GENERAL

AND
INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY
MELENCIA ROSARIO D. CORONEL
Course Instructor
2 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

Atomic Theory and

Atomic Structure 3
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 3

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Here’s what I will teach you in this course material:

LESSON OUTLINE
• Explain the different postulates of Atomic Theory
• Atomic Theory • Differentiate atomic number from mass number;
• Learn to write the isotope symbols.
• Subatomic
Unit Outline
Particles of atom

• Element and
Isotope symbols
RESOURCES NEEDED

For this lesson, you would need the following resources:

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v48u8hjqNBU
• https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemis
try__The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/02._Atoms_Molecules_and_Ions/2.
1%3A_The_Atomic_Theory_of_Matter
• Any General Chemistry textbook.
 4 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Pre-Test: What I know

Pretest 1
Before you start, try answering the following
questions. What is in.
1. Which subatomic particles is/are located in the nucleus of a 2
carbon atom?
A. Neutrons only C. Protons and neutrons
B. Protons and electrons D. Protons only 3 Atomic Theory
2. How many neutrons are in the atom in the picture?
A. 4 B. 5 C. 6 D. 11
3. The atomic mass number of a specific element is determined by
the:
A. number of protons in its nucleus
4 Atomic structure
B. number of neutrons plus protons in its nucleus
C. number of neutrons plus electrons in its nucleus
D. number of electrons in its outermost shell
Element Symbols and
E. total number of neutrons orbiting the nucleus 5 Isotopes
4. The smallest unit of matter that retains the characteristics of
an element is an:
A. Ion B. isotope C. atom D. proton
Posttest
5. Orbiting the central region of an atom are negatively charged 6
A. Protons C. Neutrons
B. Electrons D. Nuclei

7 Key Terms

References
8
 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 5

Atom

atom, smallest unit into which

matter can be divided without
the release of electrically
charged particles. It also is the
smallest unit of matter that
has the characteristic
properties of a chemical
element. As such, the atom is
the basic building block of
chemistry..

WHAT IS IN
WHAT’S MY LABEL?
Label the parts of the atom and identify the element.

Label the parts of the atom and identify the element.

5. What element is it? ______________

6 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

Atomic Theory

Take some aluminum foil. Cut it in half. Now there are two smaller pieces of aluminum foil. Cut one of
the pieces in half again. Cut one of those smaller pieces in half again. Continue cutting, making smaller
and smaller pieces of aluminum foil. It should be obvious that the pieces are still aluminum foil; they are
just becoming smaller and smaller. But how far can this exercise be taken, at least in theory? Can one
continue cutting the aluminum foil into halves forever, making smaller and smaller pieces? Or is there
some limit, some absolute smallest piece of aluminum foil? Thought experiments like this—and the
conclusions based on them—were debated as far back as the fifth century BC.

John Dalton (1766-1844) is the scientist credited for proposing the atomic theory. The theory explains
several concepts that are relevant in the observable world: the composition of a pure gold necklace,
what makes the pure gold necklace different than a pure silver necklace, and what occurs when pure
gold is mixed with pure copper. This course material explains the theories that Dalton used as a basis for
his theory: (1) Law of Conservation of Mass (2) Law of Definite Proportions, and (3) Law of Multiple
Proportions

Law 1: The Conservation of Mass

"Nothing comes from nothing" is an important idea in ancient Greek philosophy that argues that what
exists now has always existed, since no new matter can come into existence where there was none
before. Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794) restated this principle for chemistry with the law of conservation
of mass, which "means that the atoms of an object cannot be created or destroyed, but can be moved
around and be changed into different particles." This law says that when a chemical reaction rearranges
atoms into a new product, the mass of the reactants (chemicals before the chemical reaction) is the
same as the mass of the products (the new chemicals made). More simply, whatever you do, you will still
have the same amount of stuff (however, certain nuclear reactions like fusion and fission can convert a
small part of the mass into energy).

The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass present before a chemical reaction is the
same as the total mass present after the chemical reaction; in other words, mass is conserved. The law
of conservation of mass was formulated by Lavoisier as a result of his combustion experiment, in which
he observed that the mass of his original substance—a glass vessel, tin, and air—was equal to the mass
of the produced substance—the glass vessel, “tin calx”, and the remaining air.
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 7

Image of the wood courtesy of Ehamberg and Stannered on Wikimedia Commons, available under Creative
Commons Attribution 2.5 Generic license. Image of ashes courtesy of Walter Siegmund. Image as a whole
constructed by Jessica Thornton (UCD).

Historically, this was a difficult concept for scientists to grasp. If this law was true, then how could a large
piece of wood be reduced to a small pile of ashes? The wood clearly has a greater mass than the ashes.
From this observation scientists concluded that mass had been lost. However, the figure above shows
that the burning of word does follow the law of conservation of mass. Scientists did not account for the
gases that play a critical role in this reaction.

The law of conservation of mass states that the total mass present before a chemical reaction is the same
as the total mass present after the chemical reaction.

Law 2: Definite Proportions

Joseph Proust (1754-1826) formulated the law of definite proportions (also called the Law of
Constant Composition or Proust's Law). This law states that if a compound is broken down into its
constituent elements, the masses of the constituents will always have the same proportions, regardless
of the quantity or source of the original substance. Joseph Proust based this law primarily on his
experiments with basic copper carbonate. The illustration below depicts this law in action.

If 1 gram of A reacts with 8 grams of B, then by the Law of Definite Proportions, 2 grams of A must react
with 16 grams of B. If 1 gram of A reacts with 8 grams of B, then by the Law of Conservation of Mass,
they must produce 9 grams of C. Similarly, when 2 grams of A react with 16 grams of B, they must
produce 18 grams of C.
8 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

Law of Definite Proportions states that in a given type of chemical substance, the elements are always
combined in the same proportions by mass.

The Law of Definite Proportions applies when elements are reacted together to form the same product.
Therefore, while the Law of Definite Proportions can be used to compare two experiments in which
hydrogen and oxygen react to form water, the Law of Definite Proportions can not be used to compare
one experiment in which hydrogen and oxygen react to form water, and another experiment in which
hydrogen and oxygen react to form hydrogen peroxide (peroxide is another material that can be made
from hydrogen and oxygen).

Example: water
Oxygen makes up 88.8% of the mass of any sample of pure water, while hydrogen makes up the
remaining 11.2% of the mass. You can get water by melting ice or snow, by condensing steam, from
river, sea, pond, etc. It can be from different places: USA, UK, Australia, or anywhere. It can be made by
chemical reactions like burning hydrogen in oxygen.
However, if the water is pure, it will always consist of 88.8 % oxygen by mass and 11.2 % hydrogen by
mass, irrespective of its source or method of preparation.

Law 3: Multiple Proportions

Many combinations of elements can react to form more than one compound. In such cases, this law
states that the weights of one element that combine with a fixed weight of another of these elements
are integer multiples of one another. It's easy to say this, but please make sure that you understand how
it works. Nitrogen forms a very large number of oxides, five of which are shown here.

Law of Multiple Proportions applied to nitrogen oxides (NOx) compounds. (CC-BY; Stephen Lower)
• Line shows the ratio of the relative weights of the two elements in each compound. These
ratios were calculated by simply taking the molar mass of each element, and multiplying by the
number of atoms of that element per mole of the compound. Thus for NO2, we have (1 × 14) : (2
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 9

× 16) = 13:32. (These numbers were not known in the early days of Chemistry because atomic
weights (i.e., molar masses) of most elements were not reliably known.)
• The numbers in Line are just the mass ratios of O:N, found by dividing the corresponding
ratios in line 1. But someone who depends solely on experiment would work these out by
finding the mass of O that combines with unit mass (1 g) of nitrogen.
• Line is obtained by dividing the figures the previous line by the smallest O:N ratio in the line
above, which is the one for N2O. Note that just as the law of multiple proportions says, the
weight of oxygen that combines with unit weight of nitrogen work out to small integers.
• Of course we just as easily could have illustrated the law by considering the mass of nitrogen
that combines with one gram of oxygen; it works both ways!

The law of multiple proportions states that if two elements form more than one compound between
them, the masses of one element combined with a fixed mass of the second element form in ratios of
small integers.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

The modern atomic theory, proposed about 1803 by the English chemist John Dalton, is a fundamental
concept that states that all elements are composed of atoms. Previously, an atom was defined as the
smallest part of an element that maintains the identity of that element. Individual atoms are extremely
small; even the largest atom has an approximate diameter of only 5.4 × 10−10 m. With that size, it takes
over 18 million of these atoms, lined up side by side, to equal the width of the human pinkie (about 1
cm).

John Dalton was an English scientist who enunciated the modern atomic
theory.

Dalton’s ideas are called the modern atomic theory because the concept
of atoms is very old. The Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus
originally introduced atomic concepts in the fifth century BC. (The
word atom comes from the Greek word atomos, which means
“indivisible” or “uncuttable.”) Dalton had something that the ancient
Greek philosophers didn’t have, however; he had experimental evidence,
such as the formulas of simple chemicals and the behavior of gases. In the
150 years or so before Dalton, natural philosophy had been maturing into
modern science, and the scientific method was being used to study
nature. When Dalton announced a modern atomic theory, he was
proposing a fundamental theory to describe many previous observations of the natural world; he was
not just participating in a philosophical discussion.

Dalton's Theory was a powerful development as it explained the three laws of chemical combination
(above) and recognized a workable distinction between the fundamental particle of an element (atom)
and that of a compound (molecule). Six postulates are involved in Dalton's Atomic Theory:

1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms of other
elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
10 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

4. Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in a fixed, simple, whole number
ratios to form compound atoms.
5. Atoms of same element can combine in more than one ratio to form two or more compounds.
6. The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.

In light of the current state of knowledge in the field of Chemistry, Dalton’s theory had a few drawbacks.
According to Dalton’s postulates,

1. The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong: an atom can be further subdivided into protons,
neutrons and electrons. However an atom is the smallest particle that takes part in chemical
reactions.
2. According to Dalton, the atoms of same element are similar in all respects. However, atoms of
some elements vary in their masses and densities. These atoms of different masses are called
isotopes. For example, chlorine has two isotopes with mass numbers 35 and 37.
3. Dalton also claimed that atoms of different elements are different in all respects. This has been
proven wrong in certain cases: argon and calcium atoms have same atomic mass (40 amu).
4. According to Dalton, atoms of different elements combine in simple whole number ratios to
form compounds. This is not observed in complex organic compounds like sugar (C12H24O12).
5. The theory fails to explain the existence of allotropes (different forms of pure elements); it does
not account for differences in properties of charcoal, graphite, diamond.

Despite these drawbacks, the importance of Dalton’s theory should not be underestimated. He displayed
exceptional insight into the nature of matter and his ideas provided a framework that was later modified
and expanded by other. Consequentially, John Dalton is often considered to be the father of modern
atomic theory.

STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons arranged in defined shells about a
positively charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the atom's mass and is composed of protons
and neutrons (except for common hydrogen which has only one proton). All atoms are roughly the same
size. A convenient unit of length for measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (Å), which is defined as 1 x
10-10 meters. The diameter of an atom is approximately 2-3 Å.

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of the electron, marking the beginning of modern atomic
physics. The negatively charged electrons follow a random pattern within defined energy shells around
the nucleus. Most properties of atoms are based on the number and arrangement of their electrons. The
mass of an electron is 9.1 x 10-31 kilograms.
One of the two types of particles found in the nucleus is the proton. The existence of a positively
charged particle, a proton, in the nucleus was proved by Sir Ernest Rutherford in 1919. The proton's
charge is equal but opposite to the negative charge of the electron. The number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom determines what kind of chemical element it is. A proton has a mass of 1.67 x 10-
27
kilograms.
The neutron is the other type of particle found in the nucleus. It was discovered by a British physicist, Sir
James Chadwick. The neutron carries no electrical charge and has the same mass as the proton. With a
lack of electrical charge, the neutron is not repelled by the cloud of electrons or by the nucleus, making it
a useful tool for probing the structure of the atom.
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 11

Even the individual protons and neutrons have internal structure, called quarks. Six types of quarks exist.
These subatomic particles cannot be freed and studied in isolation. Current research continues into the
structure of the atom.

ISOTOPES

Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons, however. Atoms of the same
element (i.e., atoms with the same number of protons) with different numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes. Most naturally occurring elements exist as isotopes. For example, most hydrogen atoms
have a single proton in their nucleus. However, a small number (about one in a million) of hydrogen
atoms have a proton and a neutron in their nuclei. This particular isotope of hydrogen is called
deuterium. A very rare form of hydrogen has one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus; this isotope of
hydrogen is called tritium. The sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus is called
the mass number of the isotope.

Neutral atoms have the same number of electrons as they have protons, so their overall charge is zero.
However, as we shall see later, this will not always be the case.

When referring to an atom, we simply use the element’s name: the term sodium refers to the element
as well as an atom of sodium. But it can be unwieldy to use the name of elements all the time. Instead,
chemistry defines a symbol for each element. The atomic symbol is a one- or two-letter abbreviation of
the name of the element. By convention, the first letter of an element’s symbol is always capitalized,
while the second letter (if present) is lowercase. Thus, the symbol for hydrogen is H, the symbol for
sodium is Na, and the symbol for nickel is Ni. Most symbols come from the English name of the element,
although some symbols come from an element’s Latin name. (The symbol for sodium, Na, comes from its
Latin name, natrium.) Table 3.2 “Names and Symbols of Common Elements” lists some common
elements and their symbols. You should memorize the symbols in Table 3.2 “Names and Symbols of
Common Elements”, as this is how we will be representing elements throughout chemistry.
12 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

Table 3.2 Names and Symbols of Common Elements

Element Name Symbol Element Name

Aluminum Al Mercury

Argon Ar Molybdenum

Arsenic As Neon

Barium Ba Nickel

Beryllium Be Nitrogen

Bismuth Bi Oxygen

Boron B Palladium

Bromine Br Phosphorus

Calcium Ca Platinum

Carbon C Potassium

Chlorine Cl Radium

Chromium Cr Radon

Cobalt Co Rubidium

Copper Cu Scandium

Fluorine F Selenium

Gallium Ga Silicon

Germanium Ge Silver

Gold Au Sodium

Helium He Strontium

Hydrogen H Sulfur

Iodine I Tantalum

Iridium Ir Tin
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 13

Element Name Symbol Element Name

Iron Fe Titanium

Krypton Kr Tungsten

Lead Pb Uranium

Lithium Li Xenon

Magnesium Mg Zinc

Manganese Mn Zirconium

The elements are grouped together in a special chart called the periodic table. A simple periodic table is
shown in Figure 3.2 “A Simple Periodic Table”, while a more extensive one is presented in Chapter 17
“Appendix: Periodic Table of the Elements”. The elements on the periodic table are listed in order of
ascending atomic number. The periodic table has a special shape that will become important to us when
we consider the organization of electrons in atoms (see Chapter 8 “Electronic Structure”). One
immediate use of the periodic table helps us identify metals and nonmetals. Nonmetals are in the upper
right corner of the periodic table, on one side of the heavy line splitting the right-hand part of the chart.
All other elements are metals.

Figure 3.2 A Simple Periodic Table

There is an easy way to represent isotopes using the atomic symbols. We use the construction
14 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

where X is the symbol of the element, A is the mass number, and Z is the atomic number. Thus, for the
isotope of carbon that has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, the symbol is

where C is the symbol for the element, 6 represents the atomic number, and 12 represents the mass
number.

EXAMPLE

1. What is the symbol for an isotope of uranium that has an atomic number of 92 and a
mass number of 235?
2. How many protons and neutrons are in 26F?
Solution
1. The symbol for this isotope is 92U.
2. This iron atom has 26 protons and 56 − 26 = 30 neutrons.

Test Yourself
How many protons are in 11N?
Answer
11 protons
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 15

LESSON SUMMARY

Atom is the smallest particle of matter according to John Dalton but eventually proven that it’s not.
Different models of atoms were proposed based on the different assumptions and experiments by
several scientists. But through the different experiments, subatomic particles are discovered such as
proton, neutron and electron.

• Chemistry is based on the modern atomic theory, which states that all matter is
composed of atoms.
• Atoms themselves are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
• Each element has its own atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in its
nucleus.
• Isotopes of an element contain different numbers of neutrons.
• Elements are represented by an atomic symbol.
• The periodic table is a chart that organizes all the elements.

KEY TERMS

POSTTEST

1. According to Dalton’s Atomic Theory, matter consists of indivisible _______

a) Molecules
b) Atoms
c) Ions
d) Mixtures
16 GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA

2. Atoms of different elements differ in mass.

a) True
b) False
3. Law of conservation of mass isn’t explained in Dalton’s atomic theory.
a) True
b) False
4. All atoms of a given element have identical __________ including identical _________
a) Properties, mass
b) Weight, volume
c) Volume, properties
d) Temperature, pressure
5. Which of the following has a positive charge?
a. proton
b. neutron
c. anion
d. electron
6.The neutral atoms of all of the isotopes of the same element have
a. different numbers of protons.
b. equal numbers of neutrons.
c. the same number of electrons.
d. the same mass numbers.

References
• https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/College_of_Marin/CHEM_114%3A_Introductory_Che
mistry/03%3A_Matter_and_Energy/3.06%3A_Changes_in_Matter-
_Physical_and_Chemical_Changes
• https://www.britannica.com/science/matter
• https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/chemistry-of-life/elements-of-
life/a/matter-elements-atoms-article

Answer key: Pretest

1. C
2. B
3. B
4. C
5. B
Post test
GENERAL AND INORGANIC CHEMISTRY • NU LAGUNA 17

1. B
2. A
3. B
4. A
5. A
6. C