vD emission coefficient, η
• property of semiconductor
• not valid in breakdown region (that is,
valid for vD > VZ) • typically 1 for silicon

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ELECTRONICS
Example: Diodes
A pn junction of silicon semiconductor has anode to cathode voltage of 0.5 V. The diode
current is 0.40 mA. The temperature is 20°C. The emission coefficient is 1. Most nearly,
what is the saturation current?
(A) 1.0 × 10–15 A
(B) 1.0 × 10–12 A
(C) 1.0 × 10–10 A
(D) 1.0 × 10–8 A

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ELECTRONICS
Example: Diodes
A pn junction of silicon semiconductor Solution
has anode to cathode voltage of 0.5 V. From Eq. 30.2, the thermal voltage is
The diode current is 0.40 mA. The
temperature is 20°C. The emission  −23 J 
kT 
1.38 × 10  ( 20°C + 273° )
coefficient is 1. Most nearly, what is the K
V
=T =
saturation current? q 1.6022 ×10−19 C
(A) 1.0 × 10–15 A = 0.02524 V

(B) 1.0 × 10–12 A

(C) 1.0 × 10–10 A
(D) 1.0 × 10–8 A

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Example: Diodes
A pn junction of silicon semiconductor Solution (continued)
has anode to cathode voltage of 0.5 V. Solve the Shockley equation for the
The diode current is 0.40 mA. The saturation current.
temperature is 20°C. The emission
coefficient is 1. Most nearly, what is the iD ≈ I s e( vD η VT ) − 1
saturation current? iD 4.0 ×10−4 A
I s ≈ (v η V ) =
(A) 1.0 × 10–15 A e D T
− 1 e( ) ( )(
0.5 V 1 0.02524 V )
−1
(B) 1.0 × 10–12 A =9.972 ×10−13 A (1.0 ×10−12 A )

(C) 1.0 × 10–10 A The answer is (B).

(D) 1.0 × 10–8 A

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Diode Circuits
half-wave rectifier
• half of symmetric AC signal gets through
• used in AC-to-DC converters

Figure 30.3 Common Diode Circuits

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Diode Circuits
full-wave (bridge) rectifier
• current always in same direction
• used in AC-to-DC converters
• more efficient than half-wave rectifier
Figure 30.3 Common Diode Circuits

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Diode Circuits
Full-wave rectifier
D1
R
s +
L R
L v D1 ON D2 ON D1 ON D2 ON
s1 o
L D2 OFF D1 OFF D2 OFF D1 OFF
v + p −
i −

L
s2

D
2

Bridge rectifier

Rs
D1 D2 + D2 D1
and and
v + L L D4 ON D3 ON
i p s R v
− L o

D4 D3 −

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ELECTRONICS
Diode Circuits
clamping circuit
• shifts DC component of signal
• output voltage is
Vout = Vin+ Vp – Vm
Vin = input voltage
Vp = clamping voltage
Vm = maximum voltage of input

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Diode Circuits
clamping circuit (continued)
for a clamping circuit output with a
sinusoidal input:

• average voltage

Vave= V p − Vm
• RMS voltage

2 Vm2
V=
rms V +
p
2

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Diode Circuits
clipping circuit base clipper
clips (i.e., truncates) waveforms
• base clipper
• peak clipper
• valley clipper
• combined clipper

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Diode Circuits
peak clipper combined clipper
peak clipper plus valley clipper

valley clipper

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Example: Diode Circuits
Assuming ideal diodes, what is most
nearly the average current through the
resistor in the rectifier shown?

(A) 0 A
(B) 0.76 A
(C) 3.1 A
(D) 4.8 A

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Example: Diode Circuits
Assuming ideal diodes, what is most Solution
nearly the average current through the
This is a full-wave rectifier, so
resistor in the rectifier shown?
Vave
=
2Vpeak
=
( 2 )(120 V )
π π
= 76.39 V
Vave 76.39 V
(A) 0 A I=
ave =
R 25 Ω
= 3.055 A ( 3.1 A )
(B) 0.76 A
The answer is (C).
(C) 3.1 A
(D) 4.8 A

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Junction Capacitance
junction capacitance, C junction contact potential, Vbi
same voltage as the built-in potential of a
pn junction, V0
• The electric field in depletion region
of a pn junction and the buildup of
static charge create capacitance.
• The capacitance of pn junctions is
usually not significant to the operation
in practical circuits.

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Diode Models
piecewise linear model
Shockley’s equation (Eq. 30.3) and the
equation for junction capacitance
(Eq. 30.4) give a very precise model of a
diode, but this takes a lot of math.
For this reason, diodes are typically
modeled as piecewise linear models. The
more precision needed, the more
complicated the model.

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Diode Models
ideal diode
The model of an ideal diode has
• zero resistance in the forward bias
direction
• infinite resistance in the reverse bias
direction

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Diode Models
For an ideal diode in series with a For higher precision, diode can be
voltage: modeled as contact resistance, Rs, in
series with junction resistance, Rj, and
junction capacitance, Cj, in parallel:

Figure 30.4 Real AC Diode Model

• static forward resistance, rf

• built-in potential, V0
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Diode Models
piecewise linear model
Diodes are usually operated so the
nonlinear characteristics can be ignored.

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Diode Models
large signal characteristics
• forward bias, VF < vPN • reverse breakdown region, vPN < –VR
v − VF v PN + VR
i PN = PN i PN =
Rf Rr

• off-region bias, –VR < vPN < VF

iPN = 0

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Poll: Diode Models
A diode can be formed by doping a pure
crystal such that
(A) an n-type semiconductor is produced
(B) it becomes an intrinsic semiconductor
(C) one half of it is p-type and the other
half is n-type
(D) a p-type semiconductor is produced

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Poll: Diode Models
A diode can be formed by doping a pure Solution
crystal such that
A diode is a junction of n-type and p-type
(A) an n-type semiconductor is produced semiconductor materials
(B) it becomes an intrinsic semiconductor The answer is (C).
(C) one half of it is p-type and the other
half is n-type
(D) a p-type semiconductor is produced

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Example: Diode Models
A silicon crystal is doped with gallium
impurities. The concentration of
impurities is 1 × 1010 cm–3. Most nearly,
the concentration of free holes in the
resulting crystal is
(A) 1 × 1012 holes/cm3
(B) 1 × 1010 holes/cm3
(C) 1 × 109 holes/cm3
(D) 1 × 107 holes/cm3

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Example: Diode Models
A silicon crystal is doped with gallium Solution
impurities. The concentration of
Gallium is a donor-type impurity. Doping
impurities is 1 × 1010 cm–3. Most nearly,
silicon with gallium produces a p-type
the concentration of free holes in the
crystal. In a p-type crystal, the
resulting crystal is
concentration of donor atoms is
(A) 1 × 1012 holes/cm3 approximately equal to the concentration
of dope atoms.
(B) 1 × 1010 holes/cm3
1×1010 holes/cm3
p p ≈ Na =
(C) 1 × 109 holes/cm3
The answer is (B).
(D) 1 × 107 holes/cm3

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Zener Diodes
Zener diode
• designed to operate within breakdown
region without overheating Figure 30.6 Zener Diode Symbol

• high doping concentration

• behaves as normal diode in forward
bias direction
• behaves as voltage source when
reverse bias exceeds breakdown
voltage (Zener voltage)

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Zener Diodes
avalanche
When the anode-to-cathode voltage in a • the junction conducts (suffers
Zener diode exceeds breakdown voltage, breakdown)
• the electrons in the depletion region The diode is not destroyed by the
are accelerated to high velocities breakdown (unless too much high current
is applied), but it now behaves as a
• these electrons collide with atoms
voltage source.
• this releases more free electrons
which get accelerated and collide, and
so on (called the avalanche)

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Zener Diodes
Zener diode (continued) Figure 30.7 Zener Diode Characteristics

The forward bias resistance, rf, and the

forward bias voltage, V0, are the same as
for an ordinary diode.
The avalanche resistance, ra, is very
small, even compared with rf, and can be
ignored.
For an ideal Zener diode, V0, rf, and ra are
all equal to zero.

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Poll: Zener Diodes
When a Zener diode suffers breakdown, it
(A) is immediately destroyed
(B) becomes an open circuit
(C) conducts like a short circuit
(D) behaves as a reversed biased ideal diode

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Poll: Zener Diodes
When a Zener diode suffers breakdown, it • Solution
(A) is immediately destroyed • The Zener diode is at the Zener
(B) becomes an open circuit voltage in the reverse bias direction
when it suffers breakdown, so option
(C) conducts like a short circuit (C) is correct.
(D) behaves as a reversed biased ideal diode
• The answer is (C).

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Transistors
transistor
• a three-terminal (two-port) device
Figure 30.9 Two-Port Transistor
• made from three semiconductor
layers to give two pn junctions
• layers may be npn or pnp; middle layer
is thin
• two major types
• bipolar junction transistor (BJTs)
• field-effect transistors (FETs)

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
• three terminals are
• base (thin middle layer)
• emitter
• collector
• current flowing into the base controls
amount of current flowing between
collector and emitter

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
gain, gm small-signal collector-to-emitter gain, β
typical values could be > 100
function of quiescent current, ICQ, and small-signal base-to-emitter gain, α
thermal voltage, VT
typically 0.99

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
The equations for the npn and pnp transistors are the same. However, the direction
definitions for the currents are reversed.

(a) active region (b) saturation region (c) cutoff region

base emitter junction forward biased, both junctions both junctions
base collector junction reverse biased forward biased reverse biased

iC = β iB

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
active region active mode relationships for a BJT:
The collector current is linearly controlled
by the base current.
saturation region
The collector-to-emitter and base-to-
emitter voltages are fixed. Further
increases in base current do not decrease
those voltages.
cutoff region α
β=
The transistor is reverse biased and 1− α
effectively open.
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Bipolar Junction Transistors
bias circuit
A bias circuit places a voltage or current Capacitors are included to isolate the DC
on one terminal of a semiconductor bias from the AC input and output. The
component to put it into a state where capacitors are effectively
small changes in the input at that
• open circuits to the DC bias
terminal will cause a large, linearly
related response between the other two • short circuits to the AC
terminals.

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
bias circuit (continued)
• The DC biases the transistor into a
linear region of operation.
• The AC passes the capacitor and shifts
the operating point of the transistor
up and down in the linear region,
effectively moving up and down
among the family of curves.
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• This moves the output up and down
amplified by the gain of the transistor.
• The output passes the capacitors on
the output and the result is an
amplified version of the input on the
output.
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Bipolar Junction Transistors
• common-emitter DC bias on base
• common-base DC bias on emitter
• Q-point found with load line and
current through the third terminal
• DC bias isolated from the input and
output by capacitors

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
voltage gain

RC Vout g m RC rπ
AV = − AV = g m RC AV
= =
RE Vin RB + rπ

gm is transconductance
ICQ is collector current
VT is thermal voltage

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
simplifying analysis of BJT biasing circuit
If R1 and R2 are known and large, and β is
large, then estimate IB ≈ 0 and IE ≈ IC.
 R2  1
I E ≈  VCC − VBE 
 R1 + R2  Re
For germanium, let VBE = 0.3 V. For
silicon, let VBE = 0.6 V.
When base current is not negligible, use
IC IC
I=
B =
β h fe

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Bipolar Junction Transistors
common emitter biasing circuit equivalent circuit

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Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For a silicon npn transistor,
α = 0.95, Re = 50 Ω, VCC = 24 V, R1 = R2
Most nearly, what is Rb for an operating
point of ICQ = 10 mA?
(A) 21 kΩ
(B) 36 kΩ
(C) 44 kΩ
(D) 87 kΩ

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Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For a silicon npn transistor, Solution
α = 0.95, Re = 50 Ω, VCC = 24 V, R1 = R2 Rb is the Thevinin equivalent of the input
to the base, which is R1 in parallel with
Most nearly, what is Rb for an operating
R2.
point of ICQ = 10 mA?
The base voltage is a voltage divider
(A) 21 kΩ
of VCC.
(B) 36 kΩ
 R2  1 
=VB VCC  =  (=
24 )  
12 V
(C) 44 kΩ  R1 + R2  2

(D) 87 kΩ

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Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
Solution (continued) Substituting and rearranging,
The voltage drop for the forward biased iB= iE − iC
base-emitter junction for a silicon diode  1−α 
is somewhere from 0.6 V to 1.5 V, iB =   iC
 α 
depending on BJT construction and
doping concentration. For this example,
use 0.6 V.
iC ≈ α iE

Solving for iE,

i
iE = C
α
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Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
Solution (continued) Solve for iC.
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the input α(vB − vBE )
iC =
loop gives Rb (1 − α ) + Re
vB − iB Rb − vBE − ( iC + iB ) Re =
0 Substitute the data and solve for Rb.

Solve for iB and set equal to the=

equation  1   α ( vB − vBE ) 
Rb   − Re
from the previous slide.  1−α   iC 
α 
vBE − vB + iC Re  1 −=  1   ( 0.95 )(12 V − 0.6 V ) 
iB =  Ci    −3
− 50 Ω 
 1 − 0.95  10 × 10 A
− Rb − Re  α   
=20 660 Ω ( 21 kΩ )
The answer is (A).

© Kaplan, Inc. 71
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For the circuit show, α is 0.99 and the
base-emitter voltage is 0.6 V.

Most nearly, what is the quiescent

collector current ICQ ?
(A) 1.0 mA (B) 1.4 mA
(C) 2.6 mA (D) 3.4 mA

© Kaplan, Inc. 72
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For the circuit show, α is 0.99 and the Solution
base-emitter voltage is 0.6 V. Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the
base loop.
VBB − VBE − ( I CQ + I B ) RE =
0
 I 
4 V − VBE −  I CQ + CQ  RE =
0
 β 
I CQ α 0.99
Most nearly, what is the quiescent = β= = = 99
collector current ICQ ? IB 1 − α 1 − 0.99
4 V − 0.6 V − (1010 Ω ) I CQ =
0
(A) 1.0 mA (B) 1.4 mA
I CQ 3.366 × 10−3 A
= ( 3.4 mA )
(C) 2.6 mA (D) 3.4 mA
The answer is (D).
© Kaplan, Inc. 73
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For the circuit show, α is 0.95, RE is 50 kΩ,
and the base-emitter voltage is 0.6 V.

Most nearly, what is the quiescent

collector current ICQ ?
(A) 1.0 mA (B) 1.4 mA
(C) 2.6 mA (D) 3.4 mA
© Kaplan, Inc. 74
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
For the circuit show, α is 0.95, RE is 50 kΩ, Solution
and the base-emitter voltage is 0.6 V.
Take the Thevenin equivalent of the input
to the base.
 R2   60 kΩ 
=VB = v
 cc   ( 24 V )
R
 1 + R2   30 k Ω + 60 k Ω 
= 16 V
R1 R2 ( 30 Ω )( 60 Ω )
Most nearly, what is the quiescent Rin
= = = 20 kΩ
R1 + R2 30 Ω + 60 Ω
collector current ICQ ?
I CQ α 0.95
(A) 1.0 mA (B) 1.4 mA = β= = = 19
IB 1 − α 1 − 0.95
(C) 2.6 mA (D) 3.4 mA
© Kaplan, Inc. 75
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
Solution (continued)
Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the The answer is (B).
base loop.
VB − VBE − ( I CQ + I B ) RE − I B Rin =
0
 I CQ 
16 V − VBE −  I CQ +  RE − I B Rin = 0
 β 
 I CQ 
16 V − 0.6 V −  I CQ +  ( 50 000 Ω )
 19 
 I CQ 
−  ( 20 000 Ω ) =0
 19 
I CQ 2.869 × 10−4 A
= ( 0.29 mA )

© Kaplan, Inc. 76
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors

© Kaplan, Inc. 77
ELECTRONICS
Example: Bipolar Junction Transistors
Solution

© Kaplan, Inc. 78
ELECTRONICS
Small-Signal BJT Model
• When the BJT is biased in the active
region, the circuit will pass AC signals,
producing an output collector current
that is an amplified version of the
base-emitter voltage.
• A small change in base-emitter voltage
makes a large change in collector ICQ = DC collector current at the Q-point
current. VA = early voltage

© Kaplan, Inc. 79
ELECTRONICS
Small-Signal BJT Model
circuit model for small-signal approximation

© Kaplan, Inc. 80
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
An amplifier operating at iC = 0.5 mA in
the common-emitter configuration has a
resistor with β = 50. The amplifier will
deliver a signal current of 0.2 mA rms to a
load of 5 kΩ. The thermal voltage
is 25 mV. Most nearly, the voltage gain is
(A) –100
(B) –10
(C) 10
(D) 100

© Kaplan, Inc. 81
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
An amplifier operating at iC = 0.5 mA in Solution
the common-emitter configuration has a
The base current is
resistor with β = 50. The amplifier will
iC −0.2 ×10−3 A
deliver a signal current of 0.2 mA rms to a iB =
− = −4 μA
=
β 50
load of 5 kΩ. The thermal voltage
is 25 mV. Most nearly, the voltage gain is Combining the transconductance and
resistance equations,
(A) –100
I CQ β
(B) –10 gm ≈ rπ ≈
VT gm
(C) 10
(D) 100 βVT (50)(25 mV)
rπ ≈ = = 2500 Ω
I CQ 0.5 mA

© Kaplan, Inc. 82
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
An amplifier operating at iC = 0.5 mA in Solution (continued)
the common-emitter configuration has a
The input voltage is
resistor with β = 50. The amplifier will
deliver a signal current of 0.2 mA rms to a ( )
vB = iB rπ = − 4 ×10 −6 A (2500 Ω ) = −10 mV
load of 5 kΩ. The thermal voltage
is 25 mV. Most nearly, the voltage gain is The output voltage is

(A) –100 ( )
vL = iC rL = 0.2 ×10 −3 A (5000 Ω ) = 1 V
(B) –10 The voltage gain is
(C) 10 vL 1V
= −3
= −100
vB − 10 ×10 V
(D) 100
The answer is (A).

© Kaplan, Inc. 83
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
An amplifier in the common emitter
configuration has RL = 3.3 kΩ, R2 = 244 Ω,
Rc = 1 kΩ, Rs = 1 kΩ, RE = 50 Ω, rπ = 490 Ω
and RL = 5.1 kΩ.
With gm= 102 mS, β = 50, IC= 2.65 mA, and
ro = 5 kΩ, what is most nearly the amplifier
voltage gain?
(A) –66
(B) –26
(C) –9.8
(D) –4.4

© Kaplan, Inc. 84
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
An amplifier in the common emitter Solution
configuration has RL = 3.3 kΩ, R2 = 244 Ω, Use a circuit model for the transistor.
Rc = 1 kΩ, Rs = 1 kΩ, RE = 50 Ω, rπ = 490 Ω
and RL = 5.1 kΩ.
rπ
With gm= 102 mS, β = 50, IC= 2.65 mA, and
ro = 5 kΩ, what is most nearly the
amplifier voltage gain? vout = − g m vbe ( r0 Rc RL )

(A) –66 



1
(B) –26 (
=102 × 10 −3
S ) be  1
v 
1 1
=

−73.06vbe
 5100 Ω + 1000 Ω + 5000 Ω 
 
(C) –9.8
(D) –4.4

© Kaplan, Inc. 85
ELECTRONICS
Example: Small-Signal BJT Model
Solution
R1 R2 rπ
vbe = vs
Rs + ( R1 R2 rπ )
 1 
 1 1 1 
 + + 
=3300 Ω 244 Ω 490 Ω 
v 0.1344vs
 1000 Ω + ( R R r )  s
 1 2 π

 
 
 
vout vout
= = ( −73.06 )( 0.1344 )
vin vs
−9.82
= ( −9.8)

The answer is (C).

© Kaplan, Inc. 86
ELECTRONICS
Field-Effect Transistors
field-effect transistor (FET)
• bidirectional device using electric field The connections are
to control conductivity of a channel of • gate
one type of charge carrier in a
semiconductor material • drain
• two main types: • source
• junction gate field-effect transistor The voltage on the gate affects the
(JFET) electric field within the transistor,
changing the conductance from the
• metal oxide semiconductor field- source to drain.
effect transistor (MOSFET)

© Kaplan, Inc. 87
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
JFET drain current, ID, is related to gate
voltage, vGS, by transconductance, gm:
Figure 30.17 JFET Symbols
∆ ID = gm∆vgs
In the saturation region,

• IDSS is drain current with VGS = 0

• Vp is pinch-off voltage

© Kaplan, Inc. 88
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
n-channel junction FET (JFET)
An increase in gate-source voltage causes
a decrease in drain-source current and
vice versa.
The pinch-off voltage, Vp
• depends on the construction of the
FET
• is analogous to reverse bias in a BJT

© Kaplan, Inc. 89
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
zero-biased n-channel JFET
• JFET characteristics are measured with
source shorted to gate.
• As vDS increases, carriers are depleted.

© Kaplan, Inc. 90
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
zero-biased n-channel JFET (continued)

© Kaplan, Inc. 91
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
n-channel JFET
Figure 30.18 Typical JFET Characteristics (n-channel)
wiring configuration

© Kaplan, Inc. 92
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
n-channel JFET: cutoff region, vGS < VP
Figure 30.18 Typical JFET Characteristics (n-channel)

• no force to move current from source

to drain
• FET is “off,” effectively an open circuit
• no drain current until gate-source
voltage is enough to cause avalanche

© Kaplan, Inc. 93
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
n-channel JFET: triode region, vGS > VP
and vGD > VP Figure 30.18 Typical JFET Characteristics (n-channel)

• nonlinear behavior

© Kaplan, Inc. 94
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
n-channel JFET: saturation region, vGS >
VP and vGD < VP Figure 30.18 Typical JFET Characteristics (n-channel)

• also called pinch-off region

• iD not dependent on vDS
• Equation 30.15 is first-order
approximation
• assumes early voltage is so large that
lines of family of curves (Fig. 30.18)
are approximately horizontal in
saturation region

© Kaplan, Inc. 95
ELECTRONICS
Example: Junction Field Effect Transistors
For the JFET shown, IDSS = 4 mA and Vp =
5 V. Most nearly, what is the value of RS
for vGS = –2 V and saturation region
operation?
(A) 260 Ω
(B) 600 Ω
(C) 970 Ω
(D) 1400 Ω

© Kaplan, Inc. 96
ELECTRONICS
Example: Junction Field Effect Transistors
For the JFET shown, IDSS = 4 mA and Vp = Solution
5 V. Most nearly, what is the value of RS
The drain current is approximately
for vGS = –2 V and saturation region 2
operation?  v 
=iD I DSS 1 − GS 
 V
(A) 260 Ω  p 
2
 −2 V 
(B) 600 Ω = ( 4 mA ) 1 − 
 5V 
(C) 970 Ω = 7.84 mA
(D) 1400 Ω The gate is at zero potential as the
current into the gate is insignificant and
the gate resistor is large.

© Kaplan, Inc. 97
ELECTRONICS
Example: Junction Field Effect Transistors
For the JFET shown, IDSS = 4 mA and Vp = Solution (continued)
5 V. Most nearly, what is the value of RS
The voltage on the source is the drain
for vGS = –2 V and saturation region
current multiplied by the source external
operation?
resistor, so for the source voltage relative
(A) 260 Ω to the gate to be –2 V,
(B) 600 Ω vGS 2V
RS
= = = 255 Ω
−3
(C) 970 Ω iD 7.84 ×10 A

(D) 1400 Ω The answer is (A).

© Kaplan, Inc. 98
ELECTRONICS
Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
small-signal JFET model
• Once amplifier circuit has been
biased, transistor can be replaced by
small-signal approximation.
• Circuit can be analyzed with small-
signal approximation, ignoring
capacitor impedance.
• Circuit analysis is simple with the
small-signal approximation model.
• The small-signal low-frequency circuit
model is the same for depletion and
enhancement FETs.
© Kaplan, Inc. 99
ELECTRONICS
Example: Junction Field Effect Transistors
The JFET amplifier shown is operating in
the saturation region. The conductivity
factor is 6.5 × 10–4 A/V2. The current gain
is gm = 2 × 10–3 S. Most nearly, what is the
drain current?
(A) 0.5 mA
(B) 1.0 mA
(C) 1.3 mA
(D) 1.5 mA

© Kaplan, Inc. 100

ELECTRONICS
Example: Junction Field Effect Transistors
The JFET amplifier shown is operating in Solution
the saturation region. The conductivity From Eq. 30.16, the conductivity factor is
factor is 6.5 × 10–4 A/V2. The current gain
I DSS = KV p2
is gm = 2 × 10–3 S. Most nearly, what is the
drain current? Use Eq. 30.17 to find the drain current.
2 I DSS I D
(A) 0.5 mA gm =
Vp
(B) 1.0 mA
( 2 ×10 S)
−3 2
g m2 V p2 g m2 V p2
ID = =
=
(C) 1.3 mA 4 I DSS 4 KV p2 A 
( 4 )  6.5 ×10−4 
 V2 
(D) 1.5 mA
= 1.54 ×10−3 A (1.5 mA )
The answer is (D).

© Kaplan, Inc. 101

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
depletion mode MOSFET
• similar to JFET:
• can be used in enhancement mode
• susceptible to catastrophic breakdown
• n-channel:
• vG = vGS
• vD = vDS
• p-channel:
• vG = vSG
• vD = vSD

© Kaplan, Inc. 102

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET
• Increase in gate voltage causes (Don’t confuse the threshold voltage of
increase in drain-source current. the enhanced MOSFET, Vt, with the
thermal voltage of the diode and BJT, VT.
• Cutoff region and triode region
They are unrelated.)
equations are the same as for JFET or
depletion MOSFET, except that the
pinch-off voltage, Vp, is replaced by
the threshold voltage, Vt.

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ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
enhancement MOSFET characteristics Figure 30.21 Enhancement MOSFET Characteristics

• Electric field from the gate creates an

inversion layer that forward biases the
pn junctions.
• Gate is electrically isolated from other
terminals.

© Kaplan, Inc. 104

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET: Figure 30.21 Enhancement MOSFET Characteristics
cutoff region, vGS < Vt

• both pn junctions are reverse biased

• FET is “off,” effectively an open circuit
• no drain current until the gate-source
voltage is enough to cause avalanche

© Kaplan, Inc. 105

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET: Figure 30.21 Enhancement MOSFET Characteristics
triode region, vGS > Vt and vGD > Vt

• nonlinear behavior
• conductivity factor, K, is constant and
depends on FET construction

© Kaplan, Inc. 106

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
n-channel enhancement mode MOSFET: Figure 30.21 Enhancement MOSFET Characteristics
saturation region, vGS > Vt and vGD < Vt

• also called pinch-off region

• iD not dependent on vDS
• Equation 30.21 is first-order
approximation
• assumes early voltage is so large that
lines of family of curves (Fig. 30.21)
are approximately horizontal in
saturation region

© Kaplan, Inc. 107

ELECTRONICS
MOSFETs
MOSFET equivalent circuit
• MOSFET small-signal approximation is
same as for other FETs
• voltage on gate controls conductivity
of source-to-drain, which is modeled
as dependent current source and
resistance

© Kaplan, Inc. 108

ELECTRONICS
Example: MOSFETs
For the MOSFET shown, the no signal drain
current is ID = 20 mA and VCC = 20 V. The
equation for drain current (in mA) is ID = (14 +
vGS)2. Find (a) the potential at the drain with
no signal, (b) VS with no signal, (c) VDSQ, (d) the
input impedance, (e) the transconductance,
and (f) the output impedance.

© Kaplan, Inc. 109

ELECTRONICS
Example: MOSFETs
For the MOSFET shown, the no signal drain Solution (continued)
current is ID = 20 mA and VCC = 20 V. The
equation for drain current (in mA) is ID = (14 + (a) VD = VCC − I D RD = 20 V − ( 20 ×10−3 A ) ( 200 Ω )
vGS)2. Find (a) the potential at the drain with = 16 V
no signal, (b) VS with no signal, (c) VDSQ, (d) the (b) The gate draws negligible current, so
input impedance, (e) the transconductance, ID ≈ IS. The source voltage is
and (f) the output impedance.
VS= I S RS= ( 20 ×10 −3
A ) ( 480 Ω )= 9.6 V
(c) The quiescent drop across the drain-source
is the no-signal voltage difference.
VDSQ = VD − VS = 16 V − 9.6 V = 6.4 V

© Kaplan, Inc. 110

ELECTRONICS
Example: MOSFETs
For the MOSFET shown, the no signal drain Solution (continued)
current is ID = 20 mA and VCC = 20 V. The
equation for drain current (in mA) is ID = (14 + (d) Simplify the circuit for the AC signal for
vGS)2. Find (a) the potential at the drain with shorting all capacitors.
no signal, (b) VS with no signal, (c) VDSQ, (d) the
input impedance, (e) the transconductance,
and (f) the output impedance.

The gate current is insignificant, so the

input impedance is
Rin= Ri +
R1 R2
= 500 Ω +
(1000 Ω )(1000 Ω )
R1 + R2 1000 Ω + 1000 Ω
= 1000 Ω

© Kaplan, Inc. 111

ELECTRONICS
Example: MOSFETs
For the MOSFET shown, the no signal drain Solution (continued)
current is ID = 20 mA and VCC = 20 V. The
equation for drain current (in mA) is ID = (14 + (e) The transconductance is not given, but can
vGS)2. Find (a) the potential at the drain with be found from the performance equation.
d (14 + VGS ) ×10−3
2
no signal, (b) VS with no signal, (c) VDSQ, (d) the d iD
gm = = = ( 2 )(14 + VGS ) ×10−3
input impedance, (e) the transconductance, d VGS d VGS
and (f) the output impedance. = ( 2 )(14 − 9.6 ) ×10−3
= 8.8 ×10−3 S
(f) The output resistance is RD in parallel with
the resistance from drain to source, rDS, but
rDS is usually ignored because it is usually
large compared with RD.
Rout
= R=D 200 Ω

© Kaplan, Inc. 112

ELECTRONICS
Operational Amplifiers
operational amplifier (op amp)
electronic device used to perform • has one output: vo
mathematical operations on analog
vo A ( v1 − v2 )
=
signals
• current flowing in or out of + or – is
• has two inputs:
very small
• v1 (+, or noninverting)
• gain is large (> 104)
• v2 (–, or inverting)

© Kaplan, Inc. 113

ELECTRONICS
Operational Amplifiers
ideal operational amplifier Figure 31.5 Equivalent Circuit of
an Ideal Operational Amplifier
theoretical device in which
• the current flowing in or out
of + or – is zero
• gain (in amps) is infinite
• v1 – v2 is zero (when operating
linearly) I2 = 0

I1 = 0
V2 - V1 = 0
© Kaplan, Inc. 114
ELECTRONICS
Operational Amplifiers
ideal and real
• Most op amp circuits that might be on
the exam can be analyzed as special
cases of the general op amp circuits.
• Inverting and noninverting are special
cases of the same circuit.

© Kaplan, Inc. 115

ELECTRONICS
Operational Amplifiers
ideal and real (continued)
The current produced by the output of So,
the op amp is whatever value is needed
R2  R 
to keep the voltage at the inverting (–) vo = − v a + 1 + 2 vb
input equal to vb (called negative R1  R1 
feedback).
va − vb vo − vb
I1 = I2 =
R1 R2
Therefore,
v −v v −v
I1 =− I 2 =a b =b 0
R1 R2

© Kaplan, Inc. 116

ELECTRONICS
Operational Amplifiers
input impedance
• usually high in operational amplifier For a simple inverting amplifier (vb = 0),
circuits so that they do not affect input impedance will be R1 because the
input signal circuits voltage at the – input of the op amp will
be maintained at zero volts.
• important in op amp applications
(might be on the exam) For a more complicated circuit, usually
best to calculate input impedance as
input voltage divided by input current.

© Kaplan, Inc. 117

ELECTRONICS
Example: Operational Amplifiers
Most nearly, what is the input impedance
as seen by the source va of the circuit
shown?

(A) 5 kΩ (B) 7.5 kΩ

(C) 10 kΩ (D) 12.5 kΩ

© Kaplan, Inc. 118

ELECTRONICS
Example: Operational Amplifiers
Most nearly, what is the input impedance Solution
as seen by the source va of the circuit
The input voltage is +15 V. The input
shown?
current is
va − vb 15 V − 5 V
=I in = = 2 mA
R1 5 kΩ
The input impedance is the absolute
value of the input voltage over the input
current. The input impedance is
Vin 15 V
R=
in = = 7.5 kΩ
(A) 5 kΩ (B) 7.5 kΩ I in 2 mA
The answer is (B).
(C) 10 kΩ (D) 12.5 kΩ

© Kaplan, Inc. 119

ELECTRONICS
Poll: Operational Amplifiers
The voltage gain of an op amp circuit with feedback is
nearly the same for a real and for an ideal
operational amplifier because
(A) the large input resistance prevents significant
current from entering
(B) the output is the difference of the inputs, not
their sum
(C) the force exerted by the op amp is controlled by
the feedback, the force exerted by the input is
controlled by the circuit, and equilibrium occurs
when these forces balance
(D) the output of the op amp is trying only to make
the two inputs equal, not to increase the circuit
voltage gain

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ELECTRONICS
Poll: Operational Amplifiers
The voltage gain of an op amp circuit with feedback is
nearly the same for a real and for an ideal
operational amplifier because
(A) the large input resistance prevents significant
current from entering
(B) the output is the difference of the inputs, not
their sum
(C) the force exerted by the op amp is controlled by
the feedback, the force exerted by the input is
controlled by the circuit, and equilibrium occurs
when these forces balance
(D) the output of the op amp is trying only to make
the two inputs equal, not to increase the circuit
voltage gain
© Kaplan, Inc.
Solution
(A), (B), and (D) are true but not relevant to the gain
of the overall circuit.
The input voltage is a force and the output voltage is
a force. The circuit will reach equilibrium if the
feedback is proper.
In a real op amp, the correction the output needs to
make for a small change in the input is a very small
number multiplied by a very big number, so the gain
of the op amp affects only the rate of correction for
the change, not the gain at equilibrium.
That is why there is very little difference between a
real op amp circuit and an ideal op amp circuit.
The answer is (C).
121
ELECTRONICS
Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers
noninverting amplifier
• ideal op amp where va is zero v2 is a voltage divider circuit, so
• output produces voltage that keeps  R1 
v 2 =  vo
the input voltages the same (v1 = v2)  R2 + R1 
Because vb = v1 = v2, substituting and
solving for vo gives
 R2 
v=
o  1 +  vb
 R1 
There is no phase difference between the
input and the output of a noninverting
amplifier. Only the amplitude changes.
© Kaplan, Inc. 122
ELECTRONICS
Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers
summing amplifier
a variation of the inverting amplifier
• can treat currents as independent
forces trying to push electrons into
(or out of) node A (superposition
theorem)
−i f = i1 + i2 + i3 + ⋅⋅⋅
• feedback current must be equal and v v v v
opposite to sum of other currents − o= 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋅⋅⋅
R f R1 R2 R3
v v v 
vo = − R f  1 + 2 + 3 + ⋅⋅⋅ 
 R1 R2 R3 

© Kaplan, Inc. 123

ELECTRONICS
Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers
noninverting summing amplifier
• can be made with voltages summed • to find summing amplification, vo,
into + input must first find + input, v1
• for noninverting amplifier, • best way: superposition theorem
• then formula at left gives vo

© Kaplan, Inc. 124

ELECTRONICS
Example: Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers
The 700 Hz signal shown is applied to the
circuit shown. If the circuit is an ideal
amplifier, what will the output signal be?

© Kaplan, Inc. 125

ELECTRONICS
Example: Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers
The 700 Hz signal shown is applied to the Solution
circuit shown. If the circuit is an ideal The input and feedback currents must be
amplifier, what will the output signal be? equal and opposite.
iin = −ifeedback
Vin −V
= out
3 kΩ 9 kΩ
Vout −9 kΩ
= = −3
Vin 3 kΩ
Both the DC and AC
parts are multiplied
by –3.
The answer is (B).
© Kaplan, Inc. 126
ELECTRONICS
Differential Amplifiers
differential amplifier
• first stage of an operational amplifier • The common-mode voltage
(undesired mode) is defined as
• amplifies the difference of the two
input signal voltages
• differential voltage (preferred mode) • output voltage is
is defined as

© Kaplan, Inc. 127

ELECTRONICS
Differential Amplifiers
common mode rejection ratio, CMRR
• ideally, Acm is zero
• if that is not the case, the common
mode rejection ratio is defined as

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Differential Amplifiers
BJT differential amplifier
• configured like two common emitter • if both transistors in the active region,
amplifiers with emitters tied together Eq. 31.11 through Eq. 31.16 apply
Figure 31.9 Basic BJT Differential Amplifier

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Differential Amplifiers
Figure 31.10 shows normalized collector
Figure 31.10 Differential Amplifier Collector Currents
currents versus normalized differential (ideal current source biasing)
input voltage for a circuit using
transistors with α ≅ 1.

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Example: Differential Amplifiers
An operational amplifier has a gain of
2 × 105 and a common-mode rejection
ratio of 90 dB. The input voltage
difference is 10 µV. The common-mode
voltage is 100 times the difference-mode
voltage. Most nearly, what is the
difference between the ideal output
voltage and the voltage with common
mode, expressed as a percentage of the
ideal output voltage?
(A) 0.3% (B) 0.6%
(C) 1% (D) 10%
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ELECTRONICS
Example: Differential Amplifiers
An operational amplifier has a gain of Solution
2 × 105 and a common-mode rejection
The CMRR as a dimensionless ratio is
ratio of 90 dB. The input voltage
difference is 10 µV. The common-mode 20 log10 CMRR = 90 dB
voltage is 100 times the difference-mode CMRR
= 10=90 20
31 623
voltage. Most nearly, what is the Use Eq. 31.9 to find the common-mode
difference between the ideal output gain.
voltage and the voltage with common A
mode, expressed as a percentage of the CMRR =
Acm
ideal output voltage?
A 2 ×105
Acm
= = = 6.32
(A) 0.3% (B) 0.6% CMRR 31 623

(C) 1% (D) 10%

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ELECTRONICS
Example: Differential Amplifiers
An operational amplifier has a gain of Solution (continued)
2 × 105 and a common-mode rejection
From Eq. 31.8, the output with common
ratio of 90 dB. The input voltage
mode is
difference is 10 µV. The common-mode
voltage is 100 times the difference-mode vO ,with CMMR
= Avid − Acm vicm
voltage. Most nearly, what is the = ( 2 ×10 ) (10 µ V )
5

difference between the ideal output

− ( 6.32 ) ( (100 )(10 µ V ) )
voltage and the voltage with common
mode, expressed as a percentage of the = 2.0 V − 6.32 ×10−3 V
ideal output voltage? = 1.99368 V

(A) 0.3% (B) 0.6% The ideal output voltage is

(C) 1% (D) 10%

vO ,ideal = ( 2 ×105 ) (10 µ V ) =
Avid = 2.0 V

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Example: Differential Amplifiers
An operational amplifier has a gain of Solution (continued)
2 × 105 and a common-mode rejection
The percentage by which the voltage with
ratio of 90 dB. The input voltage
common mode is less than the ideal
difference is 10 µV. The common-mode
voltage is
voltage is 100 times the difference-mode vO ,ideal − vO ,with CMMR
voltage. Most nearly, what is the = %
vO ,ideal
×100%
difference between the ideal output
2.0 V − 1.99368 V
voltage and the voltage with common= ×100%
2.0 V
mode, expressed as a percentage of the
= 0.316% ( 0.3% )
ideal output voltage?
The answer is (A).
(A) 0.3% (B) 0.6%
(C) 1% (D) 10%
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Instrumentation
measuring instrument measuring system
commonly used to describe a exists to provide information about the
measurement system, whether it physical value of some variable being
contains only one element or many measured
elements

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Instrumentation
transducer
• any device that converts one form of
energy into another form of energy
• for example, a loudspeaker converting
electrical signals into sound
• a key element of a measuring system

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Measurement Principles
sensitivity linearity
the ratio of the change in magnitude of the degree to which the output of a
the electrical signal to the change in transducer is in direct proportion to the
magnitude of the parameter (the physical parameter being measured
phenomenon) being measured

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Measurement Principles
measurement accuracy measurement precision
A measurement is said to be accurate if it A measurement is said to be precise if an
is substantially unaffected by (i.e., is experiment is repeated with identical
insensitive to) all variation outside the results.
measurer’s control.
The two terms are not synonymous.
Measurements could be precise and yet
be inaccurate due to measurement bias.

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Poll: Measurements
The diagram represents measurement
data. The red circle represents the actual
value. The white stars represent the
measurements taken. What level of
accuracy and precision is represented?
(A) low accuracy, low precision
(B) low accuracy,
high precision
(C) high accuracy,
low precision
(D) high accuracy,
high precision
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ELECTRONICS
Poll: Measurements
The diagram represents measurement Solution
data. The red circle represents the actual
A measurement is said to be accurate if it
value. The white stars represent the
is substantially unaffected by all variation
measurements taken. What level of
outside of the measurer’s control, all the
accuracy and precision is represented?
measurements are far from the actual
(A) low accuracy, low precision value, so the accuracy is low.
(B) low accuracy,
If a measurement is repeated with
high precision
identical results, the experiment is said to
(C) high accuracy, be precise, the measurements are tightly
low precision grouped, so the precision is high.
(D) high accuracy,
The answer is (B).
high precision
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Measurement Stability
stable measurement
A measurement is said to be stable if it is
insensitive to minor changes in the
measurement process.
Stability and insensitivity are synonyms.
(As are sensitivity and instability.)

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Measurement Uncertainty
uncertainty
A measurement No instrument, however well made, can
• tells us about a property of something make a perfectly exact and correct
(how heavy an object is, or how hot, measurement.
or how long)
• gives a number to that property
• is always made using an instrument of
some kind (ruler, stopwatch, weighing
scale, thermometer, etc.)

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Measurement Uncertainty
uncertainty (continued)
For every measurement, however careful, • Uncertainty is not the same as error.
there is always some margin of doubt. • Error is the difference between the
• Uncertainty is a quantification of the measured value and the “true value”
doubt that exists about the result of of the thing being measured.
any measurement.

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Measurement Uncertainty
Kline-McClintock equation
• a way of estimating the uncertainty of
a function
Let R be a function ƒ(x1, x2 , x3, . . . , xn)
whose values have uncertainties ±w1,
±w2, ±w3, . . . , ±wn, respectively.
The total uncertainty of the function, wR,
is estimated by Eq. 32.1, the Kline-
McClintock equation.

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Example: Measurement Uncertainty

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Example: Measurement Uncertainty
Solution
Use Eq. 32.1.

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Resistance Temperature Detectors
resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
• also known as resistance • first-order approximation is sufficient
thermometers in many practical applications
• change resistance in a predictable way
in response to changes in temperature

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Resistance Temperature Detectors
themistors
Thermistors – Typically manufactured from a semiconductor, with a negative
temperature coefficient. 1 1 
β − 
 T To 
The thermistor resistance is: RT = Ro e
where β is a material dependent value and T is in Kelvin.

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Resistance Temperature Detectors
thermistors
The Steinhart-Hart equation is often provided as a more precise model for thermistors:
1
A + B ln ( R ) + C ( ln ( R ) )
3
=
T

Where the thermistor manufacturer will provide the coefficients A, B, and C. When R is
in Ω and T is in Kelvin, a typical
thermistor might have A = 1.403 ×10–3; B = 2.373 ×10–4; C = 9.827 ×10–8.

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Strain Gages
Strain Gages
strain gage
metallic resistance device whose
electrical resistance varies in proportion
to the amount of strain in the device

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Strain Gages
gage factor, GF
From a practical standpoint, however, the
gage factor and gauge resistance are
provided by the gauge manufacturer.
• strain sensitivity factor Only the change in resistance is
measured.
• ratio of the fractional change in
resistance to the fractional change in
length (strain) along the detecting axis
of the gauge

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Example: Strain Gages
A strain gage with a nominal resistance of
120 Ω and gage factor (GF) of 2.0 is used
to measure a strain of 1 μin/in. Most
nearly, what is the change in resistance?
(A) 2.4 × 10–5 Ω
(B) 5.6 × 10–5 Ω
(C) 2.4 × 10–4 Ω
(D) 4.4 × 10–4 Ω

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ELECTRONICS
Example: Strain Gages
A strain gage with a nominal resistance of Solution
120 Ω and gage factor (GF) of 2.0 is used
to measure a strain of 1 μin/in. Most ∆R / R ∆R / R
GF
= =
nearly, what is the change in resistance? ∆L / L ε
 in 
(A) 2.4 × 10–5 Ω ∆R GFR
= = ε (2.0)(120 Ω) 1×10−6 
 in 
(B) 5.6 × 10–5 Ω =2.4 ×10−4 Ω
(C) 2.4 × 10–4 Ω
The answer is (C).
(D) 4.4 × 10–4 Ω

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Wheatstone Bridges
Wheatstone bridge
• one type of resistance bridge
• can be used to determine unknown
resistance of a resistance transducer Figure 32.4 Wheatstone Quarter Bridge

• typically, one resistor is adjustable and

is adjusted until the voltage V0 is zero
• bridge circuit is referred to as
balanced when V0 is zero
R1 R3
=
R2 R4

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Wheatstone Bridges
quarter bridge circuit
• special case of the Wheatstone bridge
circuit
Figure 32.4 Wheatstone Quarter Bridge
• has three identical resistors and a
fourth resistor that differs slightly in
resistance from the other three
• the difference, ∆R, can be positive or
negative
R1 = R2 = R3 = R
R4 = R + ∆R
∆R << R
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Example: Wheatstone Bridges

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Example: Wheatstone Bridges
Solution

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Example: Wheatstone Bridges
Solution (continued)

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Example: Wheatstone Bridges
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure
an unknown resistance, Rx, as shown. At
the null point, the variable resistor, Rv,
has a resistance of 2100 Ω. Most nearly,
what is the unknown resistance?
(A) 900 Ω
(B) 2100 Ω
(C) 2500 Ω
(D) 4900 Ω

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ELECTRONICS
Example: Wheatstone Bridges
A Wheatstone bridge is used to measure Solution
an unknown resistance, Rx, as shown. At
At the null point,
the null point, the variable resistor, Rv,
has a resistance of 2100 Ω. Most nearly,
Rx Rv
what is the unknown resistance? =
R3 R4
(A) 900 Ω
Rx
=
R3 Rv
=
( 3500 Ω )( 2100 Ω )
(B) 2100 Ω R4 1500 Ω
(C) 2500 Ω = 4900 Ω
(D) 4900 Ω
The answer is (D).

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Learning Objectives
You have learned • about bipolar junction transistor (BJT)
mathematical models
• about pn junction physics
• how to calculate BJT biasing
• how to calculate pn junction
characteristics • how to calculate BJT small-signal
approximation circuits
• about concepts of diode circuits
• about field effect transistor (FET)
• about diode piecewise linear models
mathematical models
• about models of special models
• how to calculate FET biasing
(tunnel and Zener diodes)
• how to calculate FET small-signal
approximation circuits

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Learning Objectives
You have learned • about junction (JFET) mathematical
models
• about operational amplifiers (op
amps) and op amp circuits • about instrumentation and
measurement concepts
• how to calculate op amp circuits
• how to calculate measurement
• about differential amplifier
uncertainty
mathematical models
• about sensors and instrumentation
• how to calculate common mode
circuit concepts
rejection ratio problems in differential
amplifier problems • how to calculate bridge circuits

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Lesson Overview
Semiconductor Devices and Circuits
• Semiconductor Devices • Zener Diodes
• pn Junctions • Transistors
• Bias • Bipolar Junction Transistors
• pn Junction Characteristics • Small-Signal BJT Model
• Diodes • Field-Effect Transistors
• Diode Circuits • Junction Field Effect Transistors (JFETs)
• Junction Capacitance • Small-signal JFET Model
• Diode Models • MOSFETs

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Lesson Overview
Amplifiers • Measurement Accuracy
• Amplifiers • Measurement Precision
• Operational Amplifiers • Measurement Stability
• Ideal and Real Operational Amplifiers • Measurement Uncertainty
• Differential Amplifiers • Sensors
Measurement and Instrumentation • Resistance Temperature Detectors
• Instrumentation • Strain Gages
• Sensitivity
• Linearity

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