7.

VIBRATIONS AND WAVES

Intermediate level

7.3 Superposition of
waves
Syllabus excerpt
Intermediate level

The superposition principle Displacement-position graphs used to explain

applied to the formation of formation of nodes and antinodes.
stationary waves in a
string.
Contrast between
progressive and stationary
waves.

Experimental treatment of Effect of slit and wavelength on pattern

diffraction of water waves relative size.
at a single slit.
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 2
Syllabus excerpt
Intermediate level

Interference of water Explanation of the formation of the

waves in the two-slit interference pattern in terms of phase
experiment difference between the two wave trains. Effect
on pattern of changes in point source
separation and frequency.
Young’s double slit Looking at a slit source through two close,
experiment. narrow slits to demonstrate the wavelike
nature of light. Use of the formula  =
yd/D is required but not its proof.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 3

Notes
Intermediate level

 Azzopardi, C. (2013).
INTERMEDIATE
LEVEL PHYSICS 1st
YEAR NOTES WAVES.
 Pages 27 – 37.

MATERIALS Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 4

Further reading
Intermediate level

 Farrell M. P. (2008) Intermediate Physics 16-18 (2nd

edition), Allied Publications. Chapter 9 pp 151,
156 – 168.
The principle of superposition
Intermediate level

 Consider a wave travelling in space. The particles of the medium oscillate

with the frequency and amplitude of this wave.
 Consider two waves having different frequency and amplitude travelling in
space. They meet at a point. What happens to the particle of the medium at
that point? It obeys the principle of superposition.
 Whenever two waves are travelling in the same region the total displacement at any point
is equal to the vector sum of their individual displacements at that point.
 When the two waves leave the point, they will emerge in the same way they
have entered.
 The effects of interference, diffraction, beats and stationary waves are consequences
of the superposition of waves.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 6

 The Principle of Superposition
Intermediate level

 Wave A shown in red has frequency f.

 Wave B shown in blue has a higher frequency of 3f
and a lower amplitude than wave A.
 The vector sum of both waves A and B is shown in
black.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 7

Stationary waves
Intermediate level

 Created by the superposition of two

travelling (progressive) waves.
 The waves travel in opposite
directions, have the same speed,
frequency and amplitude.
 The profile of a stationary wave does
not move.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 8

Stationary waves
Intermediate level

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 9

Stationary wave
Intermediate level

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 10

 Stationary waves
Intermediate level

A A A A

N
Each colour represents
N N
the position of particles
N N at different times.

 There are points where particles do not oscillate. These are called nodes.
 Distance between two nodes is half a wavelength.
 The amplitude of the stationary wave is equal to twice the amplitude of one of
the travelling waves. The amplitude occurs at specific points called antinodes.
 At any time, all particles between two nodes are in phase. Each particle in
between two adjacent pair of nodes is out of phase by  radians.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 11

Differences between stationary and progressive wave
Intermediate level

Stationary wave Progressive wave

Has nodes and antinodes
Energy of wave does not move along
the medium
Particles between two nodes oscillate
in phase
The amplitude of the wave is twice the
amplitude of the progressive wave
The maximum displacement of each
particle is different in between two
nodes
The wavelength is equal to twice the
distance between two nodes
---
Energy of the wave propagates
through the medium
Neighbouring particles oscillate with a
slight phase difference
---
All particles will reach the same
maximum displacement
The wavelength is equal to the
distance between two adjacent
particles oscillating in phase

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 12

Stationary wave
Intermediate level

 Watch this video.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PJlb4wfL_H0&
feature=share&list=PLA46EA1E88BBBFD14

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 13

Vibrating strings
Intermediate level

 The string is fixed at both ends.

 Two opposite travelling waves are created when
the string is plucked from a point.
 The travelling waves reflect at both fixed ends
and collide with each other.
 A standing wave is formed in the string.
 The standing wave formed starts with a node and
ends with a node because of boundary
conditions.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 14

Vibrating strings
Intermediate level

 First harmonic (fundamental) has 2 nodes and 1

antinode. One loop.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 15

Vibrating strings
Intermediate level

 Second harmonic has 3 nodes and 2 antinodes.

Two loops.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 16

 Vibrating strings
Intermediate level

 Third harmonic has 4 nodes and 3 antinodes.

Three loops and so on.
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 17
Vibrating strings
Intermediate level

L
2L
First harmonic: 2L   
1
2L
Second harmonic: L   
2
2
Third harmonic: L  
3
2L
th
n harmonic: 
n

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 18

Vibrating strings First harmonic: 2L   
2L
1
2L Intermediate level
Second harmonic: L   
2
L 2
Third harmonic: L  
3
2L
n th harmonic: 
n

Velocity of wave in stretched string:

T
v where T is tension in string

and  is the mass per unit length of string

T 2L
v f   f for the n th harmonic
 n
n T
fn 
2L 
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 19
Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

 The sonometer consists of a hollow-box for

amplifying the sound, string, bridges and weights.
 The weights change the tension in the wire.
 The distance between bridges control the length of
vibrating string.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 20

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

 Watch this video.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EBv_qQOAlMM&fe
ature=share&list=PLA46EA1E88BBBFD14

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 21

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level
 To verify that the first harmonic frequency is inversely proportional to length.
 Keep the tension and thickness of wire fixed throughout the experiment.
 Move the bridge to give a suitable length of vibrating string.
 Place a small paper rider on string in the middle.
 Sound a tuning fork of known frequency and place it on one of the
bridges. Keep repeating by using different tuning forks until the paper
flies off by resonance.
 Repeat the procedure for different lengths.
 A graph of frequency against the reciprocal of length gives a line with
positive gradient and passes through the origin.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 22

 Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

 A graph of frequency against reciprocal of length gives a

line with positive gradient and passes through the origin.

f 1
L

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 23

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level
 To verify that first harmonic frequency is directly proportional to the root of the
tension in the wire.
 Keep the length and thickness of wire fixed throughout the experiment.
 Put some weights on the carrier.
 Place a small paper rider on string in the middle.
 Sound a tuning fork of known frequency and place it on one of the
bridges. Keep repeating by using different tuning forks until the paper
flies off by resonance.
 Repeat the procedure for different weights on carrier.
 A graph of frequency against the root of the tension in wire gives a line
with positive gradient and passes through the origin

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 24

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

 A graph of frequency against root of tension in wire

gives a line with positive gradient and passes through
the origin.

f  T

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 25

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level
 To verify that first harmonic frequency is inversely proportional to the root of the mass per unit
length of wire.
 Keep the length and tension in wire fixed throughout the experiment.
 Measure the mass and entire length of wire.
 Determine the mass per unit length of wire.
 Place a small paper rider on string in the middle.
 Sound a tuning fork of known frequency and place it on one of the bridges.
Keep repeating by using different tuning forks until the paper flies off by
resonance.
 Repeat the procedure for different wires.
 A graph of frequency against the reciprocal of the root of the mass per unit
length of wire gives a line with positive gradient and passes through the origin

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 26

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

 A graph of frequency against the reciprocal of the

root of mass per unit length of wire gives a line with
positive gradient and passes through the origin

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 27

Melde’s experiment
Intermediate level

n T
fn 
2L 
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 28
Example W4.1
Intermediate level

a) State the minimum distance between an

antinode and a node in terms of the wavelength
of the wave.
b) What is the phase difference between two
particles between two consecutive nodes?
c) A string of length 15 cm is vibrating in its fifth
harmonic and has five loops starting with a node
and ending with a node. Find the wavelength of
the stationary wave.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 29

Solution
Intermediate level

Antinode
 Node

4
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 30
Solution
Intermediate level

In phase

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 31

Solution
Intermediate level

2.5  15 cm
1 

15 cm

15 cm  1
  6 cm
2.5

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 32

Example W4.2
Intermediate level

 A string 2.4 m long is attached to a mechanical

oscillator operating at 100.0 Hz. The oscillator sends
travelling waves along the string at a speed of 60.0 m
s-1. When waves reflect, the reflected waves and
oncoming waves create a standing wave.
a) Find the wavelength of the wave.
b) Determine how many loops are formed in the
standing wave.
c) Draw the wave.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 33

Solution
Intermediate level

v f
Data:
a)
L  2.4 m
f  100.0 Hz v

v  60.0 m s 1 f
 ?

60.0 m s 1

100.0 Hz
 0.600 m to 3 s.f.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 34

 Solution
Intermediate level

Data: 
0.600 m
b) 1 loop  
L  2.4 m 2 2
f  100.0 Hz n  2.4 m
v  60.0 m s 1 2.4 m 1 loop
  0.600 m n
0.600 m
c)
 4 loops

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 35

Single-slit diffraction
Intermediate level

 When waves pass through a gap, most of the

energy passes in a straight line.
 However, some of the energy spreads on either
side of the gap.
 This phenomenon is called diffraction.
 We use a ripple tank to study waves using water.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 36

 Ripple tank
Intermediate level

 A shallow transparent tray

containing water.
 Source of light.
 Mechanical oscillator with
dippers or straight-edge
wooden block.
 Different shapes of barriers.
 Transparent Perspex shapes.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 37

Single-slit diffraction with water
Intermediate level

 Water plane waves

passing through a
gap.
 It is expected that
only the section of
plane waves the size
of the gap pass
through.
 Plane waves spread
out to the left and
right of the barriers.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 38

Diffraction variation
Intermediate level

 Diffraction pattern is more visible if the gap size

is close to the wavelength.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 39

 Single-slit diffraction with light
Intermediate level

A series of dark and bright fringes are created.

Maximum intensity
of light
However light curbs to the edges of the slit
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 40
 Interference
Intermediate level
 Interference of waves causes a
series of alternating maxima and
minima resultant displacements
when precise criteria are met.
 The waves must have
approximately equal amplitudes,
same frequency and the same
constant phase.
 Interference of light is a series
of dark and bright fringes.
 Interference of sound is a series
of loud and silent sound.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 41

Interference
Intermediate level

 When a crest meets a crest or a trough meets a

trough – Constructive interference.
 When a crest meets a trough – Destructive
interference.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 42

Path length and difference
Intermediate level

 Path length is the distance

in metre between two
points on a wave train.
 Path difference is the extra
distance that one wave
train has over another one
up to the point where they
meet. Both path lengths
should start from points
that are in phase with one
another.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 43

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 A source of light emits bursts of radiation which are

random.
 If L.A.S.E.R (Light Amplification by Simulated
Emission Radiation) light is used then the single slit is
not required.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 44

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 The double slit produces two coherent waves.

 Two coherent sources are in phase, have the same frequency and
same amplitude.
 A laser light emits bursts of radiation which are
coherent.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 45

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 The first slit ensures that the two slits are

illuminated by one single wavefront.
 According to Huygens’ principle, the two slits
will emit light in phase.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 46

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 Each slit produces its own diffraction pattern

and in the area where these diffraction patterns
overlap will cause interference of light which is
made up of a series of bright and dark fringes.
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 47
Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 48

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 Constructive interference occurs when the path

difference is an integer multiple of the
wavelength. Destructive interference occurs when the
path difference is an integer and a half of a
wavelength.

Constructive: n
 1
Destructive:  n   
 2
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 49
Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

Path diff.  n

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 50

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 1
Path diff.   n   
 2

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 51

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 Monochromatic light means waves having the

same wavelength and hence produce one colour.
 Street light is monochromatic. They use sodium
vapour.
 White light is a mixture of all the frequencies of
visible light. A filament bulb.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 52

Diffraction by single and double slits
Intermediate level

 Watch this video.

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7jiz5xq2F50&feature
=share&list=PLA46EA1E88BBBFD14

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 53

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

For a dark fringe:

For a bright fringe:  1
n D  n   D
x
2
x
d d

1
x x xD
 The fringe separation x is ......
d
 ...... directly proportional to the wavelength of light used. Fringes formed
by red light will be further apart than fringes produced by the blue light.
 ...... inversely proportional to the slit separation. When S1 and S2 are
closer to each other the fringes will be more apart from each other.
 ...... is directly proportional to the distance between slits and screen.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 54

Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

Red fringes are more apart than blue fringes x

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 55
Young’s double slit
Intermediate level

 n  3 Third bright fringe

n  2 Second bright fringe

 n  1 First bright fringe
 n  0  Central bright fringe
 n  1 First bright fringe
n  2 Second bright fringe
 n  3 Third bright fringe

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 56

Example W5.1
Intermediate level

 In a certain Young’s double-slit experiment for which

D = 1.00 m and d = 0.10 cm, the bright fringes are
0.5 mm apart. What wavelength of light is being used?
[500 nm]

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 57

 Solution
Intermediate level

D
x
d
Data:
D  1.00 m
3  1.00 m
d  0.10 cm  0.10 10 2
m 0.5 10 m
x  0.5 mm  0.5 10 3
m 0.10 102 m
 ?
0.5 103 m  0.10 102 m

1.00 m

5 107 m  
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 58
 Example W5.2
Intermediate level

 Laser light (630 nm) incident on a pair of slits produces

an interference pattern in which the bright fringes are
separated by 8.3 mm. A second light produces an
interference pattern in which the bright fringes are
separated by 7.6 mm. What is the wavelength of this
second light? [577 nm]

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 59

 Solution
Intermediate level

D
Data 1: x
D? d
d ? Laser light:
x  8.3 mm  8.3 10 3 630 109 m  D
m 8.3 103 m    [1]
  630 109 m d

Data 2:
Light of wavelength 
D? 3 D
7.6 10 m     [2]
d ? d
x  7.6 mm  7.6 103 m
 ?
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 60
 Solution
Intermediate level

8.3 103 m D
[1]  9

Data 1: 630 10 m d
D? 7.6 103 m D
[2]  
d ?  d
x  8.3 mm  8.3 10 3 m
  630 10 m
9 8.3 103 m 7.6 103 m

9
630 10 m 
Data 2:
D? 7.6 103 m
 3
 630  10 9
m
d ? 8.3 10 m
x  7.6 mm  7.6 103 m
 ?   5.8 107 m to 2 s.f.
SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 61
Past paper problems
Intermediate level

 Sept 2006, number 8.

 May 2007, number 15.

SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES Mr. Carmel Azzopardi 62