THE NERVOUS

SYSTEM

DE CASTRO, BRUCE DWAYNE D.

MANIBO, ASHLEY M.
SOLEDAD, ALDRIANNA D.
 Topic Outline
A. Organization of the Nervous System D. Peripheral Nervous System

Structure of a Nerve
Structural Classification
Cranial Nerves
Functional Classification Spinal Nerves and Nerve Plexuses

B. Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function E. Autonomic Nervous System

Supporting Cells Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems
Compared •
Neurons Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Divison • Anatomy
of the Sympathetic Division •
Anatomy • Classification • Physiology
Autonomic Functioning
• Nerve Impulses • Physiology
Reflexes

C. Central Nervous System Developmental Aspects of the Nervous

System
Functional Anatomy of the Brain
Protection of the Central Nervous System
Brain Dysfunctions
Spinal Cord
NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IS THE MASTER
CONTROL AND COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
OF THE BODY.

IT COMMUNICATES WITH BODY CELLS

USING ELECTRICAL IMPULSES, WHICH ARE
RAPID AND SPECIFIC AND CAUSE ALMOST
IMMEDIATE RESPONSES.
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Organization of the
Nervous System
STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL
Structural Classification

The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord,
which occupy the dorsal body cavity and act as the integrating and
command centers of the nervous system.

They interpret incoming sensory information and issue instructions based

on past experience and current conditions
Structural Classification

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes all parts of the nervous
system outside the CNS. It consists mainly of the nerves that extend from the
spinal cord and brain.

Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord. Cranial nerves carry
impulses to and from the brain.

These nerves serve as communication lines. They link all parts of the body by
carrying impulses from the sensory receptors to the CNS and from the CNS to
the appropriate glands or muscles.
Functional Classification
The functional classification is concerned only with PNS structures. It divides them into 2 major
subdivisions:

1. Sensory division / Afferent division

(af′er-ent; literally “to go toward”)

consists of nerves that convey impulses to the central nervous

system from sensory receptors located in various parts of the body.

The sensory division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events

going on both inside and outside the body.
Functional Classification
2. Motor division / Efferent division

Carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles and
glands.

The motor division in turn has two subdivisions:

a. Somatic nervous system

b. Autonomic nervous system (has two parts)

b.1 sympathetic
b.2 parasympathetic
Nervous tissue:
Structure and
Function
Supporting cells Neurons
Supporting cells in the CNS are neuroglia

Neuroglia include many types of cells that support, insulate, and

protect the delicate neurons

CNS neuroglia: astrocytes, microglia, ependymal, and

oligodendrocytes.

PNS supporting cells: Schwann cells and satellite cells

 CNS Neuroglia
Astrocytes Microglial Ependymal Oligodendrocytes
-help protect the -monitor the -wraps tightly
-line the central
neurons health of nearby around the nerve
cavities of the brain
from harmful neurons and fibers
& spinal cord
substances that dispose of debris -Produce fatty in
might be in - cilia helps circulate sulating coverings
the blood. cerebrospinal fluid. myelin sheaths
PNS Supporting cells

Satellite cells Schwann cells

-protective, -form the
cushioning myelin
cells for sheaths
neuron cell around PNS
body nerve fibers
Supporting cells
Although neuroglia somewhat resemble neurons structurally
(both cell types have cell extensions), they are not able to
transmit nerve impulses.

Neuroglia never lose their ability to divide, whereas most neurons

do. Most brain tumors are formed by neuroglia (gliomas).
Neurons
A. ANATOMY - different structures of neurons

B. CLASSIFICATION:

FUNCTIONAL - direction of the nerve impulse

STRUCTURAL- number of processes

C. PHYSIOLOGY:
NERVE IMPULSE
REFLEXES
 Cell body
Neurons
Also called Nerve cells

Highly specialized to transmit messages

from one part of the body to another.

Processes
Although neurons differ structurally from
one another, they have many common
features

All have a cell body, which contains the

nucleus and one or more slender
processes extending from the cell body.
Anatomy: Structures of a Neuron

Cell body Processes Myelin sheaths

*the metabolic center *whitish, fatty material
*arm-like fibers
of the neuron *Dendrites: Neuron processes *has a waxy appearance
that convey incoming
*transparent nucleus *protects and insulates the
messages or electrical signals
contains a fibers and increases the
toward the cell body
large nucleolus transmission rate of nerve
*Axons: generate impulses.
*lacks centrioles nerve impulses and typically
conduct them *PNS are myelinated by
(amitotic nature) schwann cells while, CNS
away from the cell body
*Axons terminals: stimulate are myelinated by
*Rough ER= Niss'l
the release of oligodendrocytes.
bodies
neurotransmitters *CNS lack neurilemma-
*Filaments=Neurofibrils *Synaptic cleft fiber regenerator
* Synapses
Multiple Sclerosis
Importance of myelin insulation is best illustrated by observing what
happens when myelin is not there.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) (Autoimmune disease) gradually destroys the

myelin sheaths around CNS fibers by converting them to hardened sheaths
called scleroses.

Causes short circuits.Nerve signals do not always reach the intended target.

Visual and speech disturbances, lose the ability to control his or her
muscles, and become disabled

No cure yet, but injections of interferon to hold the symptoms.

TERMINOLOGIES
CNS PNS
Nuclei- clusters of cell bodies Ganglia- Small collections of cell
in the CNS. bodies in the PNS

Tracts- Bundle of nerve fibers Nerves- Bundle of nerve fibers

( processes)

White matter- dense collection

of myelinated fibers (tracts).

Gray matter- unmyelinated

fibers and cell bodies.
Functional classification

Functionally, neurons are

grouped according to the
direction the nerve impulse
travels relative to the CNS.

The different types of neurons

according to the direction
namely:
sensory neurons/afferent
neurons
motor neurons/efferent
neurons
association neurons
(interneurons)
Structural classification
Structural classification is based on the number of
processes, including both dendrites and axons,
extending from the cell body.

Types of neurons based on numbers of processes:

multipolar neuron- multiple processes

bipolar neurons-two processes
unipolar neurons -single process
Physiology: Nerve impulses
Neurons have two major functional properties:
irritability-the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse
conductivity-the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands.

Electrical Conditions of a Resting Neuron’s Membrane

The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, neuron is polarized, which means that
there are fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face of the neuron’s plasma
membrane than there are on its outer face

The major positive ions inside the cell are potassium (K+), whereas the major positive
ions outside the cell are sodium (Na+).

Neuron will stay inactive as long as the inside remains more negative (fewer positive
ions) than the outside,
Action Potential Initiation and Generation
1 Polarized

2 Depolarization

3 Depolarization and generation of an action potential

4 Propagation of the action potential

5 Repolarization.

6 Initial ionic conditions restored.

Physiology: Nerve Impulses
A number of factors can impair the conduction of impulses.
For example, sedatives and anesthetics block nerve impulses by altering membrane
permeability to ions, mainly sodium ions.
No sodium entry = no action potential.

Transmission of the Signal at Synapses

So far we have explained only the irritability aspect of neuronal functioning. What
about conductivity?
How does the electrical impulse traveling along one neuron get across the synapse
to the next neuron (or effector cell) to influence its activity?
The impulse doesn't cross instead a neurotransmitter chemical crosses the synapse
to transmit the signal from one neuron to the next, or to the target cell
Physiology: Reflexes
There are many types of communication between neurons but
most of what the body must do every day is programmed as
reflexes.

Reflexes - rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli.

Reflex arcs- neural pathways where reflexes occur called (involve both CNS and PNS)
The types of reflexes that occur in the body are classed as:
*somatic reflexes- all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
Ex. When you quickly pull your hand away from a hot object

*autonomic reflexes- regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and
glands. Ex: salivary reflex and pupillary reflex
-Autonomic reflexes regulate such body functions as
digestion, elimination, blood pressure, and sweating.
 Physiology: Reflexes
All reflex arcs have a minimum of five elements:
1. Receptor
2. Effector
3. Sensory
4. Motor neurons
5. CNS integration center.
 Physiology: Reflexes
Two-neuron reflex
-knee-jerk (patellar) reflex
-physical exam

Three neuron reflex :

-The flexor, or withdrawal reflex.
-limb is withdrawn from a painful
stimulus

Many spinal reflexes involve only

spinal cord neurons and occur
without brain involvement.
Reflexes that are exaggerated,
distorted, or absent indicate
damage or disease.
Central Nervous
System
Overview of the CNS
A. Functional anatomy of the brain
a. Cerebral hemispheres
b. Diencephalon
c. Brain stem
d. Cerebellum
B. Protection of the central nervous system
a. Meninges
b. Cerebrospinal fluid
c. The blood-brain barrier
d. Brain dysfunctions
C. Spinal Cord
a. Gray matter and spinal roots
b. White matter and spinal cord
A. Functional anatomy
of the Brain
about two good fistfuls of
pinkish gray tissue

wrinkled like a walnut

texture of cold oatmeal.

It weighs a little over 3

pounds.
 THE BODY'S
PROCESSING CENTER
The adult brain’s unimpressive appearance gives
few hints of its remarkable abilities. The brain is
the largest and most complex mass of nervous tis-
sue in the body, we commonly discuss it in terms of
its four major regions—cerebral hemispheres, dien-
cephalon (di″en-sef′ah-lon), brain stem, and cere-
bellum.
13 weeks Brain Adult Brain
a. Cerebral hemispheres
Also called cerebrum
the most superior part of the brain and together are a good
deal larger than the other three brain regions combined
Gyri- (gyrus) elevated ridges of tissue.
Sulci-(sulcus) shallow grooves
Fissure- deeper grooves.

Each hemispheres has three basic regions:

a. superficial cortex of gray matter
b. internal area of white matter
c. basal nuclei
*cerebral cortex
Function: Speech, memory, logical and emotional responses,
consciousness, the interpretation of sensation, and
voluntary movement are all
a. Primary somatic sensory area
Located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus
allows you to recognize pain, differences in temperature, or a
light touch.
most sensory receptors—the lips and fingertips
Sensory homunculus- spatial map
b. Primary motor area
allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles
anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
Motor homunculus- body map on the motor cortex
finest motor control: the face, mouth, and hands
*cerebral cortex
anterior association area
-anterior part of the frontal lobes
-higher intellectual reasoning
-language comprehension.
-Complex memories stored in temporal and frontal

posterior association area

-posterior cortex
-recognizing patterns and faces, and blending
several different inputs into an understanding of
the whole situation.
*cerebral white matter
Most of the remaining cerebral hemisphere tissue—the
deeper cerebral white matter
is composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to, from, or
within the cortex.

corpus callosum- commissures. Very large fiber tract that

connects the cerebral hemispheres
Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere,
Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower CNS
centers, such as the brain stem.
*basal nuclei
Although most of the gray matter is in the cerebral cortex, there are
several “islands” of gray matter basal nuclei, buried deep within the
white matter of the cerebral hemispheres

Help regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying instructions

(starting or stopping movement) sent to the skeletal muscles.

internal capsule-A tight band of projection fibers that passes

between the thalamus and the basal nuclei
b. Diencephalon
diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop
the brain stem and is enclosed by the
cerebral hemispheres

major structures:

*thalamus -encloses third ventricle.

*hypothalamus-under the thalamus.
(Pituitary gland and
mammillary bodies.)
*epithalamus- roof of third ventricle
(pineal gland and choroid
plexus)
 c. Brain stem
About the size of a thumb in diameter
the brain stem has many small gray
matter areas.

Its structures are the ff:

midbrain-
pons- "bridge"
medulla oblongata-
c. Brain stem
Reticular formation- involved in motor control of the visceral
organs
reticular activating system (RAS) -plays a role in
consciousness and the awake/sleep cycle. Damage causes coma
d. Cerebellum
The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the
occipital lobe of the cerebrum.

Has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface.

The cerebellum also has an outer cortex made up of gray matter and an
inner region of white matter.

Plays its role less well when i is sedated by alcohol

ataxia-a condition where the cerebellum is damaged movements

become clumsy and disorganized (like a drunk person)
PROTECTION
Back to Navigation Page
OF THE
Central Nervous
System
• Nervous tissue is soft and delicate, and even The Blood-Brain barrier
slight pressure can injure the irreplaceable • No other body organ is so absolutely dependent on a constant internal environment as is the
neurons. brain.Other body tissues can withstand the rather small fluctuations in the concentrations of
• Nature tries to protect the brain
hormones,ions, and nutrients that continually occur, particularly after eating or exercising. If the
and spinal cord by enclosing them within bone (the
brain were exposed to such chemical changes, uncontrolled neural activity might result—
skull and vertebral column).
remember that certain ions (sodium and potassium) are involved in initiating nerve impulses
and that some amino acids serve as neurotransmitters.

Meninges
The three connective tissue membranes Meninges of the brain. (a) Three-dimensional frontal
covering and protecting the CNS structures section showing the meninges—the dura mater, arachnoid
are meninges. Du′rah ma′ter, Arachnoid mater, and pia mater—that surround and protect the brain.
mater, and Pia mater. The relationship of the dura mater to the falx cerebri and
the superior sagittal (dural) venous sinus is also shown.
(b) Posterior view of the brain in place surrounded by the
dura mater.
Cerebrospinal Fluid
•Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery “broth”
with components similar to blood plasma,
from which it forms.
However, it contains less protein and more
vitamin C, and its ion composition is different.
 Brain dysfunctions
Traumatic Brain Injuries
Head injuries are a leading cause of accidental death in the United States. Brain
trauma is caused not only by injury at the site of the blow, but also by the effect of the
ricocheting brain hitting the opposite end of the skull
Concussion
brain injury is slight. The victim may be dizzy, “see stars,” or lose consciousness
briefly.
Contusion
severe brain stem contusions always result in a coma lasting from hours to a lifetime
due to injury to the reticular activating system (RAS).

Death may come from:

Intracranial hemorrhage
bleeding from ruptured vessels.
Cerebral edema
swelling of the brain due to inflammatory response to injury
 Brain dysfunctions
Cerebrovascular Accidents (CVA)
Commonly called strokes, cerebrovascular accidents (CVAs)
Fifth leading cause of death in the United States
CVAs occur when blood circulation to a brain area is blocked

Hemiplegia
Left-sided paralysis. Damage to the right motor cortex of the frontal lobe.

Aphasias
result of damage to the left cerebral hemisphere where the language areas are located.
Types of aphasias:
1. motor aphasia - damage to Broca’s area and a loss of ability to speak
2. sensory aphasia- loses the ability to understand written or spoken language

Transient ischemic attack (TIA)

Temporary brain ischemia, or restricted blood flow
 Brain
Dy

sf
u n c ti o n
s

Spinal Cord
•The cylindrical spinal cord, which is
approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long, is a
glistening white continuation of the brain stem.

•Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and

protected by meninges.

•The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction

pathway to and from the brain, and it is a major
reflex center (spinal reflexes are completed at Brain

this level).

ns
ys
f u n c ti o

D
•Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal
cord extends from the foramen magnum of the skull
to the first or second lumbar vertebra, where it
ends just below the ribs.
 Gray Matter of
the Spinal Cord
and Spinal Roots
The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a
butterfly or the letter H in cross section.

•The two posterior projections are the dorsal horns, or

posterior horns; the two anterior
projections are the ventral horns, or anterior
horns.

•The gray matter surrounds the central

canal of the cord, which contains CSF.
White Matter of the Back to Navigation Page

SPINAL CORD
• White matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fiber tracts
—some running to higher centers, some traveling from the brain to the
cord,and some conducting impulses from one side of the spinal cord to
the other.

• Because of the irregular shape of gray matter, the white

matter on each side of the cord is divided into three regions—
the dorsal column, lateral column, and ventral column.

Each of the columns contains a number of fiber tracts made up of

axons with the same destination and function. Tracts conducting
sensory impulses to the brain are sensory, or afferent, tracts.
Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal muscles are
motor, or efferent, tracts. All tracts in the dorsal columns are
ascending tracts that carry sensory input to the brain. The lateral
and ventral columns contain both ascending and descending
(motor) tracts.
Peripheral
Nervous System
 STRUCTURE
OF A
NERVE

A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS

(central nervous system).
Structure of a Nerve
Endoneurium Epineurium
(en"do-nu're-um) Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous
each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath, to form the cordlike nerve
sheath

Perineurium Fascicles
(per"i-nu're-um) to form fiber bundles
groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue
wrapping,
 Cranial Nerves
Cranial nerves send electrical signals between your brain, face, neck and
torso. Your cranial nerves help you taste, smell, hear and feel sensations

Olfactory Sensory
Optic Sensory
Oculomotor Motor
Trochlear Motor
Trigeminal Sensory and Motor
Abducens Motor
Facial Sensory and Motor
Vestibulocochlear Sensory
Glossopharyngeal Sensory and Motor
Vagus Sensory and Motor
Accessory Motor
Hypoglossal Motor
 Figure 7.23 Distribution of
cranial nerves. Sensory nerves
are shown in blue, motor
nerves in red. Although cranial
nerves III, IV, and VI have
sensory fibers, these are not
shown because the sensory
fibers account for only minor
parts of these nerves
SPINAL NERVES
AND
Nerve Plexuses
 The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed
by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots
of the spinal cord. Although each of the cranial
nerves issuing from the brain is named specifi-
cally, the spinal nerves are named for the region of
the cord from which they arise.
 SPINAL NERVES
Relationship of spinal nerves
to the vertebrae. Areas of plexuses
formed by the ventral rami
are indicated. (b) Relative distribution
of the ventral and dorsal
rami of a spinal nerve (cross section of
the left trunk)
PLEXUSES
The ventral rami of all
other spinal nerves form
complex networks of
nerves called plexuses, which
serve the motor
and sensory needs of the limbs.
 Spinal Nerve Plexuses

Cervical Branchial Lumbar Sacral

•Sciatic (largest nerve in • Superior and inferior
•Phrenic • Axillary •Femoral (including lateral
body; splits to common gluteal
and anterior cutaneous
• Radial branches)
fibular and tibial nerves
just above knee)
• Median
•Obturator
• Common fibular
•Muscolocutaneous (superficial and deep
•Ulnar branches)
• Tibial (including sural
and plantar branches)
 Autonomic Nervous System
also called the involuntary nervous system
is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body activities
automatically.
composed of a specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac muscle
(the heart), smooth muscles (found in the walls of the visceral organs and
blood vessels), and glands.
Somatic Nervous System
also called the voluntary nervous system
consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved in
conscious activities
composed of sensory nerves carrying afferent nerve fibers, which relay
sensation from the body to the central nervous system (CNS)
Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
“rest-and-digest” system
also called the craniosacral division
the preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division are located in brain
nuclei of several cranial nerves —III, VII, IX, and X (the vagus being the most
important of these) and in the S2 through S4 levels of the spinal cord (see
Figure 7.27).
Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
“fight-or-flight” system
also called the thora-columbar (tho″rah-ko-lum′bar) division
preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the spinal cord from T1 through
L2 (see Figure 7.27).
Autonomic Functioning
Body organs served by the autonomic
nervous system receive fibers from both
divisions.
When both divisions serve the same
organ, they cause antagonistic effects,
mainly because their postganglionic axons
release different neurotransmitters
 Developmental Aspects of the Nervous System

1. Maternal and environmental factors may impair embryonic brain development. Oxygen
deprivation destroys brain cells. Severe congenital brain diseases include cerebral palsy,
anencephaly, hydrocephalus, and spina bifida.

2. Premature babies have trouble regulating body temperature because the hypothalamus
is one of the last brain areas to mature prenatally.

3. Development of motor control indicates the progressive myelination and maturation of a

child’s nervous system. Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die throughout life
and are not replaced; thus, brain mass declines with age.

4. Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal intellectual function. Disease.particularly

cardiovascular disease—is the major cause of declining mental function with age.