PHYSICS SIMPLY

Your entry to the world of physics

from the beginning to the end

Ramón Franco
introduction
Hi! Here we begin our study of Physics. But what is physics?
Well, to define the very simply physics, we can say that it is the science
that studies the phenomena natural more general, seeking to describe
them, explained here them and provide for them. To do so, it uses the
math and language Basic.
An image that is normally made of Physics is that when a
certain theory is scientifically proven, we have the establishment of an
absolute truth. This is not true. Science is a human construction and,
therefore, subject to errors. Of course there are strict criteria that a
theory can be considered scientific , and by this, the theories gain status
of truth. However, when we look at the facts of the history of science
observe the corrections and changes that mui- tas theories, a day
considered true, had to go with the emergence of research results
carried out later. Some of them were even abandoned and replaced by
other new theories.
The idea that usually it is the physical as geniuses, mad,
complemented ly isolated from reality and immersed only in the world
of science, tam- Bém is one myth. No scientific knowledge is the work
of a single scientist. His activity of research is based on the work of
others that the run - up and of their peers today to criticize, discuss and
propose improvements in the work of research carried out.
1 - Overview of Physical crazy: the same time brilliant and disconnected
from reality
As it can see, the Physics builds their knowledge to from the
actions of one community called scientific. In this sense, it is one
building hu- mana in which several scholars bring their contributions to
the elaboration of theories and models that seek to explain, describe and
predict the phenomena of nature.
First, in function of demands social the physical seek answers
to problems that affect society. In this case, bibliographic studies and
hypotheses are raised and tested; quantities are identified and measured
in experiments and data collections are carried out. However, the most
important is the development of scientific models , that is, mental
representations that derive from laws, principles, rules, theories in an
attempt to justify the data obtained. The scientists, in this phase of its
activity, seeking to build arguments with base in reference theorists
already recognized by the scientific community. Thus, they try to
convince other members of the community that their idealizations about
the phenomenon studied is justified are. The more refined, detailed and
justified their arguments, the greater the possibility that the scientist
will have to convince his peers that his ideas about the phenomenon
studied deserve to be considered in other studies.

Thus, a model, an explanation, does not gain the status of

scientific truth without different tests, debates and discussions in the
context of the scientific community having been carried out. Scientists
conduct conferences, seminars, write articles, in short, create many
opportunities in which it can compare, analyze, test and discuss the
models and theories that are created to justify the data obtained in
different experiments. In this way, one law, one concept, one principle
or rule, only assumes the condition of science after a pass by all these
phases of
construction and, fundamentally, to convince the great majority of
scientists who make up the community scientific of that such
explanation is the more correct.
2 - Great scientists gathered in one important Congress of Physical reali-
Zado in Solvay in Brussels in 1927

Even if a theory is winning, that is considered correct by

members of the scientific community, this does not guarantee that it will
be considered verda- of absolute, valid for ever. This because, the
longer the time, other research will be carried out, new data will be
collected and, if evidence arise of what this model has to be no longer
able to explain them, scientists will work to propose new models that
are able to explain all the data that the model old explained and more
the new results that this not been able to justify.
 It is interesting to note that for each problem that generates
research and studies , new problems and questions are generated. In
fact, for scientists, a scientific theory is considered good if, in addition
to answers, it presents questions that raise new research and studies.
For this, there are many and different áreasde research in physics.
To form general and, for effect of content that we study in
our classes of physics, we can divide the studies of physics in the
following areas:
• Mechanics: area of Physics that studies the movements and balance of
rigid bodies and fluids, concerned with describing them, explaining
their causes and conditions of occurrence in nature.
• Undulating: area of physics that studies propagation processes of all or
any disturbance of one half and of phenomena journals
• Thermodynamics: area of physics that studies the heat exchanges and the
ability of them to perform work.
• Electromagnetism: area of physics that studies the phenomena electrical
and magné- ticos and the interaction between them.
• Optical: is the part of physics that studies the phenomena bright, effects and
the natu- prays the light.
Today, however, many more areas of physics exist, among
them po- demos include: Plasma Physics, Condensed Matter Physics,
Particle Physics, Astrophysics, Physics of Atmosphere, etc.
It should be noted that scientific knowledge has promoted
technological advance , that is, a series of equipment, devices,
machines, processes were implemented in society. Usually these
development products science are seen as accomplishments positive
and with consequences good for all the society. However, this is not
always true. If the knowledge built by mechanics and the
thermodynamics made it possible to build machines that have facilitated
our lives, also is necessary to emphasize that brought problems to the
issue of unemployment and pollution.

3- Impacts positive and negative of Science in

Society
 Thus the contributions of developing scientific and
technological to the society need to be evaluated and analyzed carefully
and to form criticism. Therefore , when learning scientific knowledge,
do not miss the opportunity to analyze the relationship they have with
technology and the respective impact they have had on society.
Therefore, scientific knowledge is far from offering answers
to all human questions. Fundamental questions such as: is there life
after death? Was there life before we were born? If there is life after
death or before we were born, why are we here ?, exist alongside other
less complex and that physics is not able to answer as why there is the
attraction gravitational? Because loads electrical of the same signal to
repel and of signs contrary to attract? Is it not there nothing in the
universe that is moving faster than the light?
So there are other ways of building knowledge that beings
human use and that, each in their own way, search and gives answers,
among which we can mention: the religions, the myths, the common
sense, etc.
These forms of knowledge are no better and no worse than
physics, but have characteristics and methodologies and different of
processes that the Science adopts for the construction of its conclusions.
The difference basic between the physical and the other forms of
production of co- nition unscientific
are:
• The need that Physics has to present models that, in order to be accepted
, need to go through different processes of discussion, criticism and
even reformulation;
• Scientific models, as scientific knowledge evolves, need to be
reformulated and improved. So there is no knowl- cements scientific
definitive and, therefore, considered dogmas untouchable;
• It uses a language with symbols and typical representations of the
conventions established by the scientific community, with a
structure of argument and of justifications characteristics that differ
from other for- but cultures that adopt speeches with another
organization and method of persuasion.
 Finally, Physics is a human construction and, as such, limited,
which is far from presenting all the human being's responses and from
truly describing the entire reality in which we live. It presents rules and
language specific to a scientific community and builds knowledge that
serves as a paradigm for the development of technologies that
significantly impact our lives. The course of history have different
examples of how the scientific development and technological
influenced ways of thinking, changed views of the world and
transformed practices social, political and economic.
For this, learn physics is fundamental not only to pass on
vestibu- home, but also to exercise the citizenship of form criticism and
responsible.

As we have seen, the study of physics consist in research

carried out and va- handled by the scientific community. In these
investigation works, qualitative and quantitative analyzes of natural
phenomena are carried out. Qualitative analyzes serve to that the
physical observe the phenomena and identify in them the quantities
variables and constants during the occurrence of the phenomenon.
While quantitative analyzes refer to carrying out measurements

2.1 M the are magnitudes physical ?

We can define quantities as being characteristics or aspects of
a phenomenon that are fundamental for its occurrence and arouse the
scientist's attention . Thus, when a scientist observes a phenomenon,
his point of view is not general, that is, he does not look at a
phenomenon as a whole, he focuses on some particular aspects that
attract more attention. For example, when observing something in
motion, the physicist is concerned with the distance covered, the time
taken to cover it, the speed at which it moves, if the speed is always the
same, or if it changes along the way , etc.
All these features are greatness. The quantities, to be consid-
 ered as physical by community scientific, should be able to be
measured to form concrete, or is, should facilitate the occurrence of
research of character quantitative.

2.2 does it mean to measure physical quantities ?

To measure is to compare a quantity with a standard taken as
a reference and, from there, relate a number that indicates how many
times the quantity contains this standard. In this case the standard is
taken as the unit of measure.
Measurements can be made directly or indirectly. A direct
measurement is made when there is a comparison between the quantity
to be measured with the standard. However, when the measure is
obtained by mathematical operations we say that it is indirect.

2.3 s ystem i nternational of u nities

In antiquity there was a very big problem for commerce
which was the inexistence of unique standards for making
measurements. Each used a different pattern . In 1960, the International
System of Units (SI) was created .
In this system the magnitudes fundamental are: the length, the
mass, the time, the intensity of current power, the temperature, the
amount of matter and the light intensity. In this case, physicists have
defined units for these quantities. The other quantities have units
derived from these fundamental quantities .
Table 1 - Fundamental quantities and their respective units defined by the
SI

Table 2 - Some derived quantities and their respective units defined by the SI

2.4 P Termination of onE Measure

A precise measurement, that is, with the least possible error,
depends on the measuring instruments that are available, in addition to
 the competence of the person who will carry out the measurement.
The competence of the meter is related to your knowledge
about the use of the instrument of measurement and their care to make
the reading of the instrument.
Regarding the accuracy of the measuring instruments,
they depend on the number of divisions it presents. Note the
example to follow:
Consider a ruler, whose smallest division is the centimeter, as
indicated in the following figure:
Note that the measurement of the book is between 15 and 16
cm. For a more accurate measurement , we would need a measurement
instrument with a larger number of divisions. In this case, if we divided
the centimeter into 10 parts, we would get a ruler graduated in
millimeters. In this case, the precision of the instrument would be
higher.

2.5 i nCerteza in Measurement

When to carry out any measure of one magnitude physically
not up can have cer- teza absolute as to its accuracy. Therefore , no
measurement can be considered, in fact, to be exact.
But how, when we measure the intensity or module of one
magnitude physics, attributing to it one number and one unit, we can
have some confidence in the value obtained?
To obtain this confidence in all measurements performed,
physicists, in addition to statistical methods that minimize the
possibility of errors, express the uncertainty of the measurement
performed, informing the range of values in which the measurement is
most likely to be accurate.
In the example above, if we consider half of the smallest
division of the measuring instrument, we will obtain 0.5 cm. In this
case, the measure of the book can be expressed as follows :
 15.5 ± 0.5cm
That is, the measurement indicated expressed an interval in
which the measure exact the book is located. The value 15 is one in
which the meter is assured. The number 5 is unreliable. However, with
the indication of uncertainty ± 0.5 cm, it expresses with conviction the
range in which the obtained measurement is reliable.

2.6 to l L aris M to itself L ni F I C to you see the

We can define significant figures as those which, in fact, have
meaning in a measure. They constitute the numeral obtained the extent
that it has certainly increased the number doubtful.
For example, imagine that you have to measure a pendulum
of great length as the shown in the figure the following:

2 – Measure of a pendulum
It is customary to say that its length involves the length of
wire over the half of the diameter of the ball attached to its end. Let's
say that you measure the length of the wire with an instrument whose
smallest division of the scale is given in centimeters and that you
measure the diameter with a ruler whose smallest division is the
millimeter.
Let us assume that you obtain to the wire length a measure
equal to 208 cm. This makes you express your reading as follows :
208.0 ± 0.5cm
Note that 2.0 and 8 are the numbers you are sure of. The number 0,
after the comma, is the doubtful one.
Let's assume that when measuring the diameter of the sphere
tied to the wire, you get 60 mm. That is, a radius of 30 mm. This makes
you express your reading as follows :
 30.0 ± 0.5
mm or
3.00 ±
0.05 cm
Note that 3 and the first 0 are the numbers that you have
certainty. The if- Gundo 0 digit is doubtful. By adding the two
measurements together to obtain the length of the pendulum
you make
208.0 cm + 9.00 cm = 211.00 cm

Note that, as the second 0, after the comma, is of greater

precision than that obtained in the measurement of the wire, it is not
significant, therefore, the measurement must be expressed with the
digits obtained with the less accurate instrument: 211, 0 ± 0.5 cm
A very simple method for performing operations with
significant digits is to add an x to the right of the questionable digit of
any measure, before performing the operation. Thus, after the
operation, consider the numbers not been affected by x.
If it is necessary to rounding, use the following rule: If the number to
the right of the rounding point is:
a) 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 → simply eliminates the part of the right;
b) 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 → Increments the digit on the left and eliminates the part on
the right.

2.7 r EPRESENTATION of uM nuMBer the Breaking of onE notation scientific

In physics, or even in other sciences, it is natural to obtain
measurements of very small numbers or very large numbers. Therefore,
it is natural that they are indicated in a more compact form , called
scientific notation that uses the power of ten to represent the numbers.
Therefore, a number expressed in scientific notation must be expressed
as follows :
Where n is a number in the range equal to: To obtain the
number y, we have the following rule:
 a) Count the number of places that the comma should be shifted to the left;
this number gives us a positive
exponent of 10;
b) Count the number of places that the comma must be shifted to the
right; this number gives a negative exponent of 10.
So, look at the following examples :
The number 1500000 can be written in scientific notation as follows :
.
Already the number 0.0000015 can be written in notation science the
following form: .

2.8 the use of prefixes in the representation of measurements

The use of scientific notation also facilitates the use of
prefixes of multiples and submultiples that are commonly used in our
daily lives. At the time of our grandparents, it was already very natural
to use these prefixes, such as: deca, hecto, kilo, mega, mili, cent, deci,
etc. Today, with the development of information technology and
microelectronics , we live daily with other prefixes such as: tera, giga,
pico, nano, etc.
In 1991, by recommendation of 19 the Conference General of
Weights and Measures, the following prefixes have been adopted as
standard:
Table 3 - Main prefixes, their symbols and their factors of conversion

3 vector quantities
As we have seen, the physical quantities constitute the target
of observation of scientists to the realization of their studies and
investigations of the phenomena. Until now, we have seen as
characterizing quantities the from of one number and its unit, or is, de-
finindo your module or intensity through the measures. Quantities that
only need the module to be fully defined are called scalars. Example:
temperature, time, area, volume, etc.
However, there are quantities that need of more information,
 in addition to its Mo- dulo to get well characterized. They need
geometric definitions that indicate their direction and direction. These
quantities are called vector quantities. Example: velocity, force,
acceleration, displacement, etc.
The magnitudes vector, besides the module need of one
representation geometric we call vector.
To better understand this definition, imagine 4 cars; A, B, C
and D, which respectively move with the same speed, and , as is shown
in the figure below:
1 - cars that are moving in different directions and senses

Note that the cars A and B is moved to over the straight line
X, and that the cars C and D are moved to along the line y. Therefore
we say that A and B are moving in the same
direction, in the x direction. Whereas C and D move in the same direction,
in the y direction .
However, it can be seen that C and D, and they move in the
same direction, both be moving at over the y positive, or is, have also
the same meaning. Since A and B, despite to be moving in the same
direction x, to move no way contrary: A moves along positive x while
B moves along the x negative. For this, the arrows to help to understand
the direction and the sense of greatness speed of each car.

3.1 d eFinition of vector

We can say that a vector is a geometric representation of a
vector physical quantity that, in order to be well characterized, needs
the definition of magnitude (number and unit), direction and direction.
Thus, one vector is one segment of line, whose length is the module of
greatness, the angle that the segment of straight line makes with the
horizontal indicates the direction of the magnitude and the direction of
the arrow indicates the direction.
2 – Characteristics of a vector
 Vector quantities are also represented by a letter with an
arrow on top, for example: The modulus of a vector quantity can be
represented by the letter without the arrow on top or by the letter with
the arrow on top between two lateral dashes . Therefore, the module of
the vector can be represented the following ways: V either.

3.2 v Etor resulting

Let's now imagine one point any, in which several vectors of
dif- ferent intensity, direction and sense, act. If we substitute these
vectors by one single vector capable of causing the same effect as all
other vectors together, then this new vector is called a vector result.
But how do we determine a resulting vector? That is,
determine its intensity, direction and meaning? There are
basically three methods for the determination of one vector
resulting:
• The method of polygon;
• The method of the parallelogram;
• The method of decomposition in the Cartesian system .

3.2.1 the M ethod of P olíGono

It is a method that consists in organizing the vector
representations in such a way as to obtain a polygon. For that, we must
follow the following criterion, using a ruler and a protractor, the first
vector is drawn from a previously chosen point . From the end of this
first vector, the next is drawn, and so on until the last vector. The
resulting vector, is de- terminated by the origin of the 1st vector and by
the end of the last vector stroke. See the diagram below:

Consider the vectors the following:

3 – Representing the resulting vector by the polygon method

 After the drawing of the resulting, using a ruler and a
protractor, you can determine the module and the direction of
resultante.O direction vector vector is given by the design.
3.2.2 the M ethod of P araleloGraMo
This method is used to obtain the vector resulting from two
vectors. If you have several vectors acting and need to determine the
resulting vector, you should use this method in parts, that is,
determining the resultant every two vectors. See the example to follow.
Consider the
vectors the following: 4 –
Two vectors
To determine the resulting vector, using the parallelogram method ,
we must follow the steps:
We plot the vectors with the origins coinciding at the same
point, keeping their modules, directions and directions.

5 - Organization of vectors of so that their origins coincide at the same point

From the end of the vector , we draw a line parallel to the

vector and from the end of the vector, we draw a line parallel to the
vector .

6 – Drawing parallel to vectors

The resulting vector will be obtained by joining the origin of
the two vectors with the meeting of the parallels.

7 – Representing the resulting vector by the parallelogram method

The module of the vector is calculated by the expression
below obtained to from the law of cosines. Where is the angle
formed by the vectors and
 The determination of the direction of the vector can made through the
calculation of the angle :
Case 1 - the vectors have the same
meaning, that is, How ,
then:
Soon:
Case 2 - the opposite sense vectors , that is,

How , then:
Soon:

Case 3 - the vectors have directions

perpendicular to each other, that is,
How , then:
Soon:

3.2.3 the M ethod of decomposition in systeM Cartesian

All vector, plan, can be represented by two other vectors,
when do their decomposition in the axes Cartesian. In this case these
two vectors are called the components horizontal and vertical. See the
figure the following:
8 – Decomposing the vector in the Cartesian system

In this case, we can define unit vectors e. Thus, the vector , can be
written in the following way:

Where :

Then:
Where
 :
Then:
4 INSTRUCTION the study of the movement of the kinematic
Kinematics is an area of study in Physics that studies
movement, seeking to describe it without worrying about its causes.
The move is one phenomenon common in our universe. One
can say with all certainty that everything in it is in motion.
For example, right now, you who are now standing still,
reading this text, are located on the surface of the Earth, which, in turn,
revolves around itself and also around the Sun. solar system, you move
through the universe.
In addition, we have to consider that all of the bodies, even
those that are apparently stopped, a glass of water, for example, consist
of molecules and atoms that are always in motion.

1 - A glass of water is made up of atoms that are in continuous motion

The purpose of this chapter, however, is not the study of such
complex movements – we will restrict ourselves to much simpler
movements, initially seeking to describe their most important
characteristics such as trajectory, velocity, acceleration, etc. The
intention is that you can better observe and understand the mo- ments
you see every day.

4.1 s iste M of the R and F Eren C IAS

If indeed everything is in motion how can we explain that some
things we seem charts?
Is is one question important , and to answer it, it is
necessary that you know the concept of system of reference or simply
reference.
To understand well the that is referential, think in the
following situation pro- placed below: A bus moves along
a road. Your passengers are all seated. They are stopped
or in motion?
2 - People in and out of one bus in motion
 In the first situation, we have at least two observation points
of view : one through the eyes of those inside the bus and the other for
those outside. Note that, for those who are inside the bus, the people
seem to be at home.
This is because in relation to any of them, no other passenger changes
its position over time. On the other hand, for someone outside the bus,
all passengers change their position as time passes. So for those who
see the bus the side of out of it the passengers are all in motion.
It is common, therefore, in the study of phenomena, to resort
to a set of points or bodies from which we take as a reference point. It
is from him that we make our observations.
In physics, we use the Cartesian axis system (x, y, z) to
represent tar the system of reference chosen to carry out the study.
2 - System Cartesian used as a system of reference

4.2 P oint material body and extensive

In physics we seek always to use one language more objective
as possible, aiming to describe the phenomena studied in a clear, direct
way, not I gave xando any kind of doubts about the that the describes.
Therefore, when we say that a body moves, it is necessary to
know whether its dimensions interfere or not in the study that is being
developed. To say that the body is big or small is too vague: big in
relation to what? Small compared to what?
Therefore, when we refer to a material point, we are referring
to a body whose dimensions, that is, its size, is very small in relation to
the other dimensions involved in the phenomenon studied. For
example, con- dere the following situations described the following:
1 – Cars parked in a parking lot.

4 - Parking of cars
Note that the size of cars is almost the size of vacancies dis-
poníveis to park the car. In this case, as the car's dimensions interfere
with the phenomenon, we can not consider it small. Therefore it can not
be described as
 a material point , but as an
extended body . 2 – Car on
a long highway.
5 - Cars are Getting around in a long motorway: seem points

In this case, notice that the car is very small in relation to

the total length of the road. In this case, we can consider it a material
point .
4.3 t rajetória
Note the following
material points in motion: 6 –
Material points in motion

You may have noticed that in the situations outlined above

points the ma- terials to move traveling one way to form one line
geometry of different formats. The format geometric the path followed
by the point the material in motion is called the path of movement.

4.4 s entido the movement

To go a certain way a material point can have a sense in
which or he is away or is approaching the "ground zero" of the
reference adota- of. When he moves away from the “ground zero” of
the referential, it is conventional to say that the meaning is positive.
However, on the contrary, when the material point approaches the “
ground zero” of the referential, we have a negative sense .
Consider, for example, one car in trip in via Dutra (highway
brasi- windrow that unites of Rio Janeiro to São Paulo.

A movement positive, or is, that during the passing of

time is away from "ground zero" of the framework is called the
motion progressive.
A movement negative, or is, that during the passing of
 time is approved xima the "ground zero" of reference is called if
retrograde.

4.5 P OSITION of uM point material to during the movement

You already know that along the movement, a material point
describes a line that has a specific geometric shape that we call a
trajectory. This li- nha is formed by a succession of points. Each such
point is called the body position along the movement.
Therefore, at each instant of time, during the movement, the
body occupies different positions. At the instant of time equal to zero,
the position occupied by the material point is called the initial position.
If we represent the instants of time by the letter t and the
position of the material point of the body by the letter X, we have to:

It is important to note that the position Home not is necessarily equal

to zero (X = 0), but the position of
the starting of which pass the timing the movement, or that is, when t
= 0.
0

4.6 d esloCaMento and d istânCia traveled

Two magnitudes important that need to be known for that
you can describe one movement are the displacement and the
distance traveled.
For you to fully understand the meaning of these magnitudes,
imagine the following
situation:
Admit one point stuff that comes out of the position A (the 2
meters of March
Zero the frame), goes to the position B (the 8 meters of March zero
of the reference) , and in then back to the position C (at 5 meters of
March zero of the reference), as indicating the schema below
represented:
The point materials to from the A to B is one displacement
 of 6 meters (positive direction), but returns as 3 meters (negative
direction), actually have an offset equal to 3 meters. Therefore, it can
be said that the displacement of a body, which we will represent by , is
equal to the final position minus the initial position.
cial. In other words:
In the example we have:

End position: x = 8m Start position : X = 2m

0

=8-2
=6m
The distance covered, which we will represent by the letter d,
is how far the material point actually traveled, without considering the
direction of movement. In the case of the example, the material point
traveled from A to B 6 meters and from B to C 3 meters, so in total it
covered a distance of 9 meters. In the example we have:

Displacement is a vector quantity. Thus, to be completely

defined, it is necessary to know the module, direction and meaning. In
the study of the movement of straight trajectories, the direction is
always the same, it does not change, therefore, we only consider the
module and the direction.

4.7 v peed M ean and v peed i nstantânea

Another important feature of the movement is related to the
idea of speed, is n't it ? When we think at one point the material in
motion is naturally ask if it moves fast or slow. The magnitude that
measures the speed of the body is speed.
The concept of speed is related to the displacement of the
body and with the time that he spends on that route. Thus, by definition
 it is called speed average the ratio between the displacement and the
range of time spent to travel it.
From this definition picture a car that moves in a ES- plotted, a
displacement for one interval of time Dt.
Mathematically, we can define speed as follows:

However, this does not mean that the car has always been at
this speed . It may be that at some time he may have increased the
speed, reduced, or even stopped for some time.
The speed average, therefore means the average of speed of
automó- level throughout the journey, while the instantaneous speed is
the one that the mobile is in a given moment of its movement.
The instantaneous speed is calculated in the same way as
the average speed , but in a shorter time interval, giving us an idea
of the mobile speed at a given moment. In this case we make Δt tend to
zero.
OBS .: It is important to highlight that the speed is one magnitude
vector being neces- sary, therefore, the setting module and direction.
However, for move- ments of straight path, the direction does not
change.
As the displacement is also one magnitude vector may be
po- sitivo or negative speed can also be positive or negative
depending on the movement direction.

4.7.1 the u nity of v peed

By defining the average velocity, we have the unit ratio of the
magnitude of the magnitude of the magnitude of the amount of time. In
the International System of Units (SI) the unit of length is the meter and
the unit of time is the second. Therefore, the unit of velocity in the SI is
given by:
However, there are conventional units widely used. In Brazil it is co-
mum the unit .
 A rule practice to transform
units is the following: 11 - Rule
practice to transform units of speed

4.8 to Celeração M ean and the Celeração i nstantânea

The acceleration is another concept important in the study of
motion. Incidentally, when evaluating an automobile engine
performance, for example, not checked up to speed end it can achieve,
but rather the time he spends to vary its speed.
In physics, the average acceleration is the ratio between the
variation in velocity and the time taken to vary it. Mathematically we
can write:
The same way that the speed, the acceleration can vary, this
way, when we intervals of time and small the equation above serves to
calculated home instant acceleration.
As the acceleration is one magnitude vector it is characterized
by the setting module and direction. For straight movements, the
direction does not change and in this case we only consider the
magnitude and direction. Thus, acceleration can be positive, if velocity
increases, or negative, if velocity decreases.

4.8.1 the u nity of acceleration

By setting the acceleration average, we have the right of units
of magnitude speed the greatness time. In the International System of
Units (SI) the unit of speed is the meter per second. Therefore, the unit
of acceleration in the SI is given by:

5 straight movements
Among the rectilinear movements highlight two: Rectilinear
Movement Uniform (MRU) and the Movement Rectilinear Evenly
Miscellaneous (MRUV).
 5.1 M o vi M en t o r etilineo u ni F or M e (M r u )
The MRU is the movement whose trajectory is a straight line
and the velocity is constant, that is, it does not change. In this case, the
average speed is equal to the speed at each instant of movement.

1 - Representation of a uniform rectilinear movement (MRU)

In that case and . Graphically we can represent tar the

different positions occupied by the point the material to over the time
(figure: X vs. T). As follows:
2 - graph of position versus the time of one point materials in movement
uniform rectilinear (MRU)
The math function that describes this graph is of the
first degree and can be written as: Where X is the
initial position and v is the constant velocity of the
material point .
0

This function is called the function time of the position of one point
material MRU.
As the MRU the speed is constant, the graph of velocity in
func- tion of time can be represented the following ways:

3 - Graph of the speed versus the time of one point materials in move- to
uniform rectilinear (MRU)
Calculating the area under the curve shape formed gráficoda speed
versus time of a particle in motion
between the instants t et
1
time:
, it is possible to determine the space traversed by the point materials in this
interval of
2
 4 - Determination of the space traversed between the instants t graph of
velocity versus the time
and t
1
of one point materials in MRU to from the
2

Therefore:
5.2 M the saw M en t a r etilíneo u ni F or F and F being v ariado (M r u v )
The movement Rectilinear uniformly Miscellaneous (MRUV)
the trajectory is rectilinear, but the speed varies uniformly, ie there is
an acceleration constant.
In this case, picture one car in MRUV, that part of one position
starting X , as a one -speed initial V ,
0 0
and the longer the interval of time Dt varies its speed V. Thus, for a time
t = 0 it has velocity V and, for an
0 0
instant t, it has velocity V.
Building the graph of speed versus the time for the MRUV have:
5 - Graph of the speed versus the time of one point materials in MRUV

This chart, as you already know is the of one function linear

of first grade and therefore we can write the following function, called
time function of speed of a material point in MRUV:
Where v is the speed starting and the acceleration of point material.
0

5.2.1 M oviments r etilíneo u niForMeMente the miscreant and M oviments r

etilíneo u niForMeMente r etardado
The velocity and acceleration are vector quantities, and
therefore are only well characterized as is set the module, the direction
and the direction. However, by es- tarmos studying movements of
 trajectory straight, the direction does not change. Yet,
It is important to pay attention not only to the magnitude of these
magnitudes, but also to their meaning .
Considering the sense of speed and the acceleration in MRUV, can-
we classify it in: accelerated or
delayed.
In MRUV accelerated the speed and the acceleration have the same
direction, therefore, must have the
same sign, and may be either positive or negative.
In MRUV delayed the speed and the acceleration have
meanings contrary, therefore, need to have signs contrary: one negative
and the other positive.
Now, let's make one analysis of MRUV, the from the graph V versus
the
time:

6 - Graphics of speed versus the time of points materials in MRUVA and

MRUVR

5.2.2 F unction time of P OSITION the Mruv

Already we know that the area of the curve in chart of speed
versus the time of one point the material in motion is equal to the space
that he traveled.
In this case, we can calculate:

7 - Area under the curve of the graphs of speed versus the time of one point
material MRUV
The figure under the V versus t plot of a material point in
MRUV is a trapezoid. The area of a trapeze is given expression:
Since the area of the figure under the V versus t graph of a
material point in MRUV is equal to the displacement of the rover, then
we can write:
 Replacing one equation in the other, we have to:

This is the hourly function of the position of a material point in

MRUV.
Note that the function is a typical high school, because the
position x varies with the square time. Therefore, the X versus time
graph for a material point in MRUV is a parabola, as can be seen in the
following figure :

8 – Graph of the position versus time of a material point in MRUV

time

Now, let's do an analysis of the MRUV, from the X versus the graph

9 - Analysis of the graph of position versus the time of one point materials
in MRUV

5.2.3 and q u to ç ã the the t orri C elli

The equation of Torricelli is very useful, as it allows that you
solve prob- but in which not is information on the time of duration of
the movement.
To get it, just that you isolate the time t and replace the equation.
This way we will have:
6 q Ueda free
We say that one point materials is in fall free when the only
force that acts on it is the force of gravity, or is, the force that the earth
exerts on it. As the gases that form in our atmosphere oppose resistance
 to the fall of the bodies we can say that the movement of falling free
only exists in vacuo.
1- Parachutist falling under the action of the weight force and the air
resistance force However, if we have a material point ( ie, a
body of dimensions
and reduced) falling in one time not too large, one can neglect the influ-
ence of friction of air and considering the
material point to fall free.
The free fall motion is a Uniformly Varied Rectilinear
Motion (MRUV), whose acceleration is the acceleration of gravity
represented by the letter g.
The value of g varies from one place to another depending on
variations in latitude, distribution of masses of the planet and,
fundamentally, the altitude in relation to the center of the planet: the
lower (close to the center of the planet) g has the greater modulus.
However, the higher (away from the center of the planet) g has a
smaller modulus .
For purposes of teaching, neglecting the effects of variation in
latitude and distri- bution mass of earth and considering the minimum
altitude variation of gas to near the surface land admits up to the
value of the
acceleration of gravity on earth worth g = 9, 8 m/s 2 . Some times this value
is rounded to 10 m / s 2 .
6.1 P oint material left in onE height h on the surface of
you're wrong
Considering that a material point is dropped from a height h
in relation to the Earth's surface , falling in free fall , we have:
2 - Place the material in fall free on the surface of the Earth
When height h abandoned one body over the ground, have
one MRUVA, in which the speed start is zero, or is, V0 = 0, then the
func- tion time position can be written:
The function time of the speed can be written:
 The equation of Torricelli can be written:
However, if the instead of abandoned the point the material is
released, we must admit one speed early. As the speed is one magnitude
vector it is necessary to consider four possibilities: Launch vertical for
down Launch vertical upward, oblique and horizontal Launch Launch.

6.2 l dence M en t a ve r ti C Al Qara bai x the

When we have a downward vertical launch, the initial
velocity has the same direction and direction as the acceleration due to
gravity. That's why we say
to the point the material released acquires one Movement Rectilinear
Uniformly Accelerated. So we can write:

- Point Material released to down without

resistance of the air In this case,
the equations to be used are as
follows:

6.3 l dence M en t a ve r ti C Al Qara C i F to

When one point the material is launched vertically to top it rises to a
maximum height for and then falls.
Note that during the ascent, the sense of speed is opposite to
the direction of acceleration of gravity, so the movement is slowed
down.
To the extent that rises a point materials will reducing its speed to
that to achieve a high maximum, it
becomes null, or is, when h = h
max
, then V
= 0. To determine the maximum height reached we do:
4 - Point materials released for up no resistance from the air: it goes up to ,
 and then falls

The time spent for the climb, from the point of launch to
the point highest of the trajectory can be calculated as follows:
Remember that the point more high of course the speed end is equal
to zero, then

A From this moment the point stuff begins to fall.

Note the time of rise is equal to the time of descent, in this case, the
time full motion shall be:
As t rise = t descent, we have that the total time is equal to twice the
rise time:
=2
7 l dence M en t the hori z on T ore and oblí q OU is F Tough C was the air
In our daily life, we see not only movements of falling or of
bodies launches vertically, but they can also occur in different
directions. Therefore, from now on, we will start to study oblique
movements (oblique is a word whose meaning here means angular, that
is, it makes an inclined angle in relation to a reference), that is, whose
throw makes an angle with the horizontal different from 90 o .
Continue to ignore the resistance of the air, by this, we start
from the premise of which the movement takes place in vacuo.
This type of phenomenon was studied in the 17th century by
Galileo Galilei, who, to explain it, proposed the theory of simultaneity
of compound motion .
“If a body presents a compound movement, each of the component movements
takes place as if the others did not exist and in the same time interval ” (Galileo
Galilei).

7.1 l dence M en t the hori z on T ais

In order to better understand Galileo's interpretation, let us
first think about the case of a horizontal launch under the action of
gravity and in a vacuum, that is, disregarding the action of air
resistance. For that, imagine a material point , in a vacuum, being
 launched with horizontal velocity , , at a certain height H, in relation to
the ground.
1 - Place the material thrown horizontally under action of gravity without
resis- tance air
It is possible to notice that this movement is composed of two
component movements : one horizontal and one vertical. Note that the
point materials, besides to move in the vertical falling of one height H
also simultaneously travels a distance D from the horizontal.
According to the Principle of Simultaneity of Compound
Motion, we can divide them into two and study them separately.
Horizontally, the material point describes a uniform
rectilinear motion , an MRU, whose constant velocity is , and,
vertically, a uniformly varied rectilinear motion , an MRUV whose
constant acceleration is equal to
Thus, in the horizontal, we can write:
In vertical:
It is important to emphasize that the time tq, time of fall, in
the second equation , and the time t, the first equation is the same as the
two movements, hori- zontal and vertical, occur simultaneously. In
addition, note that the function time, despise the term because y,
namely the initial speed down the vertical is zero. Therefore, only it
should be considered in the horizontal.
In this case, it is interesting to resolution of problems,
knowing the equations related to the movement components (called the
equations parametric cas) regardless of the magnitude time. So, from
equation I, we can write:
If we substitute the third equation into the second equation, we have:
Then:
To obtain one equation independent of time, t, we have:

To conclude the study of the horizontal launch , it is

important to highlight that, as we have already emphasized, in the
horizontal direction , the velocity of the material point is always
 . However, in relation to the movement vertically in the beginning,
the point the material has speed initial equal to zero, but, by reason of
the action of gravity, the module of the speed increases over time,
although its direction is maintaining consis- TES (in vertical and
directed to low).
2 - Decomposition of vector velocity of one point materials released
hori- zontalmente under action of gravity without resistance in the air

In Figure 2, there is shown a speed tangent to the curve

trajectory of the point materials with two components, and , which is
constant during all the movement and varies its module from the value
zero.
AND

time:

As it changes as a function of time, it also changes as a function of

Note, however, that not is only the module of which changes
with the time: its direction change as well, the long trajectory.
The θ direction of can be determined from the following equation:
The direction also changes with the time:

7.2 l dence M en t the oblí q uos

Now, let's consider a material point that is launched into a
vacuum with an initial velocity , whose direction makes an angle θ
with the horizontal.
3 - Point materials released obliquely under action of gravity without resis-
cia air
 Note that is tangent to the parabolic trajectory of the material
point and, adopting the principle of simultaneity and independence
movements, pro- post by Galileo, have two components to, one
horizontal and the other vertical .
Using the knowledge acquired on the decomposition of vectors in
the system Cartesian, we can write
that:

In the vertical, the motion is one MRUV with acceleration

constant equal to
; Thus, we can describe the motion to start the following
manner:

The time full of movement involves one time to rise and one time of
descent. How then the total time
 Note that the movement time is equal to rise when the body
reaches the height of the maximum M, the starting of which
the point the material begins to des- cer, or is, when . See, in
the following figure :
4 - Representation of the vector velocity of one point materials released
hori- zontalmente under action of gravity without resistance in the air
Note that when the speed , or is, the body to the rise, the speed
in the vertical vanishes. So we have: To obtain the expression
of the maximum height H, reached, just replace it and we will
have:
In the horizontal, the movement is one MRU with
speed constant equal to therefore: However, the time
t is equal to the time overall . So we have:

In other words:

The modulus of the material point

velocity at any point in the trajectory is given
by:

8 M oviMentos circular
Circular motion is one in which a material point describes a
circular path. This type of movement is very common in our daily
lives: movement of the wheels of a motorcycle, a car going around a
roundabout, the blades of a fan, etc.

1 – Examples of circular movements

In our studies, we will address the Uniform Circular
Movement (MCU) and the Uniformly Varied Circular Movement
(MCUV).
8.1 M oviments C irCular u niForMe (MCU)
We say that a material point performs a uniform circular
 movement (MCU) when, in relation to a reference frame, its
trajectory is a circle and its velocity presents a constant magnitude .
In the following figure, we represent a material point in
MCU. Note the circular path and how the magnitude of the velocity
vector is constant.

2 - Place the material in motion circular uniform V = V

A B

time.
But notice that, despite the module constant, the direction and the
sense of speed to alter the course of But the what makes this happen?
The that keeps the body in the trajectory circular?

8.1.1 the acceleration in MCU

We have studied the physical quantity which indicates the
extent of the variation speed in a certain interval of time is the
acceleration. In fact, in the MCU, there is an acceleration, despite the
modulus of the velocity being constant, because the acceleration, in this
case, indicates the measure of variation only in the direction and
direction of the velocity, due to the existence of a force directed to the
center of the circular trajectory , which does not allow the body to
escape at a tangent. Note that in the following example, the radial force
(in the direction of the radius), called the centripetal force , is
responsible for not letting the body escape at the tangent. In the case of
the example, who carries out this force is the hand that exerts a traction
on the thread that holds the material point to the circular trajectory .

3 – Radial force directed to the center of the trajectory

To understand better this, imagine the situation the following:
consider one point stuff turning in around the one point O, a trajectory
circular of radius r, with the speed and equal in module, but different in
 direction and sense.
4 - Change of direction and the direction of the vector speed linear
Using the rule of polygon for determining the
vector resulting from and we have: 5 – Vector
representation of the resultant +
Note that the resulting vector is directed towards the center of
the trajectory. As the acceleration can be defined as being the ratio
between the variation of veloci- ity and the time interval, ie,
We can define this acceleration, , which only indicates the
variation in the direction and direction of the velocity and which is
directed towards the center of the circular path, as centripetal
acceleration .
Through the use of triangle similarity, it is possible to show
that the magnitude of the centripetal acceleration is equal to:
(I)

8.1.2 F requency and P eriod in M oviments C irCular

In circular movements, we have what we call periodic
movement , that is, a movement that is repeated in a certain period of
time.
We set, therefore, the magnitude period to which we represent
by the letter T, as the time required for the material to go through a
return point complete its circular path.
For Therefore, if one body in motion circular exits from one
point A , and returns to it, completing the cycle, we say that the time
spent in this way is equal to the period.

6 – Determining frequency and period of circular movement

The period unit in the International System of Units (SI) is the
second(s).
If we observe a uniform circular motion long, ve- hands that it
was repeated several times, giving several turns in around the axis of
rotation. In this case, we set frequency, which we shall denote by the
letter f, as the magnitude to which measures the number of turns that
one point the material has, in a determined swimming time interval.
Note, therefore, that frequency is the inverse of the period, or be:
 or

The unit of frequency in SI is the s -1 or the hertz (Hz). The

drive Hz in- hint how many revolutions, or spins, the point the material
held in the surrounding of one axis in a given time interval; therefore,
in some problems, it is common to see the RPS indication, that is,
Revolutions per second.
When the RPM indication, that is, Revolutions per minute,
arises in a problem , and you need to convert this unit to hertz, divide
the value in RPM by 60 and the result will be the frequency in Hz. The
rule of thumb is given in the diagram a follow:
7 - Rule practice to transform units of frequency

8.1.3 v peed linear and v peed angle

In a circular movement , we can analyze the rhythm of
movement, both as a function of the linear distance covered by a
material point, in a given time interval, and as a function of the angle
that the material point describes, in the unit of time. For this, we can
define two speeds: the speed linear and the angular velocity.
To deepen this question, imagine three material points
traveling circular paths around a point O. They all describe the same
angle , however, they travel at different distances Δx, as shown in the
following figure :

8 - Relationship between length of the arcs and angle

Note that for the three particles, the angle is the same, the
which changes are the Δx1 arcs, and Δx2 Δx3 and the radius R1, R2 and
R3.
By definition, radian (rad) is the measure of the angle θ,
determined by the ratio between arc and radius of the points material.
 Note that we have a constant:
This in allows to generalize the following relationship
between the displacement linear and angular displacement:
As speed is set by the ratio between the distance and the range of
time taken to go through it, then:
If you prefer to study the rhythm of movement, analyzing the angle
described , we can set speed angular
, as being the ratio between the angle described and the range of time spent
to describe it.
Soon:

The unit of angular velocity normally used is radian per second

(rad/s).
If we study a complete turn, that is, assuming that the point
materials describe one angle equal to 2π rd, and remembering that, for
this case, the time is equal to the period T, we can write:
as the period , we can also write :
See that the equations, we can establish one relationship between
speed angular and linear velocity:
Note that this equation demonstrates that while angular
velocity is constant for any radius, linear velocity varies with radius.
Therefore, two mobile, traversing different linear distances, can have
the same amount
of speed angular, but different values of speed linear.

8.1.4 F unction time of M oviments C irCular u niForMe (MCU)

If we make an analogy with the Uniform Rectilinear
Movement, we have that, for MRU, the time function is:
As we have seen it and , then, to the MCU, we can
write:

8.2 M oviments C irCular u niForMeMente v ariado (MCuv)

 We say that a material point performs a Uniformly Varied
Circular Movement (MCUV) when, in relation to a reference frame, its
trajectory is a circle and its velocity varies, both in magnitude and in
direction and in direction.
Thus, addition of one acceleration centripetal, there is one
acceleration tangential to which indicates the variation of the linear
velocity module.

given by:

In this case, we also have an angular acceleration , whose modulus is

The unit of throttle angle normally used is the radian per second
squared (rad / s ).
 Note also
that if
then:

8.2.1 F unctions Time of MCuv

If we make one analogy with the Movement Rectilinear
Evenly Miscellaneous, we have that, as for the MRUV the functions
Time are:
a) of the position:

b) the speed:
In MCUV, as , and , then to the MCUV, we can write:
a) of the position:
b) the speed:
8.2.2 and q u to ç ã the of T orri C elli Para the MC UV
We can also write the Torricelli equation for the MCUV, that is, a
time-independent equation:

9 d ynamic
The dynamic is the field of study of physics that studies the
causes that produce zem and modify the movement. The three laws of
Newton are the pillars of the dynamic and, for this, your understanding
is fundamental to this area of study.

9.1 P irst l i of n Newton or l i of the i nérCia

Which is harder to stop: a truck with a speed of 50 km/h or a bicycle
at that speed?
1 – Bike and truck with the same speed

Of course it 's the truck. But by that be? If both the truck and the
bicycle have the same speed?
It's because of the mass. Newton realized that inertia, that is, a
property that bodies have in resisting any attempts to vary their velocity
vector , is proportional to their masses.
Thus, in order to make a body that is initially stationary
(V=0) move, we need to overcome its inertia. The greater the mass of
the body, the greater its inertia and, consequently, the more difficult it
will be to vary its speed.
In our studies of kinematics, we learned that the vector
quantity which measures variations in the velocity vector of a body is
the acceleration; Thus, ima- gine three bodies of masses m1, m2 and
m3 (and to which
to apply different intensities of forces, resulting in different
 accelerations. This situation can be is the from the chart the
following:
2 - Graph of strength versus the acceleration

Note that for one same force of intensity equal to F , the body of mass
m accelerates less than the
1 1
mass m of the body , which in turn accelerates less than the body mass m
. This means that varying the velocity
2 3
of the body with mass m is more difficult than varying the velocities
of bodies with mass m and m . This
1 2 3
happens because the inertia of the body of mass m is greater than the
inertia of the bodies of masses m in
1 2 3

By Therefore, in his first law, Newton says that every body

ten- to to remain stationary or MRU (vector constant speed), if no force
resultant is applied on it.

9.2 s econd l i of n Newton or l i of C ausa and and Done

One of Newton's views is that every effect has a cause. Thus,
if one body tends to maintain the vector velocity constant, any change
observed that magnitude, one acceleration is one effect which is to
cause the application of a force.
The graph versus , we note that, for each value of mass te-
hands one inclination different for the straight obtained. Thus, the
tangent of the angle is equal to the mass of the body, the way that we
write, mathematically:
3 - The slope of the graph of force versus the acceleration indicates the
extent of mass of the body

(I)
 Consequently, Newton's second law expresses the definition
of force as the vector quantity that measures the interaction established
between bodies and that can be calculated by the product of the mass of
a body and the acceleration acquired by it .
In some dynamics problems, it is common to use names for
force. Let's look at some of these designations:
a) Tensile : The strength of draw ( ) is that which arises acting on a body by
means of a rope, a wire a cable etc.

5 - Pull in wires
b) Force-weight: In the next chapter, we will deal with the theory of
Universal Gravitation . There we will see that the Earth, our planet,
draws us to its center. This force of attraction exerted by the earth on
the bodies on their surface is called strength-weight or just weight has
vertical direction, downward (to the center of the Earth) and can be
calculated the following way:
where is the acceleration of local gravity and is approximately
9.8 m/ s2. In some problems, this value is rounded to 10m/s2.

4 - Power-weight is the attraction gravitational that the planet exerts on the

bodies Commonly, the day to day, we

we refer to our weight, describing the

our mass. For example: I weigh 70 kg. In Physics, this is wrong! This is
value of our mass. The value of the
2
weight is the product of the mass by the intensity of the acceleration of
gravity location. Assuming g = 10m / s , the value proper of the weight
is P = 7010 = 700 N.

a) Centripetal force: Force acting in the radial direction, facing the

center of a circular path . It is responsible for the change of direction
and the direction of the vector speed.
b) Elastic force : The study of the force acting in elastic media was
made by Hooke. In order to understand the statement of Hooke's Law,
let us imagine an experiment in which a spring is used , whose initial
length is equal to
x . When applying forces on the free end of this spring, we will observe
different deformations suffered by it:
0

- A spring subjected to different intensities of force and

its deformation

If you build one graph of force

versus the deformation, we have: 6 – Graph of the force
applied to a spring versus the deformation suffered

Hooke realized that the slope of the graph curve versus Δx

depended on the spring used in the experiment. That is, the more the
spring was difficult to deform (less elastic), the more inclined in
relation to the horizontal axis was the curve obtained in the graph.
However, as more the spring would be easy to deform (more elastic),
less inclined in relation to the axis horizontal was the curve obtained in
the graph.

7 - The slope of the graph of the force applied in one spring vs. the
deformation tion suffered indicates the spring constant of the spring

Hooke then concluded that the slope of the graph curve versus Δx
indicated the spring's elastic constant
(K).
 Therefore, we can mathematically write that:
Therefore ,

That is, the force F applied on a spring is directly proportional to its

deformation.
From the statement of Hooke's Law, it is possible to build an
instrument capable of measuring the
intensity of forces. This instrument is
called a dynamometer. 8 – Diagram of
a dynamometer
9.2.1 u nity of Strength
In the International System of Units (SI), force is given in
newtons (N). Thus, 1 N is the force that, applied to a 1 kg, gives it an
acceleration of 1 m/s 2 .
In spite of the N being the unit adopted by the SI, other units
of force are employed, among which we can cite the dyne (dyn) and the
kilogram-force (kgf). The dyne is the force that applied to one body of
dough 1 g,
it prints one acceleration of 1 cm / s 2 . The kilogram-force is the
force that, applied to a body with a mass of 1utm, gives it an
acceleration of 1m/s 2 .
The English System of Units adopts the “utm” (mass technical unit).
In this system, when instead of the mass to be one magnitude
fundamental, we adopt the force as such, of luck that the unit of mass
is determined by the setting of weight:

In this system, the mass of 1 kg weighs 1kgf, a mass

of 2 kg weighs 2kgf and so forth. Obs .: when
employing the drive kgf, using the UTM as a unit of
mass.

9.3 t erCeira l i of n Newton or l i of the tion and r eação

In his second law, Newton defines force as an interaction
between bodies. In this interaction, he observed that every action
 applied by one body to another receives in itself a reaction of the same
intensity, same direction and opposite direction .
To understand well this definition, let's examine the following
example: imagine two girls rollerblading, one facing the other. Assume
that one of them pushes the other, applying a force of action. The third
law of Newton states that this action force generates a reaction force
same intensity, the same direction, however, the direction opposite to it.
Thus, both girls, initially standing still, move in the same direction,
however, in opposite directions , as shown in the following figure :
9 - Force of action and reaction

Note that the action and reaction forces act on different bodies and
that
 (IV)
9.3.1 M upwind n ormal
When we place a body on a surface, it tends to compress.
-la, exercising one action on it. The surface reacts to this action,
applying one force that call strength of reaction Normal ().
10 - force regular not is reaction of strength- to -weight

9.3.2 M upwind of r eação by Weight

We already know that planet Earth exerts a force on bodies,
drawing them to its center. This force is called weight. By Newton's
Third Law, we know that every action force of a body on the other
corresponds to a force reaction in itself, of the same intensity, same
direction and the direction opposite to the force of action. So, what is
the force of reaction of force weight?
The force of reaction to the force-weight acts at the center of
the Earth, has a vertical direction with an upward direction and its
intensity is equal to the intensity of the force-weight. It is im- portant to
emphasize that the force of reaction to the weight not is the strength
Normal.

9.4 F a r ferences and M u M C or P the under U M P L year in C linado

Consider one body of mass m down one plane tilted without friction.

11 – Body descending an inclined plane without friction

What forces act on this body? The weight-force, , that the
planet exerts , attracting it to its center, and the Normal reaction force,
, exerted by the inclined plane on the body.
12 - forces that act in a body down one plane tilted without friction

If we do the decomposition of force-weight in the Cartesian system,

 we will obtain the components P
X
and P :
y

13 – Decomposition of the weight force in the Cartesian system of a

body descending an inclined plane without friction

So we can write that:

In the X direction :

(V)

In the Y direction :

(SAW)

9.5 F budgets of friction

Different interpretations of the friction were made to long of
time, but only recently is that a more accurate model of the
phenomenon could explain it better, having in view the invention of
the microscope of force atomic
and in tunneling, and of microbalances which allows measuring
forces of interaction extreme tremely small between atoms surfaces.
Because of the proximity between the molecules of the
materials in contact, in small regions in which it actually occurs, arise
forces electromagnetic of adherence to "weld" these regions. In this
sense, when one surface is dragged over the other, successive welds,
ruptures and slippage occur, in a process known as stick-slip (stick-
slip), which gives rise to the friction force .
14 - Forces of interaction electromagnetic give rise to friction
 We can, therefore, define force of friction as that which arises
in opposition to the motion relative between two surfaces in contact.
Note, therefore, that is erra- 's say that the force of friction is contrary
to the movement. It not always is true!

15 - Force of friction nor always is contrary to the movement

slips.
Note that when pressing the ground, if there is no friction force in the
direction of movement, the foot
9.5.1 l lo of friction
There are two types of friction: static and kinetic (or
dynamic). When there is force acting on a body but it does not move,
friction is called static; when there is force acting on a body and it
moves, friction is called kinetic or dynamic.
to

1 Li
Consider a block of mass m on a surface that offers friction,
where N is the modulus of the normal
shape to the surfaces in contact, , the coefficient of static friction
(which depends, among other factors, on the nature of the surfaces in
contact), Fae , o modulus of static friction force between these surfaces,
can be expressed by the following inequality:
Due to this inequality, it is possible to conclude that the
friction force can grow: assuming from a null value (when there are no
forces trying to put it in motion ) to a maximum value, from which, if a
force in the opposite direction to act, will set the body in motion.
16 - Block at rest on a horizontal surface

Now imagine that we slowly tilt the surface on which the

block rests. A force-weight component of PX intensity will emerge that
will tend to move the block. However, while the intensity of PX not is
greater than the product, the block will be at rest.

17 - Bending the surface appears one force which tends to by the

block to move, but it is the action of the force of friction Static

When the intensity of PX reach the amount equal to the

product , the force of friction static assume its value maximum , the
angle θ will be critical
= and, in this case, the block will be on the verge of movement.

18 - When the surface is inclined the angle critical, the force of

friction is- optical assumes its value max: the block is on the verge
of movement

In this situation, we can calculate the value of the

coefficient of static friction between the surfaces in contact, which
will have a value equal to:
to

2 l hey
Any slope greater than the angle will produce a larger
PX value.
which , and by consequence, the block will in motion. Then comes the
force of friction kinetic, which module Fab , assumed constant (a
that is valid for low speeds), is given by the equation:
It is the coefficient of friction Kinetic, the which
depends on the materials of the surfaces in contact.

19 - When the surface is inclined at an angle greater than the

critical angle , the kinetic friction force , with constant intensity ,
starts to act

to

3 l hey
 The area of contact does not interfere in the intensity of the
force of friction. So,
so does the position of the body, this does not entail the
variation of the force of friction. 20 - The force of
friction is independent of the area of contact of the body
with the surface

9.6 t ork of onE Strength

In everyday life, we use terms or words that, in Physics, have
different concepts from current usage . An example of this is the
concept of work. In quotidian in, we use the word work for us refer to
one activity physical
or intelectu- al, however, in Physics, the greatness work is related to
the displacement that one force is able to accomplish.
9.6.1 t ork of onE Force Constant
Consider one force constant which operates in a body, moving it
from point A to point B, at a distance
d.

21 – The force doing work

You may notice that the portion of the constant force which,
in fact, con- runs for the realization of the displacement of the point A
to the point B, is the component
. Therefore, it is defined, mathematically, mechanical work, as the
scalar quantity equal to the product of the force and the displacement.
This means that the calculation of work ( is given by:
Analyzing this equation, we can get the three cases:
1st Case: positive or motor work: it is established when the force
contributes to the displacement. In this case, the angle between the
vectors of force and displacement is composed erly understood in the
 range or
22 - Motor work

2nd Case: negative or resistant work: it is established when force

opposes displacement. The friction force, for example, can perform a
resistant work , opposing the movement of a body. In this case, the
angle between the ve-
tors force and displacement is included in the range or

23 -Work resistant
the
3 case: work zero: settles down when the force is zero or when
the displacement is perpendicular to
the force applied. Thus, the force does not have nenhu- m relation to
the displacement. In this case, the angle between the force and
displacement vectors is or
24 – Null work

9.6.2 t ork of onE Strength Variable

Consider one experiment that uses one spring, the constant
elastic K, to which are applied different intensities of force, resulting
in different strains
.

25 – Elastic strength

we have:

Constructing a graph of the intensity of the force by the deformation of the

spring,
26 – Work of elastic strength
 In this way, the work of a variable force can be calculated by
the area under the curve of the force versus displacement (deformation)
graph .

The Law of Hooke, we have:

Thus, the use of calculating the area under the curve of the
force versus displacement graph is a very useful mathematical
resource for determining the work of a variable force.

9.6.3 u nities of t ork of onE Strength

In the International System of Units (SI), the unit of work of a
force is the newton times the meter (Nm) that is, joule (J).

9.7 P otênCia
Imagine two forces that perform the same work,
however, one pro- ve the same displacement in a shorter time than
that other.
In this case, we define power as being the greatness Physical
climb that measures the speed with which a force performs a job.
Consider a machine that applies a force on a body, promoting
a displacement , in a certain time interval , therefore, performing work
at an average speed (vM). It is defined mathematically to power as the
ratio of work and spending time interval to perform it, or product of
force by the speed average.

As the definition of work:

Then:
 Like

9.7.1 u nities of power

In the System International of Units (SI), the power is given in joules
per second (J / s), ie the watt (W).

9.8 and nergy M eCâniCa and its Conservation

The concept of energy is quite complex in Physics. Of form
very simple, usually define energy as the ability of a system to re Alizar
work. However, more formally, we can say that energy is a quantity
that is conserved in systems in which forces do work.
The energy mechanical (EM) is the sum of two types of energy:
• The energy potential (E ): energy accumulated;
P
• The energy kinetic (E ): energy associated with the movement.
C

The energy related to the position of a particle of mass m, the

system of force considered is called
energy potential (E
). The energy potential can be gravitational or elastic.
R

The energy potential is related to the time that one particle

of mass m is located in relation to one framework within the one
field gravity.

27 – Particle of mass m, at a height h

With respect to the ground, the apple of mass m has
associated with the gravitational field a potential energy equal to
 where g is the magnitude of the acceleration of gravity.
The elastic potential energy of deformation is associated with
a system of elastic, such as, for example, one spring, a constant elastic k
and with deformation .
28 – Spring with elastic constant k, compressed by Δx

With respect to one system of reference, the spring has associated

one energy potential equal to
The energy associated with motion, called kinetic energy (E ), is
related to the velocity (v) of the
C
particle with mass m on which a force performs work and
can be calculated from the expression: 29 - particle of mass
m in down with velocity v
The Principle of Mechanical Energy Conservation is that
potential energy is transformed into kinetic energy and vice versa, if
there are no dissipative forces in the system. This means that if no
dissipative forces, the sum of installments of energy kinetic and
potential of the system (energy mechanical) if keep always constant.

9.8.1 r elation and nergy C inétiCa and work of onE Strength

a) Theorem of variation of Energy Kinetics

Consider a net force acting for a certain period of time on a

block of mass m and initial velocity .
After the action of this force, the block of mass m travels a distance and
assumes a velocity .
30 – Work and variation of kinetic energy

We do:

To calculate the work of force during the displacement ,

 By 2 the Law of Newton, in that , then:
Using the equation of Torricelli for MRUV, we have:
Then:

That is, the work of the force resulting which acts on the body is
equal to the change in kinetic energy.
b) Working the strength- to -weight:
Consider a body of mass m, an apple, for example, that
falls from a height h in relation to a given reference frame:
31 - Work of force weight and variation of the energy potential
To calculate the work of the force weight to move the apple
from the top of the apple to the ground, we will use the energy theorem
kinetic:

But the total Mechanical Energy of the system is constant,

as there are no dissipative forces , only the weight force . Thus :
And then: = or be: potential.
As a = = zero, we have that = ,

Note, therefore, that the work of force-weight is equal to the change in

energy

9.8.2 u nities of and nergy

The Energy Units are the same as work, because, as we
have seen, work is the quantity that measures the variation of energy.
Thus, in the International System of Units (SI), the unit of energy is
(Nm), that is, joule (J).
9.9 i MPulso and q UANTITY of M oviments
Did you know that the commander of the Titanic, before the
ship collided with the huge iceberg , had already noticed the giant rock
at a distance of approximately 1km?
Even so, the crew did not managed to stop or even change the
trajetó- would the movement of the huge ship, to prevent that he was
shocked with the huge block of ice.
32 – The Titanic Disaster

We know that this difficulty is related to a physical quantity called

Amount of Motion.
To understand the significance of the physical quantity
amount of move- ment, imagine the following experiment: it is an
experiment rather fa- moso, called Pendulum of Newton. It it is of some
pendulums simple (usually with five balls) positioned side by side, as
shown in the figure below.
33 - The pendulum of Newton

When we turn a ball from one end and let go, she falls and
hits the first ball to the side of it. It is observed in then to the ball of the
other end gets moving with the same speed of the ball inicialmen- loose
te (we know that, because the ball rises to the same height as the first
was released), as shown in Figure Next:

34 - The pendulum of Newton and the relative speed and mass for one ball
Interestingly, if we repeat this procedure for the two first ball,
we will check that the two last ball go up, at the same time in which the
other two were released, after the shock happen.
35 - The pendulum of Newton and the relative speed and mass for two
spheres

The that you want to say? What is the relationship of this with the
 example of the Titanic?
It is possible to infer about the existence of a certain amount
of movement that is transferred from one body to another.
That is, one sphere or more transfer their movement to
another or others in a certain amount . However, how to
measure this quantity?
By own experiment, it is possible to verify that the amount of
mo- ment depends on the mass m and the speed , because each ball
moves one
movement with the same speed to another sphere of the same mass.
For this, if we think in terms of quantity, we can get it to from the
following expression:
Newton, in his studies, showed that the transfer of the
amount of movement depends on the direction and the direction of
movement, for it is considered one vector quantity.
In the case of the Titanic, even knowing the existence of the
iceberg at a distance of 1 km, the crew was not able to significantly
alter the ship 's momentum module , or even its direction. Of course,
the higher the speed and mass of the body, the greater its momentum,
the luck that the crew did not managed to avoid catastrophe.

9.9.1 u nity of q UANTITY of M oviments

In the International System of Units (SI), the movement quantity unit
is the

9.9.2 i MPulse and variation in the amount of Movement

Push or pull one body not mean only apply force on it, but
exercising this power by one determined interval of time.
It is possible to note that, as greater is the time in which the
force is applied to the body, greater will be the effect that it will produce
the speed of this body.

36 – Definition of impulse and its relationship with amount of movement

 From the figure above, we can see that the application of the
resulting force in a given time interval produced a variation in body
velocity . Since the mass did not change, it remained constant, we can
mathematically write that:

As the product (mass times velocity) is the amount of movement , we

can write that:
That is, the product of the resulting force and the time interval
produced a variation in the amount of movement of the body.
In physics, this product of the resultant force and the time
interval, which causes a variation in the amount of movement of the
body, is a vector quantity called impulse.
If we plot the constant Force acting on a body versus time, the
area under the curve obtained is equal to the change in momentum.
Watch:
37 – Area under the curve of the force versus time graph is equal to the
impulse

When the force resulting is variable, the calculation of the

area under the curve of the videodisc get strength versus time is also
equal to the momentum.
9.9.2.1 u nity of i MPulso
Impulse units are the same as momentum units. Therefore,
the System International of Units (SI), the unit of momentum is the .

9.9.3 C onservação of q UANTITY of M oviments

The from the definition of Impulse, it is possible to conclude that:
This means that, in order to have a variation in the amount of
movement of a body, in a given period of time, there must be a
resulting force applied.
 Consequently, in the absence of net force, that is, if we add to
all the forces that act on one body and the result is zero, then the way
that we can write:
Soon:
We can then conclude that, if the sum of the forces acting on
a body is zero, the amount of movement of the body is constant, that is,
it is conserved.
As the amount of movement is one magnitude vector, the
conservation is valid for both module and for direction and meaning.
It is important to note that the conservation of momentum
only occurs for an isolated system, since the sum of forces acting on the
body must be zero, therefore, not can be any type of interaction of
nature outside. In an isolated system, the constituent particles can
interact with each other, but they can not interact with external
elements.
10 L ravitação u niversal
Since antiquity, man seeks explanations about the universe
and the stars. The the 1st records astronomical dating from about 3000
BC and is should the Chinese, the Babylonians and the Egyptians.
However, it was in the years 600 BC and 400 BC that there
was, by the Greeks, a more detailed study on this subject.
Tales of Miletus (~ 624 - 546 BC) thought that the Earth was
flat, was one of a flat disc format. At that time, there was even talk of
the existence of a great abyss, where the world ended up forming a
huge waterfall.
1 - Conception of the Earth as having a flat shape

For Pythagoras (~572 – 497 BC), the Earth and all other
celestial bodies were spherical and transported by different transparent
spheres, which moved around a central focus (which was not the Sun),
which he called of the central fire. With his model, Pythagoras was able
to explain the phenomenon of day and night.
2 - Model of Pythagoras
 Aristotle of Stagira (384 – 322 BC) stated that the universe
was finite and spherical and that the Earth was established at its center.
With this model was able to explain, besides the phenomena of the day
and the night, the eclipses of the moon and the sun.
3 - Model of Aristotle

For a long time, the Aristotelian model was used and accepted
as true. However, numerous astronomical observations regarding the
positions of planets in the sky showed some inconsistencies, requiring
some corrections, such as Ptolemy's theory of epicycles.
Ptolemy realized that the five planets visible, Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, had one movement retrograde, when
compared to the fixed stars in the sky, which could not be explained by
Aristotle's model. Take the case of Mars: for example, if we closely
observe its movement in the sky, we will see that night after night it
appears in a different position , moving in a certain specific direction .
However, after the one sequence of days, Mars seems to go back to
previous positions, after another period of time, regain movement in the
previous direction.
To explain this phenomenon while maintaining Aristotle's
idea of the Earth as the center of the universe, Ptolemy proposed that,
instead of revolving around the Earth, each planet described a circular
motion whose center also revolved around the Earth. The combination
of these two movements generated the movement whose trajectory was
an epicycloid.

4 – Model of epicycles proposed by Ptolemy

The model of epicycles of Ptolemy had the merit of not only

explain qualitatively the phenomenon, but also to describe it
mathematically, for that, was accepted for 15 centuries.
Proposing a simpler model and to explain all phenomena until
then provided by Ptolemy, Copernicus published one work in which the
 Sun and not the Earth, occupied the center of our system planetarium.
Copernicus showed that the apparent retrograde movement of
Mars and other planets was due to the difference in translation speed
between them and the Earth: as the Earth has a higher speed,
when passing between the planet and the Sun, the planet 's apparent
orbit is that of a retrograde movement.
5 - Explanation of Copérnico to the apparent movement backward of Mars
Copernicus' heliocentric model predicted quite accurately the
radius of the planets' orbits, a result that the geocentric model was
unable to provide.
Since Copernicus' model contradicted both scientific and
religious opinions , his work was banned by the Church.

10.1 l useful in K Epler

However, the work of Copernicus inspired new studies.
Kepler, the from the calculations of radii of the orbits of the planets
made by Copernicus and strict observation of the trajectories of planets,
made by Tycho Brahe, proposed three laws that would revolutionize the
study astronomical:
to
1 Kepler's law: The planets, rather than rotate in a circular path around
the sun describe elliptical orbits around
it, which, in turn, occupies one of
the foci of the ellipse. 6 - Orbits
planetary elliptical in around the
Sun

The ratio between the distance between the foci and the semi-
major axis of an ellipse is called eccentricity. Thus, the higher this
ratio, the more eccentric is the ellipse and, as more close to zero, most
close to one circle she is. Now Kepler calculated the eccentricities of
each planet's orbit around the Sun and found them to be small and
different from each other. The eccentricity of the Earth's orbit, for
example, is of the order of 0.017, that is, it is practically circular.
Therefore, it is impor- tant to emphasize that the eccentricity of the
 orbit Earth not is it that explains the existence of the different seasons of
the year (summer, spring, autumn and winter). The difference in
seasons is due to the inclination of the Earth's axis in relation to an axis
perpendicular to the plane of rotation around the Sun.

7 - Explanation to the seasons of the year

to
2 Kepler's Law: The vector radius joining any planet to the Sun
describes equal areas in equal times. In this
sense, the speed at which the planets orbit is not constant. When are
more near the Sun, the planets have one higher speed when you are
far from it.
8 - The planets travel through areas
equal in time equal
Mathematically, we can
conclude:

to
3 Kepler's law: The square of the period (T) of rotation of the two
planets quais- both are proportional to the
cube of the ray medium (R) in their orbits.
Mathematically, we can write:

10.2 l ei of the Universal Gravitation of n ewton

Although Kepler with its laws, describing the trajectories of
the planets in their orbits at around the Sun, it was Newton who, relying
also on the work presented by Galileo Galilei, the played the from of
their studies of dynamics.
To explain the why the orbit of the planets, Newton assumed
that the sun draws them, from a force acting at a distance.
 To understand this reasoning, imagine one planet in orbit in
around the sun, as shown in the following figure. Newton realized that
if there was no force attracting the planet to the Sun, its trajectory
should be in the direction to point 2 and not to point 3, as it happens.

9 - The planets "fall" in the direction to the Sun

It is as if the planet "fall" from point 1 to the point 3. If the
force of atra- tion proposed by Newton did not exist, the principle of
inertia, the planet should follow your movement in line straight.
Therefore, for Newton, every planet suffers the action of an attraction
force towards the Sun.
10 - The Sun carries one force of attraction of the planets

To calculate the amount of force that the Sun exerts on the

planet, Newton used the idea of acceleration centripetal, to which we
studied in the chapter on movements circular, demonstrating that:
Where
Thus, Newton, in his Law of Universal Gravitation , stated
that matter attracts matter with an intensity proportional to its masses
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
With this conclusion, it held that a body of mass m, which is
located to one hour of the surface of the Earth, is attracted to the center
of the planet by one force we call weight.
11 – Body with mass m attracted
by the Earth's mass
 In this way, you can write:
The second law of Newton, we know that the intensity of
the force weight can be calculated by: Then:

Soon:
(IV)
Note that the magnitude of the acceleration due to gravity
varies with height h, that is, it decreases with altitude. We conclude
that, although the mass of the body remain constant, its weight
decreases to the extent that it is away from the center of the Earth.

10.3 to draw t err on the l water

The Moon is the satellite nature of the Earth. Admitting that
its orbit in around of our planet is circular, we can determine its period
of rotation:
Using the argument of Newton, we can assume that if the
Moon rotates in around the Earth, there is one force centripetal that the
appeals to the center of our plan- ta. So the moon "falls" in the direction
to the Earth:

12 - The Moon turning in around the planet Earth as

(V) And yet how; where R = d and earth.
These equations are also valid for any satellite in orbit of

10.4 to draw l water on the T err

By Newton's Third Law, we know that every action has a re-
action of the same intensity and sense otherwise. Thus, the same way
that the Earth attracts the Moon, the Moon also exerts force of
attraction on the Earth.
As the gravitational force varies with the distance between
bodies endowed with mass and, taking into account that the Moon
revolves around the Earth, it is not difficult to conclude that the side of
 the Earth facing the Moon suffers a force the most intensity of which
the side that it is opposed.
As a result, during the Earth movements, the moon and the
sun, if we consider the situations in which there is one alignment of the
Sun, the Moon and the Earth, the force of attraction gravity resulting on
the earth is still greater. The action gravita- tional the moon on the
oceans is the cause of the phenomenon called the tides, the which it
intensifies further, when there is an alignment with the sun.
The oceans are a huge proportion of the water body and, for
this, the intensity of the force gravity of the moon on them is more
significant.
11 and static
Statics is an area of study in Physics that studies the
conditions for a body subjected to a system of forces to remain in
balance.

11.1 C oncept of F luff

In dynamics, we saw that Force is a vector physical quantity
that measures the interaction between bodies capable of promoting
changes in the velocity vector of the body. However, the resulting force
acting on a body is zero and he initially es- have stopped, the tendency
is to it be stopped, ie balanced static.
In this chapter we will emphasize the forces that keep the body
balanced brio static.

11.2 and quilíbrio of Point Material

For a material point (a body whose dimensions are negligible)
is in static equilibrium (still, at rest), it is necessary that the resultant of
the forces that act on it is equal to zero.
Since the force is a vector quantity , we already know how to
calculate the resultant of vectors. So just choose one of the methods of
determination of vectors resulting tatives, to solve the problems
proposed to balance material.
 We suggest using the method of decomposition of forces in
the system of coordinates Cartesian. To this end, it is necessary that the
resultant of forces, both in the axis x as the axis y, is equal to zero. In
other words:
Resulting from the forces that act in the direction x is equal to zero:
R = 0; and
x

Resulting from the forces that act in the direction y is equal to zero, R
= 0.
y
Thus, we ensure that the material point does not move or the hori-
zontal and not vertically.

11.3 and quilíbrio of body extension

Until now, we study the conditions of equilibrium of one
point material, that is, we consider situations in which the body
dimensions can be considered negligible.
We will begin the study of the balance of extended bodies ,
assuming that they are completely rigid, that is, that they are not
deformed by the action of a force.

11.3.1 M omentum of onE force or torque

In our daily life we are used to apply forces in bodies that can
rotate in around the one axis, for example, when you open or close one
door, shook a screw, using a wrench, or even rotating a crank.

1 – Everyday situations in which forces are applied to rigid bodies , making

them rotate around an axis of rotation

In these situations, if the force is applied each time more near

the axis of rotation, the difficulty in promoting the rotation is
increasing. This happens cau- sa of one magnitude time of one force or
torque. This quantity is related to the ability to impart rotational
 movement to a rigid body.
In this sense, we can set time of one force or torque as one
magnitude vector to which can be determined by the product of force
applied each by the distance, taken at right angles, the point of
application of force in relation to the axis of rotation.

2 – Definition of moment of a force

The magnitude of the moment of a force , with respect to a point O,
is determined by the expression
where d is the arm of the moment, that is, the distance
perpendicular to the line of action of the force to the axis of rotation
considered.
In the International System of Units (SI), the moment unit of a force
is Nm

11.3.2 s entido the vector moment of onE Force

As the magnitude of the moment is a force vector, we need to set
the direction and the direction of this
vector.
The direction is always perpendicular to the plane on which the
force is applied. The direction of the
moment depends on the direction of the applied force. Knowing the
meaning is im- portant because it is the start of it, that it sets the signal
to the calculation of the time of one force.
Consider one key of the mouth with the which is tightening or
loosening one
screw.

(a) (b)3 – Action of force generating the moment of a force. In (a),

the time tends to rotate the key in the sense time , and in (b), the
moment of force tending to rotate the key in the anti-clockwise
 It is agreed that the moment is the rigid body rotate in the
anti-clockwise is now positive, while the time to make the body hard
rotate in a clockwise direction is negative.
In short:

4 – Signal convention of the moment of a force

11.3.3 C ONDITIONS the balance of æM body extensive

Already we have seen that for one point material, the
condition of equilibrium is that the resultant of the forces that act on it
is zero. I mean:
• Resultant of forces at x is equal to zero, RX = 0
• Resultant of forces in y is equal to zero, Ry = 0
In the case of an extended body , in addition to the
resultant of the forces being equal to zero, the resultant of the
moments of the forces, with respect to a point O, must also be null.
That is:
• Resulting from the moment of the acting forces , with respect to a point O,
is equal to zero, = 0
The low of such conditions, we conclude that the body not be
moving neither in horizontal nor vertical, and can not rotate.

11.3.4 C enter the M bakes , C enter the G ravidade and C enter G eoMétriCo
When we study the balance of point material, we not had
problem in defining the force application point, because we consider a
body with dimensions negligible.
However, to study the extensive body of balance, which is the
point from the which we can consider the application of force weight?
An extensive body is composed of a set of particles
distributed bute for all its extension, of luck than the sum of the masses
 of these particles makes up the total body mass. In this way, we can
identify a point, around which all the mass is evenly distributed.
5 - Body of mass m uniformly distributed : the center of mass coincides with
the geometric center
If the body is homogeneous, or is, the weight is equally
distributed on all the length of the body, the center of mass will
coincide with the center geométri- part of that body. However, if the
body is not homogeneous, the mass will not be distributed
of way uniform for all to its extension and, in this case, the center
of mass does not will coincide with the geometrical center.

6 - Body of mass m non- uniformly distributed : the center of mass does not
coincide with the geometric center

11.3.4.1 d ETERMINATION the center of mass of uM body

To calculate the center of mass of one body of mass M, imagine that
it is composed of one set of three
particles of masses m , m
1

and m
2
, positioned nothings as shown in the following figure:
3

7 – Cartesian location of the particles and the center of mass that make up a
body
Through mathematical methods, it is possible to demonstrate
that the coordinates of the center of mass (CM) of the body can be
calculated by the following expression:

Determine the location of the center of mass of the homogeneous

plate indicated in the figure below:
r ESOLUTION
If the body is homogeneous, the mass is evenly distributed
over its entire length. That is, if we divide the mass Total ( by area
Total (), the value is constant for any body part. Thus, mathematically,
it can we write that the ratio between the mass the total and the area
overall is equal to the ratio of the mass from one region of the body
(m) by the area of that region of the body (a):
Therefore,

Canceling k, we have:
 (I)
We can write the same for y:
 (II)
Now, let's split the body into two rectangles. Their geometric
center will be given by the intersection of the diagonals. So we can
determine the coordinate nothings of the center of mass of two
rectangles:

We divide the body into two parts: part 1, which has a

center of mass located at the following coordinates (1, 3), and part 2,
which has a center of mass located at the following coordinates (5 and
2).

The area of part 1, A

, is equal to 2.6 = 12 cm
1

2
, and the area of part 2 has area A

equal to 4.10 = 40
2

cm 2 . The area full of the body will be 12 + 40 = 52 cm 2 .

Thus , replacing the data in expressions I and II, we have:

2.2).

Therefore , the center of mass of the body as a whole will have the
following coordinates: CM = (4.1;
11.3.5 C enter of gravity of uM body
The center of gravity is defined as the point on the body where the
force.
-weight is applied. The weight of a body is the product of its mass and
the value of the acceleration of local gravity. As the acceleration of
gravity changes with altitude, conceptually we have to say that the
center of gravity is not always equal to the center of mass.
The Burj Khalifa Bin Zayid is one skyscraper located in
 Dubai, in the Emirates Arab States, has 828 m of height and is the
largest building ever built by man. The accuracy, due to this point, the
center of mass does not coincide with the center of gravity. However,
this case is an exception. Normally, the center of mass of one body
coincides with the its center of gravity.
8 -Burj Khalifa Bin Zayid, the most high building in the world
However, if we consider that the acceleration of gravity does
not suffer large variations, the longer the body, we can admit that the
center of gravity is equal to the center mass of the body.

11.3.6 t i P to a , and q uilíbrio

There are three types of balance: the stable balance, the unstable
balance, and the indifferent balance.
The difference between these types of balance is in the para-
position to the support (PS) in relation to the center of gravity of the
body (GC).
We say that a body is in stable equilibrium when, by moving
it slightly away from its equilibrium position, it returns to it. An
example of this type of balance is that of a hanging vase: if you try to
push it to either side, trying to get it out of balance, it tends to come
back to it.
9 - Vase on balance stable: center of mass below the point of support

Note the difference in position between the center of gravity

and the support point of the body. Note that the center of gravity is
below the lift point

10 - Body in balance stable: always tends to return to the position of

equilibrium
 In this case, try to take the body from the equilibrium
position, the strength weight will generate one moment that will tend to
bring the body to a position of balance again. Therefore, we can say
that every body is in stable equilibrium, when its center of gravity is
below the point of support.

12 h hydrostatic
The hydrostatic is one area of physics that studies the fluids in
balance. In very simple way we can say that the fluid is made up of
matter in a state in which can flow with ease. Therefore, the term fluid
only can be well applied to liquids and to gases.
Thus, for example, when a tangential force applied by less
that is, on one fluid, it tends to flow. For this, one might either can pro-
duce one deformation in the fluid. The fluid actual present one
resistance to the action deforming this force whatsoever. This resistance
measures the viscosity of the fluid. In our studies, we will treat always
of one fluid ideal, that is, that no presents resistant tance to flow, or is,
whose viscosity is negligible.
12.1 d ensidade of u F F l uid
Density is a specific property of matter, that is, it is a
characteristic of a particular substance. This property is related to the
distribution of mass along the volume of the body composed of a
specific substance . So mathematically, we can calculate the density of
one fluid specific to from the ratio between its mass and the its volume:
12.1.1 u nities of d ensidade
The unit of density, in the
International System of Units (SI), is the Table 1
- Values of density of some liquids

12.2 P ressure a solid

We can define pressure on a solid body as the scalar physical
quantity that measures the distribution of force acting on a given
 extension of that body. Mathematically, we can calculate the pressure P
exerted by one force which acts in one given section of area A of one
body sound as being equal to:

1 - Section of the body subjected to one pressure P

12.2.1 u nities of P ressure

The unit of pressure, in the International System of Units (SI), is the
( ) or (Pa).

12.3 P ress ã the and M u F F l uid

Consider two points A and B, inside a fluid of density d. Taking
as reference the free surface of the
fluid, which can determine the heights h
and h
A
, the points A and B, respectively, are layered.
B

2 - Points A and B on the inside of one fluid with density d

It can be shown that the pressure difference over points A
and B, exerted by the weights of the fluid masses over these points, is
calculated by the following equation:

The equation is known as the Law of Stevin and highlights

that the pressure in a fluid in equilibrium with constant density varies
linearly with depth.
12.3.1 C ONSEQUENCES the l i for s tevin
a) All points that make up the same surface immersed in the fluid are
subject to the same pressure. Physicists call this surface isobaric (same
pressure). This means that points at the same height are under the same
pressure.

3 - points isobaric the inside of one fluid

b) when liquid, e.g., A and B, immiscible, are placed in vessels

connecting, to their heights in relation to the surfaces of separation
and the end free they are inversely proportional to their densities.

4 - liquids immiscible inside of one vessel communicating

we have:

Note that in isobaric, P1 = P2, therefore, using the law of Stevin,

c) In case that the gas mixture comprising air, Stevin's Law, as des-
crita the equation is valid if we consider negligible variations in density
of the air and the acceleration of gravity with altitude.

12.4 P ress ã the at t F the F ERI C to

Consider the planet Earth surrounded by one layer of air, or is,
for one gas mixture. This gaseous layer is called the atmosphere. In
this way, all of us, who live on this planet, are immersed in a fluid
and, therefore, subject to the action of atmospheric pressure .

5 - layer air surrounding the planet Earth

 What is the intensity of the atmospheric pressure ?
A famous experiment, carried out by Evangelista Torricelli, in
1643, allowed the determination of the intensity of atmospheric
pressure.
Using a glass tube, completely filled with mercury and a vat,
also made of glass and also containing mercury, Torricelli upturned the
tube in the vat and observed the height of a liquid column of mercury
that was established in the tube. This apparatus, which serves to
measure the intensity of atmospheric pressure was Cha mated
barometer of Torricelli.
6 - Experience of Torricelli

Torricelli confirmed the conclusions of Stevin, want to say, as

more mer- gulhado are in the inside of the fluid atmospheric, greater is
the intensity of the pressure that the atmosphere exerts on us. Thus, the
surface land, the level of the sea, the
pressure air is maximum and comes to balance the pressure exerted by
the weight of a column of mercury 76 cm in height.

12.4.1 u nity of P ress ã the at t F the F ERI C to

Because of Torricelli's experience, it is quite common to refer
to the intensity of atmospheric pressure, comparing its intensity with
the height of the column of mercury it is capable of supporting.
Therefore, although it is not appropriate to use the unit of length as a
unit of pressure, it is common to use the units cmHg (centimeters of
mercury) and/or mmHg (millimeters of mercury) to refer to pressure.
Therefore, we know that, at sea level, atmospheric pressure
can balance the pressure exerted by the weight of the 76 cm high liquid
column of mercury , that is, it is worth 76 cmHg or 760 mmHg.
In the International System of Units (SI), we have:
Assuming the density of mercury equal to 13600 kg/m 3 and
 the acceleration of constant gravity, for any altitude, equal to 10 m/s ,
we have:

12.4.2 M edidores of P ressure

Manometers are devices used to measure the pressure exerted by a
fluid. Basically, they can be of two
types:
• Open - tube manometers ; and
• Closed - tube manometers .
In gauges of tube open, you should consider the pressure
atmospheric , while, in gauges of tube closed, the pressure atmospheric
not is taken into account. To understand better the functioning of these
two types of manôme- portions, think in one container containing one
fluid. To measure the pressure exerted by it, we use a manometer: open
or closed tube.

7 - gauges of tube opened and the tube closed

When we turn on the pressure gauges in the container and
open the register of the container containing the fluid, we will observe a
shift in the fluid level of density d inside the pressure gauge. In this
case, the measurement of the fluid pressure inside the container is
performed as shown in the following figure :
8 - Pressure measurements with an open-tube manometer and with a closed-
tube manometer

12.5 P rInCiPle of P asCal

Pascal says that if there is one variation of pressure in one
element of area within a fluid balance and incompressible, it will
transmit an integral gralmente all other remaining area of the fluid
elements. This means that if we consider two points A and B, on the
inside of one liquid in balance and incompressible
 sible, at different heights, being , and that there is one variation of
pressure at point A, then the pressure at point B is:
9 - Principle of Pascal linkage.
An application of the principle of Pascal is related to the operation of one
monkey, press and / or brake

Basically, any one of these devices is is of one system of vessels

communicating with sections different.
In the figure the following is presented one scheme in which
communicating vessels have sections of different areas A1 and A2,
and containing pistons which slide inside the vessel without causing
friction.
10 – Communicating vessels of sections with different areas

If we apply a force on the piston area A , we generate one

pressure P which, according to Pascal's
1
principle, be fully transmitted by all the fluid in the interior of the vessel
connecting.
11 – Action of forces on pistons from different areas in
communicating vessels of sections with different areas In
plunger 1, the pressure, P, can be calculated by the equation:
In plunger 2, the pressure, P, can be calculated by the equation:
With P = P, then we can write:
As , according to equation V, we can conclude that
, So a mechanism of these, we can multiply forces to from the differences
of areas.
However, note that what is gained in strength is lost in
displacement: the A 1 area plunger travels more than the A 2 area
plunger . This is because, as the fluid is incompressible, all the volume
displaced from the fluid by the piston of area A 1 will shift to the piston
area A 2 . Consequently, as the volume is preserved, we have that, while
the piston of area A 1 is traveling x 1 , the piston of area A 2 shifts x 2 :
12.6 P rinCiPle of a rquiMedes
You 've noticed that when one body is completely
submerged in water, your weight seems to be less than that your
weight out of water?

12 – Apparent weight

So it is! When the body is submerged, we say that it has an

apparent weight () and when the body is out of water, it has its real
weight ( .
This difference in weight is a cause of one force, called
Thrust
, To which arises when one body is dipped in one fluid.
13 – Buoyancy

In this case, the intensity of the apparent weight , , will be:

The buoyancy arises because of the pressure difference established

on the submerged body .
See that as the pressure increases to the extent that is deeper
in the liquid, the pressure exerted by the liquid on the part upper of the
body is smaller than that at exerted on its bottom. A resultant force
from above acts on the submerged body . This force is called Buoyancy
. The Archimedes Principle states that the thrust is one strength of
intensity equal to the weight of the volume of fluid displaced ed, when
one body to be placed in its interior. The modulus of the thrust can be
calculated by the following expression:

13 the undulatory
13.1 i ntroductIon
 Energy, as we have already seen, presents itself in different
forms in nature: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, etc. However,
how does it propagate through space?
To answer this question, physicists have created a model that
resolve- ram call the wave. When it propagate through space, the
energy is transported by one wave. But what is a wave?

13.2 the ndas M eCâniCas and and letroMaGnétiCas

Wave is the disturbance from which energy is transported through
space (tri, bi or one-dimensional).
They can be basically classified as mechanical and electromagnetic.
A mechanical wave is one that transports energy through a
material medium . It is important not to confuse: a wave carries
energy and not matter, however, it can propagate through it.
Mechanical waves can propagate through any material media
that can be considered elastic (that is skew with some facility), such as,
for example, air, water, a rope, a spring , etc.
In the case of electromagnetic waves, they can transport
energy without any material medium, that is, they can propagate in a
vacuum. One example is the light emitted by the sun that comes to us
traveling long distances in a vacuum.

13.2.1 the ndas l on L itudinais and the ndas t ransversais

Depending on the way a wave propagates in relation to the
way the disturbance was produced, we can classify it into longitudinal
and transversal.
A longitudinal wave propagates in a direction equal to that in which
the disturbance was produced.

A transverse wave propagates in a perpendicular direction

(forms an angle of 90 o ) in relation to the one in which the disturbance
was produced.
13.2.2 L randezas to be Considered in the study of onE wave
Consider one wave cross generated by one source
oscillating, con- tant, to which repeats periodically the same
disturbance in one rope.
If the string rest position, defining the system refer- ence,
identified values maximum and minimum in the axis of coordinates,
which de- nominamos amplitude of the wave (A).

The wavelength can be defined as the distance from crest to

crest, or from valley to valley, or between any other points that are in
phase, that is, points whose direction of oscillation is the same (P and
P ) and (P
1 3 2

and P ). In SI, the unit of wavelength and amplitude is the meter.

4

The time required for that each wave is complete, or mean,

for which each one of the oscillations occur through, is defined as being
the period T of the waveform. Frequency is the number of oscillations
that happen in the unit of time. So we have:

Time n o of complete
oscillations T 1 1 f
Therefore, it can be concluded mathematically that

In SI, the period T unit is the second (s) and the frequency unit is s -1
or hertz (Hz).
Based on the period, frequency and wavelength quantities,
mathematically, we can determine the propagation speed of the wave by
the equation:
The unit of speed of propagation is expressed in SI, in m / s.
13.2.3 r tutors and F flush of the ndas two-dimensional and three-dimensional
 Until now, we highlight examples of waves one-dimensional, or is,
to be spread in a single dimension.
However, there are waves that propagate in the plane (two-dimensional) or
in space (three-dimensional).
An example of two-dimensional waves that can be cited is the
case of a rock hitting the surface of a river. Immediately, we notice
waves that propagate by all the surface. The schematic representation
of these waves can be done by means of concentric circles, which
illustrate the region of space that the wave reaches, or by parallel
horizontal lines. This representation is called the front of the wave. The
radius of wave serves to indicate the direction of propagation of the
wave.

1 - Two-dimensional wave

The sound waves, as well as the lighting are three-

dimensional, as if propagated by all the three dimensions of space. In
this case, its representation is not made by circles, but by spheres.

2 - Three-dimensional wave

13.2.4 r and F r to ç ã the , inter F Eren C was and re F latex ã the and M wave UNIDI M
ensionai s .
a) waves and change of means of propagation
To analyze the behavior of a wave when it finds a change in
the characteristics of the medium in which it propagates, imagine a rope
thin and stretched attached to another also stretched, only more thick.
3 - Thin rope, stretched together, also stretched, but thicker
Now imagine a constant oscillating source acting on the free end of
the thin string.
4 - Change of means in the propagation of waves
Experimentally, it is found that the frequency of oscillation
not be altered, given that this depends on the oscillating source.
However, the wavelength changes.
Thus, it can be concluded that, when changing the medium,
a wave does not change its frequency, but changes its wavelength.
Taking into account the equation of definition of speed of
wave, when there is change of means of propagation, the speed of the
wave also is changed.
In the example proposed, it is possible to observe that the
wave, to be propagated by the rope thick, has one length of wave
smaller and therefore one speed to also spread less.
Accordingly, it can be concluded that the linear density of the
string ( ), that is, as the mass is distributed along the length without
interferes with the speed of the waves that are propagated through them.
Considering the mass of the string to be m and the length of
the string to be l, then, mathematically, we can write that:
It can be shown mathematically that the ratio of speed of
propagation of waves in strings (V) and the density linear these strings
() is given by the equation:
F is the modulus of tension in the string.
In SI, the unit of linear density of a string is expressed in
b) Superposition of waves or interference
Wave superposition or interference is the wave phenomenon that
occurs when two or more waves meet. Let's analyze this
phenomenon by first studying the one-dimensional waves in a
string or wire.
Consider, therefore, a yarn initially taut of, the ends of which two
waves of the same width and amplitude different are produced in
such a way that one is spread in the direction opposite the other.

5 -Ondas the same width, amplitudes different that is spread in sen- taken
against
 When one pulse is found with the other, we have to overlap and in
this point, the amplitudes add up,
resulting generating a pulse with amplitude A
, and
3

6 – Constructive
interference
meeting.
This case is called for interference constructive.
After the crossing, the pulses resume its
characteristics prior to 7 - Waves after
the interference
Now, let's imagine the situation in which the pulses are in reversed
phase .

8 - Waves of phase reversed

At the time of superposition, the amplitudes will be added, however,
as A is negative, we have:
2

9 – Destructive
interference
meeting.

This case is called for interference destructive.

After the crossing, the pulses resume its characteristics prior to
10 - Waves after the interference

c) Wave stationary
Consider waves that travel along a string whose ends are
attached: one to a vibrating source and the other to a wall. When the
waves produced by the source meet the wall, they reflect and return in
the opposite direction. In this way, there will be a superposition of
plane waves of the same frequency (f ), which propagate in the same
direction, but in opposite directions, considering the waves that will be
reflected. The result of this superposition is called standing waves .

11 - Waves stationary

Note the points N and V. They are called, respectively, nodes

and wombs . The bellies correspond to the points on the string where
the oscillation is maximum. The us, for their part, indicate the points
where the oscillation is minimal.
Depending on the value of strength () with which the rope is
pulled (much or little stretched), the number of wombs and of we can
increase or decrease.
This phenomenon can be explained from the concept of
resonance. To understand better this concept, it is necessary to be
understood before the meaning of frequency natural vibration of bodies.
Every material body, depending on its physical characteristics
(depending on the way it was built), has a natural tendency to vibrate at
a specific frequency, which is called the natural frequency of vibration.
Each string of a guitar, for example, has a natural frequency of
vibration, for this, they emit sounds different.
If the natural frequency of vibration of a body is equal to the
oscillation frequency of the source acting on it, the oscillation
amplitude will be increased more and more. This phenomenon is called
the resonance.
 In the case of our experience, the frequency of the vibrating
source (f ) is constant, but there is a set of natural frequencies that the
string can assume, as we increase the pulling force on it.
The value of the natural frequency that the string, attached
at both ends , can assume is given by the expression:
where n is an integer (n = 1,2,3,4,...), l is the length of the string, F is
the strength of the pulling force on
the string, and is the linear density of the string. For n = 1, we have f
frequency, which generates a standing wave in a single belly.

12 - Wave stationary in one single womb

, which is called the fundamental
1

13.2.5 r and F r to ç ã the , re F latex ã the and inter F Eren C ia and M wave bidi M
ensionais
a) Refraction of two-dimensional waves
Consider a two-dimensional wave with a wavelength equal to λ
propagating in a medium 1, with
1
velocity v
. To cover a surface separation between the means 1 and 2, with angle θ
1
, the wave refracts, that is,
1
through the su-
perfície of separation and to be propagated in the medium 2 happens to
have another direction, θ (angle of
2
refraction), and one other rate of propagation, v .
2

13 - refraction of waves

See that the wave "bends", that is, it undergoes a refraction, a

deviation, when changing from medium 1 to medium 2.
 Mathematically, we can write:
We can also write:
b) reflection of waves two-
Consider a two-dimensional wave propagating in a given
medium x with one speed of module v and that focuses on one obstacle
form- of, with a line perpendicular to the surface of the obstacle (C),
an angle equal to θ . Reflection occurs if the wave that hits an
obstacle returns to the propagation medium and continues with
1
the same characteristics as the incident wave .

14 – reflection of waves So,

c) interference of waves dimensional
In case of superposition of one-dimensional waves, we have
already studied that the meeting of two crests generates the algebraic
sum of their amplitudes ( constructive interference ) and the meeting of
a valley of one wave with the crest of another generates the algebraic
subtraction of the amplitudes ( destructive interference
). The same happens to the wave two-dimensional. In the figure the
following two waves bidimensional are
generated by source F

and F
1
, to which vibrate both in the same frequency.
2

15 - Interference of waves
The red dots show the superposition of two ridges (
constructive interference ). Black dots indicate the superposition of a
valley with a crest (destructive interference).
13.2.6 d ifraction of waves
A typical wave phenomenon is diffraction, that is, the tenden- cia
wave in around an obstacle.
The Huygens principle states that each point of a wavefront
can be considered point source which generates secondary wave fronts,
propagan- do yourself in different directions with the same frequency
and the same speed of the waves primaries.
16 – Principle of Huygens

So, if we take into account the points of the next wave of the
walls of any obstacles as secondary sources of new fronts of waves, we
can understand the ease with which the waves bypass obstacles.

17 - Diffraction of Waves
Note, by the figure, the diffraction will be better perceived,
the greater is the length of wave in relation to the size of the obstacle
that the wave needs to get around, ie the diffraction phenomenon is
more intense when the obstacles to be circumvented are small, if
compared to the length of the waves that the bypass.

14 t er M a L a G was
In this chapter, we begin the study of thermology, that is, the
part of physics that studies the nature of heat and its effects. So we'll
start by establishing the difference between temperature and heat.
While the heat is one form of energy, the temperature is one
magnitude ES- shut related to the degree of thermal motion of the
particles which compose a body or one half the material.
So temperature is an effect of heat. In later chapters, we will deal
with the issue of heat in more detail .
For now, let us focus on the definition of temperature.
The idea of temperature is associated with cold and hot
sensations. However, these sensations are not well defined criteria to
 determine pre- split the temperature of one body. For this, the
thermometers, appliances that allow the determination of the
temperature of a body or through material were constructed.
Basically, a thermometer consists of a substance with
thermometric properties with well-defined behavior: in general, it can
be said that certain substances, when heated or cooled, present a
variation in the volume they occupy (dilate or contract up).
The observation of this effect enabled the construction of
instruments for the measurement of the temperature of the body: the
thermometers.
14.1 the s thermometers
Different types of thermometers were built , both with respect
to their shape and construction and in relation to the substances used
that could be in a liquid state (alcohol or mercury); gaseous (helium) or
solid (bimetallic); there are also digital ones, radiation ones, etc.
The most common are those made of mercury, consisting of a
very thin glass tube (capillary) with mercury that expands or contracts
as the temperature changes.
1 - thermometer of mercury
Thus, a choice of height reached by mercury is associated
with the temperature to which the thermometer was subjected .

14.2 e s C a l as t e M o M etri C as
There were many scales proposed, however, the most common
nowadays are Celsius ( o C), Fahrenheit (
o
F) and Kelvin (K). Celsius and Fahrenheit attribute numbers different
to the reference temperature, the extent of fusion and the boiling point
of water. Kelvin, for a time, part of the idea of zero absolute. Thus, the
scales termomé- intrigues can be compared in the scheme the
following:

2 – Thermometric scales
 To do the conversion of units between the different scales thermo
metrics, we have:
Simply put:
Therefore: AND In order for a thermometer to provide us with a safe
measure, it is essential that we put it in contact with the body whose
temperature we want to know and that we wait for a certain time, so that the
thermal equilibrium occurs .
It is said that two or more bodies are in thermal equilibrium,
when their temperatures are equal, after some time, in view of the heat
transfer that occurs in the body longer hot to the more cold. We will go
into more detail about this process in later chapters .

14.3 d ilatação thermal

As seen in the study of thermometers, substances tend to alter
the volume to occupy a from the variation of the temperature. Why does
this happen?
The temperature, in addition to being connected to the
feeling of hot and cold, can be associated to the degree of agitation of
the particles that make up one body.
3 – When we increase the temperature of a body, we also increase the
thermal agitation of particles in this body

It is possible to notice that the hotter, that is, the higher the
temperature, the greater the agitation of the particles that make up a
body. On the contrary, the colder, the lower the temperature and the
lesser the agitation of the constituent particles .
The most shaken the particles, more broadly they oscillate in
Tor- at the point of equilibrium, that is, move away one from the other,
the way that the bodies tend to increase their sizes.

a) Linear dilation : it is the dilation in which we consider only the

increase of a single dimension of the body, taking into account that the
 others are negligible. This is the case with very thin bars and threads.
In this case, consider a negligible diameter bar with a length Initial
L with temperature initial T ,
0 0
which is heated by one temperatuta T , passing to present a length L .
1 1

4 – Linear dilation

Experimentally it can be observed that the expansion , cor-

responding to the range of temperatures , is proportional to the
LENGTH ment initial bar and also to . That is:
To turn this ratio in equality, it is necessary to set one con-
tant of equality that is called coefficient of expansion linear (
Therefore:
Or:
The coefficient of expansion linear is one caraterísitica of the material
from which is made the bar
dilated, and its unit is given in function of the unit 's temperature.
For example, if the temperature is given on the Celsius, then
the unit of is the C - 1
.

The following presents one table with values of for different

substances.
Table 1 - Coefficients of Expansion Linear of different substances

b) Surface expansion: it is the expansion in which two dimensions are

considered that change with the difference in temperature. In this way,
we can see that the area of the body it expands. This is the case, for
example, with a sheet of negligible thickness .
Therefore, let us consider a plate, with negligible thickness and
area S , when the temperature is T
0 0
 and which, when heated to a temperature T , expands superficially,
presenting an area S .
1 1

5 – Superficial dilation

The expansion surface is proportional to the area starting S and the

variation of temperature .
0

So we can write:

To make this proportionality an equality, we can use a

constant that we will call the coefficient of surface expansion ().
It is possible to show that , therefore, we have:
Or:
c) Volumetric dilation: it is the dilation in which the three
dimensions of the body vary with the increase in temperature. In this
case, we can consider, for example, a block. Thus, let us take a block
with an initial volume
equal to V
volume V:
, when the temperature is T
0
and which, after being heated to a temperature T
0
, starts to present a
1
6 – Volumetric dilation

The expansion volume is proportional to the volume initial V and

the variation of temperature .
0
 To make this proportionality an equality, we can use a
constant that we will call coefficient of surface expansion ().
It is possible to show that , therefore, we have:
Or:
14.4 C alue
During long time, until the middle of the century XIX, it was
believed that the heat was a substance called caloric, that the bodies
contained in itself and that po- deria be exchanged between them
spontaneously, explaining a number of phenomena heat until then.
However, the starting of studies conducted by scientists as Lord Kelvin,
Mayer and Joule, the heat began to be understood as one form of ener-
gy that the bodies exchange between themselves, in function of the
difference of temperature between them.
Based on this conception, it is possible to define a body A with
internal energy U , if the particles that
0
compose it present a degree of agitation macroscopically measured by the
temperature T . Thus, if we consider
0
another body B with energy internal U , with the particles to the make up
of one degree to stir
1
tion measured macroscopically by temperature T where we have that
a certain amount of energy is exchanged
1, ,

between A and B until both reach thermal equilibrium , that is, they present
the same temperature.
This amount of energy exchanged between the bodies is called heat.
7 - Exchange of heat

For historical reasons, the heat, which was previously

measured in calories (CAL), SAP- am to be defined also by Joule (J)
and its multiples and submultiples.
The conversion of joules to calories was established after the
famous experiment carried out by Joule, from which the famous
 scientist defined the mechanical equivalent of heat:
1 cal = 4.2 J
14.4.1 C alue sensitive
As we have seen, a body, in an exchange of
heat, can vary its temperature. In this case, we say
that the heat involved in the exchange is called the
heat sensitive.
To better understand the idea of sensible heat , imagine that
we have two bodies A and B of different masses , composed of the
same substance. If submeter- both the same source of energy thermally,
the shape which it it provides the same amount of heat, observe that
each one will present one increase of tempera- different ture. A thermal
capacity (C) is then defined for each body, that is, the physical quantity
that indicates the amount of heat needed to produce, in a given body, a
certain temperature variation .

8 - Bodies of masses receiving the same amount of heat from source heat

The Thermal Capacity Unit will be given in or You can see that the
greater the mass of the body, the greater its thermal capacity . It wants to
say that as greater is the mass of one body, greater will be the amount of
heat exchanged
that it varies its temperature. In the case of the above example, the body B
will have a greater temperature range than to the
body A, since that its mass is smaller.
If build one graph of capacity Thermal in function of the mass
of three bodies made of different substances, to obtain three curves
incli- nations different:

9 - Graph of capacity Thermal in function of mass

As the slope of the graph is different for different substances,
 the ra- Zão between mass and thermal capacity of one body shows a
constant specific to a substance. This constant is called the specific heat
(c) of the substance. So c is equal to
The unit of heat specific is the or

Table 2 - Specific heat of different

substances side by
From the equations, we can define that sensible heat can be calculated.

14.4.2 C lue latent

Not always exchanges of heat result in an increase or decrease of
tem- perature of the bodies involved.
At times, they happen changes of phase.
By way more common, the substances are presented in nature in
three different phases: solid, liquid and
gas.
Each one of these phases depends on the pressure and the
temperature to which the corresponding wells,
consisting of a substance are subjected. Under normal pressure
conditions, the variation in temperature is responsible for the change in
the phases, because, with the increase in temperature, the vibrations of
the particles that make up the matter also increase and, as this occurs,
there is an increase of the distances between the atoms.

10 - Changes of phases: solid, liquid and gaseous

The following presents the curve of heating for one substance

generalized rich linking temperature vs. quantity of heat, showing the
changes of phase of the material, considering the pressure normal.

11 - graph of temperature verusus amount of heat

 It is possible to observe that, during the melting and the spray
method, or is, in pro- phase change processes, the temperature is kept
constant, however, the exchange of heat kept going. Thus, unlike the
phenomena involving sensible heat exchange involving variation of
temperature in the mu- phenomenon phase dances, heat exchanges do
not cause temperature variation. This type of heat exchange is called
latent heat (L).
Mathematically, we can define that
where Q is the amount of heat exchanged and L is the latent heat .
We find experimentally that maintaining the pressure normal
to mass of 1 gram of water at temperature of 0 the C in phase solid, need
to exchange with the medium 80 cal of heat to be transformed, the
phase liquid, the temperature of 0 the C. If the mass of one gram of
water is in the gaseous phase at a temperature of 100 the C, the
the
pressure constant need to replace 540 cal with the means to become in
phase liquid at a temperature of 100 C.
Therefore , we say that the latent heat of fusion or solidification of
water is worth 80 cal, while the latent heat of condensation or
vaporization of water is worth 540 cal.
In this sense, for each substance, there is a latent heat
characteristic of each one. In the table below, we present some latent
heat values of some substances.
Table 3 - Latent heat of fusion (LF) and latent heat of vaporization (LV) of
some substances
Obs .: Think of the heat latent and the heat sensitive as types of energy
potential and cine optics. Note that, as well as the energy potential has
relation with the position of the body, the heat latent has to do with the
position of particles (one in relation to others). In the same way, just as
kinetic energy is related to the speed of the body, sensible heat has to
do with the temperature (degree of agitation of the particles that
compose it) of the body.

14.5 T r the C of the C to U or

As we have seen, heat is a form of energy and therefore the
 exchange of heat, we must consider the Principle of Conservation of
Energy.
Therefore, it can be stated that when two or more bodies
which are dif- ferent temperatures, placed in a system that can be
considered thermally insulated (that is, they do not exchange heat with
the medium outside) the sum of the amounts of heat exchanged – heat
received (Q ) and heat given up (Q ) – is zero.
R C

Mathematically, we can write that

12 - Exchanges of heat in system isolated and not isolated

14.5.1 C aloríMetros
For that studies on exchange of heat can be carried out, is
common in- preaching, in laboratories, one equipment called
calorimeter.
The calorimeters are devices constructed in such a way to
allow, to some extent, the insulating heat of bodies placed on its inside
with the medium outside.
13 – Calorimeter

14.6 P roPaGação the heat

Bodies constantly exchange heat with each other; for this to
occur, it is enough that there is a difference in temperature between
them. Therefore, this process lasts until it is give the balance heat,
wants to say, to which the bodies reach the same
temperature. Thus, the body more hot tends to decrease temperature,
yielding heat to the body more cold, which tends to increase its
temperature.
In the exchange of heat, we can identify three forms of
propagation: the con- duction, convection and
radiation.
14.6.1 C ondução
In this form of propagation of heat, we have that the exchange
of energy heat of establishing, by contact, from one region to another of
the same body or bodies different.

14 - transfer of heat by conduction

In the process of heat propagation by conduction, the closer

the molecules are to each other, the better. Therefore, as the molecules
in solids are closer than those of liquids and gases, we can say that
solids are better conductors of heat. Among the solid, stand out the
metals. However, the conductivity thermal, property of materials that
indicates a greater or lesser ease in conducting heat varies even among
the various solids and even of metal. Thus, due to their larger or lesser
ease in conducting heat, we can assign to each one of them one coeffi-
aware conductivity thermal (K) different.

The unit of conductance heat is given in SI by

Following is a table showing the conductivity Ter- mica of some
materials.
Table 4 - Conductivity Thermal of some substances

Note that, in abiente 20

a
C, for example, if you play with his hand a panel of wood type MDF and
an
aluminum bar, will have the feeling that a bar of aluminum is more cold
than to the panel of wood. That 's just a feeling. Both are at the same
temperature, however, as the bar of aluminum has one conductivity
 thermal larger, the exchange of heat with his hand is more easily than
that with the timber.
Thermal conductivity is also related to human actions, to
prevent heat loss, such as, for example, the use of a blanket (it does not
warm us, as it is not a source of heat, it just prevents our body from
easily exchanging heat with the environment external), the same
happening with the clothes of winter and the constructive tion of
housing.

15 – Construction of an igloo

The igloos are dwellings built by the Eskimos. Ice is a good thermal
insulator.
As the heat spreads through the body, e.g., a bar, the
temperature of the body is altered, the longer of its length. In this way,
one can observe one direction and one direction by which the
temperature will changing the over the body.
16 - Gradient of Temperature

We define as a gradient of temperature ( T) to change the

temperature the longer the body which conducts the heat.
Thus, if we imagine two surfaces A and A to over the body, with
one distance d between itself we
1 2
observe two different temperatures T and T . Soon:
1 2

The drive the gradient of temperature can be given by :

or

We define also flow of heat (φ) as being the amount of

 heat (Q) which passes through one surface of the body to the leads by unit
of time
. Mathematically, we can write:
The unit of flow of heat can be given in Fourier to study
experimentally the flow of heat that passes through the su-
perfície transverse of one conductive heat to the area A, enunciated the
following law:
"The flow of heat that passes through one surface transverse
to one conductive thermal in scheme stationary is equal to the product
of the coefficient of conductive heat the gradient of temperature and the
area of this surface transverse".
We can
write:
Or:

14.6.2 C onveCção
Convection is heat propagation process that is established in
the fluid, or say, in liquids and in gases. It takes place by means of the
movement of the fluid itself, featuring convection currents. They are
generated from the heating of the fluid, which, when heated, tends to
decrease its density and, in this case, tends to rise, being replaced by
another part of the colder fluid, producing the currents.

17 - Transfer of heat by convection

The currents of convection to give also the inside of the
refrigerator, the APA air conditioning whip installed in a room and
continental breeze phenomena and sea.
Note that a freezer is located on top of the refrigerator: this
has a physical reason. As the cold air from the freezer exerts less
pressure on the hot air from the foods placed in the refrigerator, it tends
to descend, pushed by the hot air, which tends to rise, generating
convection currents .
18 - Concecção in refrigerator
 The same happens with the air conditioner, which must be placed on
top of a wall and not at the bottom.
With respect to the breezes maritime and continental, we have
learned the concept of heat specific and that the heat particular the
water is well higher than that many other substances. In consequence, it
is necessary to replace and more heat to heat the water to which the
same amount of soil, for example.
Thus, during the day the sun warms the continent more rapid
than that heats the water. For this, in this period, by convection, the air
heated in the continent, less dense, rises, while the air cold on the
March to move the March to the sand, provocan- of the sea breeze.
At night, with the putting of the sun, the water of the ocean is
more hot, heats the air that is above it, while the air on the sand to cool
quickly. The air on the water, by convection, tends to be expand and
rise, while the air on the continent is des- loca towards the sea: the
continental breeze.

19 – Sea breezes

14.6.3 r adiação
If, in conduction and convection, the propagation of heat
involves material means , in radiation, heat also propagates in a
vacuum, by means of electromagnetic waves .
Depending on the energy carried by the wave, its wavelength can be
longer or shorter.

20 – Thermal radiation

One can define spectrum eletromagnétrico as the range in

which all of the radiation (of different lengths of wave) are contained.
 21 – Electromagnetic spectrum
When a body warm up, particles with their electrical loads VI
bram harder and, thus, produce electromagnetic radiation with length of
wave Typical of the infrared light. You will understand this issue better
when you study waveform and electromagnetism.
22 - Photography thermographic: it is possible to observe variations
of heat by means of infrared radiation emitted by objects
Every body with temperature above 0 K emits radiation,
because their par- cells loaded electrically vibrate, in however, it is
important to highlight that quan- to higher body temperature, the
greater the power of the radiation emitted by it and less will be the
length of wave this radiation.

14.6.3.1 l i the radiation of K irChhoFF and Definition of Body black

In this topic, two concepts are important: emissivity and
absorptivity. To do so, let us remember the lessons of chemistry on
atomistic:
ABSORPTION occurs when radiation, incident on an atom
on the surface of a material, makes an electron “jump” from a lower to
an upper orbit . In this case, the radiation is absorbed.
EMISSION happens when an electron of an atom, from the
surface of a material that radiates an electromagnetic wave, “jumps”
from an upper to a lower orbit . In this case, the radiation is produced.
Therefore, both emission and absorption depend on the
surface of the materials. Therefore, we can define emissivity (e) as the
capacity of a given surface to emit electromagnetic radiation, which can
vary between 0 and 1.
The absorptivity (a) is the ability to one particular surface has
to absorb electromagnetic radiation and can also vary between the
values 0 and 1.
According to Kirchhoff's law for radiation, the ability of a
surface to absorb certain radiation is equal to its ability to emit that
same radiation. That is:
 It is important to conclude that the entire body is emitting and
absorbing energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation. If, within a
certain period of time, the body absorbs more radiation than it emitted,
its temperature will increase. The con- contrary, emitting more
radiation than absorb, its temperature tends to decrease. However, in
thermal equilibrium, the radiation emitted and absorbed in view of one
same time interval are equal.
Another consideration important the law of radiation of
Kirchhoff is as the surface ideal, or is, the one that has the capacity of
abosrver all the radiation it incident, ie, a = 1. In this case, its emissivity
will also be maximum, so e=1. This ideal surface is that of an ideal
body that physicists call a black body .
Thus, a black body is a hypothetical body (a model) whose
absorptivity and emissivity are maximum, however, the emission of
radiation occurs in a wavelength that depends on its temperature.

14.6.3.2 l i a s Tefan b oltzMann and l i the displacement of w ien

You will remember the concept of potency as the ratio of
energy to time. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law states that the total radiated
power (P) by a blackbody with an emitting surface of area A and
absolute temperature T is given by:

of Boltzmann whose value in units of the SI is

Was Wien who realized that the length of wave maximum (

of the radiation emitted by a black body was inversely proportional to
its temperature (T). So mathematically, the Law of Wien can be written
the following way:

where b is one constant the value in units of SI, equal

to
 In the graph of the total radiated power per unit area of a
blackbody, as a function of the emitted wavelength, it is possible to
verify the Wien's Law . Note that the peak of the curve shifts so that it
decreases as T increases:
23 - graph of the power radiated per unit of area of one body black versus
the length wave

When determining the total power radiated by a real heated

body, we must take into account the emissivity (e) of that body:

Although separate the heat propagation processes, they often

are manifested together. For example, consider a person who heats an
iron bar over a fire.

24 - bar of iron heated for one fire

The fire spread heat by conduction, by radiation and by
convection.
25 - iron bar heated in a fire, three processes propagation of heat

15 t er M odyna M i C a
The Thermodynamics is the part of physics that studies the
relationships between work mechanic with exchanges of heat,
performed by machines thermal.
In the Dynamics part, you studied that mechanical work was
done from the variation of kinetic and potential energy. In
thermodynamics, the idea is the same; this part, however, the energy is
in the form of heat and the equipment used is composed by gases.
15.1 L aces perfect
In our studies, we will work with a gas model that we will call
perfect gases, which are idealizations of real gases. This model built by
physicists, which under certain conditions is close to reality, admits
 that:
• a gas is composed of molecules whose diameters are negligible in rela-
tion to the space in which they move, erratically in all directions
tions and meanings;
1 - Gas, confined in a container
• each of the molecules that make up a gas interacts
with others only through collisions; 2 - Particles of gas
colliding against the walls of the container
• all collisions between molecules, constituents of a gas, and these to the
walls of the container that the contains, are considered perfectly
elastic; thus, the total kinetic energy is conserved, but the speed of
each molecule can vary.
The state of a gas is well characterized from three quantities:
pressure, volume and temperature. As we already know, temperature is
related to the agitation of the molecules that make up the gas. In this
manner, as higher is the speed of molecules of the gas, most will be in
their temperature, and as smaller is the velocity of the molecules of the
gas, the lower its temperature.
Volume is the three-dimensional space occupied by the gas.
Unlike solids and liquids, which occupy a defined volume, gases
occupy the entire volume of the container that contains them.
3 – Variation in the volume of a gas

The pressure exerted by one gas says about the collisions that
their molecules held against the walls of the vessel containing them;
remember that a gas is constituted by molecules that are in motion
cluttered , and for this, hit constantly in the walls of the container in
which they are contained, exerting pressure.
4 – The impact of particles against the walls of the container produces
pressure

Any change in these three quantities defines a gaseous

transformation .
15.2 t rans F or M to O s L asosas
We can characterize four types of gas transformations :
a) isothermal transformation ;
b) isobaric transformation ;
d) isometric (isovolumetric) or isochoric transformation ; and
e) adiabatic transformation .
The isothermal transformation is the one in which, keeping
the temperature constant , the relation of variation between pressure
and volume can be observed. To understand this gas transformation,
consider a gas
with a temperature T
, volume V
1
and Pressure P .
1 1

5 - Transformation gas to the temperature constant

Now, keeping the temperature constant, move the plunger of
the container to low, lowering the volume. In this case, with less space,
an increase in pressure will tend to occur , as the molecules will tend to
collide more often against the walls of the container. Consequently, the
isothermal transformations, the pressure and the volume are inversely
proportional. This conclusion is known as Law of Boyle.

6 – Graphic representation of an isothermal transformation

The transformation isobaric happens when we keep the pressure

constant and observe the relationship
between temperature and volume. For that, let's consider a gas with a
temperature T
, volume V
1
and Pressure P
1
. If we keep the pressure constant and increase the temperature, ie, we
increase the degree of agitation of the
1
molecules within the container, also increase the need volu- me
because, if otherwise, to increase pressure. 7 – Gas transformation
at constant pressure

Therefore, in the isobaric process, temperature and volume

are direct- mind proportional. This conclusion is known as the Law of
Gay-Lussac.

8 – Graphic representation of the isobaric transformation

In isometric transformation (isovolumetric) or isochoric, the volume is

kept constant with the objective
of is to observe the relationship between temperature and pres- are.
Considering a gas with a temperature T ,
1
volume V and Pressure P , when we increase the temperature, we verify
that, with the increase in the agitation
1 1
of the molecules , the gas increases the pressure
on the walls of the container. 9 – Transformation
to constant volume

Thus, the transformation isochoric, temperature and the

pressure are directly proportional. This conclusion is known as Law of
Charles.

10 – Graphic representation of the isovolumetric transformation

In processing adiabatic, the gas does not exchange heat with
the medium, however, if we change the value of all the variables, we
have that:
11 – Graphic representation of adiabatic transformation

So,
So, if we choose values reference to the pressure, volume and
tem- perature, to define a condition in which the gas becomes possible
to set the value of the constant. In this way, in conditions normal in
temperature and pressure, or is,
T = 273 K or and P = 1 atm or 1 x 10 5 Pa, we know that 1 mol of any
gas occupies a volume of 22, 4 liters or
0 0

22.4 x 10 – 3 m 3 . Therefore,
where R is the constant general of gases and, in
units of the SI, Valley: 8,314 Thus, for the
characterization of one gas, we have the
equation of Clapeyron:
where n is the number of moles of the gas.
15.3 P ri M threshing l i of t er M ODINA M i C the
As already know, the heat is the form of energy exchanged
between two bodies, which have different temperatures from each
other until they reach equilibrium heat between them.
We also know that energy is conserved, that is, it cannot
be created or destroyed, however, it is transformed.
Consider one system, composed by two bodies 1 and 2, with tem-
perature different from each other T
1
and T , respectively, completely insulated thermally from the outside
environment. Thus, heat exchanges are
2
only allowed between the bodies that make up the system. If ,
there will be exchange of heat between the bodies.
12 - exchange of heat in a system isolated
 When the heat exchange body 2 (Q) with the body temperature T
, the energy inside the body 1 tends
1
to increase (hence its temperature tends to increase too) at However, it
is possible that the body 1 to perform work ( ) with the heat exchanged
with the body 2. In view of the Principle of Energy Conservation , we
can say that

Or, as usually it is written, the first law of

thermodynamics can be expressed: As the body
1 can perform work?
Now, consider that body 1 is an ideal gas confined in a
container containing a plunger. When receiving heat (Q), the internal
energy of the gas tends to increase, therefore, its temperature too, so
that the molecules that compose it are more agitated and exert pressure
on the walls of the container and on the piston. As the piston is mobile,
it moves, covering a distance (d) performing, therefore, work ().

13 - Realization of work for one gas

You 've studied that work can

be calculated by As pressure is
the force over area ratio , we
have:
Consequently, we have to

The product of the area by the distance d, which can vary, is

equal to the change in the volume occupied by the gas (); thus, we can
write that the work of a gas, under constant pressure , that is, in an
isobaric gaseous transformation , is

Note that if it is positive, that is, if the final volume is greater

than the initial volume ( there has been an expansion and the work will
 be positive. In this way, we say that the gas has done work. But if it is
negative, that is, is the volume end is smaller than the volume initial,
there was one compression and the work is negative. In this case we say
that was conducted work on the gas.
In a transformation in which the pressure is not constant, the
calculation of the work will be given by the area of the figure formed
under the graph of pressure versus volume (P x V),
14 – Work performed by a gas under variable pressure

Now, let's imagine one gas ideal passing by one

transformation ga- isometric sosa (isovolumetric) or isochoric, in which
the volume is constant and by- both, . In this case, the job is null (soon:
From this equation, we can see that if the gas received heat in
the exchange, all the energy was used to increase its internal energy, so
that the temperature of the gas increased. However, if the gas, in the
exchange, lost heat, its internal energy decreased, so its temperature also
decreased.
If we analyze one processing adiabatic, or is, in which no no
exchange of heat (Q = 0) we have that:

When this occurs, you can see that if the work is positive
(expansion of gas), or whether, if the gas perform work, it will happen
at the expense of their own power inside and, therefore, the temperature
of the gas will decrease.
However, if the work is negative (compression of the gas),
want to say, for rea- lizado work on gas, there will be an increase in
internal energy of the gas and its increase temperature.
Finally, if the ideal gas undergoing an isothermal
transformation, that is, at constant temperature, thus the internal energy
of the gas will not va- o draw, just so we have:

In this case, you can see that all the heat exchanged with the gas will
be used to do work.
Here, it is worth highlighting gaseous transformations that
 take place in a cycle. A transformation cyclic, in which the gas ideal,
after passing by one processing returns to the initial conditions, we
have carried out the work is equal to the area of the figure bounded by
the graph of pressure versus volume (P x V) :

15 – Work performed by a gas in a cycle

Note, then , that the work is the area of the figure generated
by the AB transformation subtracted from the area of the CD
transformation. As there is no variation of volumes in BC and DA, the
works in these transformations are null.

15.4 s and L unda l i of t er M ODINA M i C the

Considering the analyzes that were carried out from the
gaseous transformations in comparison with the first Law of
Thermodynamics, it is possible to build a thermal machine that uses the
heat exchanged for the maximum possible work , choosing adiabatic
and isothermal gaseous transformations and evitan- of the
transformations gas isochoric.
Thus, Carnot proposed an ideal thermal machine that works in
a cycle formed by two isotherms and two adiabatic ones.
To fully understand the Carnot engine, consider certain
amount of mass ideal gas confined in a container containing a plunger,
in which three of its walls does not allow the exchange of heat with
the medium outside,
with the exception of a part of bottom. Assume that, in conditions
early, the gas is under pressure P
temperature T , occupying a volume V .
1 1
, one
1

igure 16 - Situation ideal for analysis of the cycle of Carnot

 If we heat the gas, employing one source of heat which will
call hot whose temperature remains constant, the thermal motion of the
gas will tend to increase, but as the pressure increases and the piston
rises, increasing volu- me, one may admit gaseous expansion without
temperature change ( isothermal expansion ). In this case, all the heat
supplied by the hot source (Q) is used to do work ().
The start of this expansion, the gas passes the one state in which it
one pressure P 2 , the temperature T 1
, occupying a volume V 2 .
If we cause an adiabatic expansion in the gas, it passes to
state P 3 , V 3 , T 2 , where T 2 is the so-called cold source temperature. In
this situation, the gas performs work at the expense of their own power
inside and, in this case, to a tempera- ture decreases to T 2 .
17 - Sequence of transformations gas in the step of expanding the cycle of
Carnot

Now, the gas is subjected to an isothermal compression in such a way that

it assumes the state P , V T
4 4,
. In this case, the work is negative, indicating that it was done one
work on the gas, so slowly that the
2
temperature does not change.
Finally, to complete the cycle, the gas is adiabatically compressed to
the state P , V , T . Therefore,
1 1 1
one more work is carried out on the gas, in this case, increasing the
internal energy of the gas and, consequently, its temperature.

18 – Sequences of gas transformations in the

compression step of the Carnot cycle
Graphically, we can represent the changes
described above with the following:
19 - Representation graphical the cycle of Carnot

Note that the work performed ( ) in cycle proposed by Carnot was estab-
lishes the from the heat that the
gas receives the supply hot ( ) and rejects to the source cold (
). In consequence, the work done by the gas can be calculated by the
equation
The yield of one machine ( ) is the ratio between the energy it
receives ( and the one that actually is used
for the realization of work
.

source.
Thus, as a percentage, the yield is
given by or
Or, even, if we consider the temperature absolute of source hot and the
absolute temperature of the cold

A thermal machine functioning in accordance with Carnot cycle

is regarded as ideal, however, the
the
equations above, or even it is possible to obtain 100% of yield.
Therefore, we can spell out the two Law of Thermodynamics:
“It is impossible to build a machine that, operating in a
thermodynamic cycle , converts the entire amount of heat received into
work”. That is, there is possible, even using one machine thermal ideal
to obtain 100% of yield.

16 O optical G eoMétriCa
Optics is the part of physics that studies the nature of light
 and the phenomena bright. Thus, we can define the optics in two
parts:
The Optical Geometric: studying the phenomena bright, without
worrying in explaining the nature of
light.
The Optical Physics: concerned in studying the nature
of light. Here, we study the optical geometric

16.1 P PRINCIPLES basic

To start our studies on light phenomena, without delving into
the nature of light, we can define them as effects caused by a form of
energy, which propagates through an electromagnetic wave, capable of
impressing our
visual organs .
To study these phenomena, let's define other basic concepts :
a) Ray of light: It is a representation of light. It constitutes a line
indicating, by means of one arrow, the direction and the direction of
propagation of light.
1 - Representation graphic of one ray of light

b) Brush light: it is the representation on the issuance of one set of rays

of light from a given light source. The luminous brush can be classified
into:
• Parallel: is the brush bright compound of rays of light parallel one in rela-
tion to each other.

2 – Graphic representation of a luminous brush

• Converged: is the brush luminous compound by

rays of light to converge to a point. 3 - Brush of light
convergent

• Divergent: is the brush luminous compound by rays of light that diverge

 from a certain point.

4 - Brush of light diverging

a) Sources of light: are bodies the from of which it can receive light.
Can be classified ed in primary or secondary and also in punctate or
extensive:
• Primary light sources: are those that emit their own light, that is, they are
capable of transforming other forms of energy into light , such as,
for example, the sun, lighted lamps, the flame of a candle, etc.

5 - Examples of sources of light primary

• secondary light sources: those that reflect light luminosity of a source
nosa primary, as, for example, the moon, planets visible, other
bodies that do not have their own light, but reflect light.
6 - mirrors as example of sources of light secondary
• Point-shaped light sources: are those whose dimensions are so small,
when compared to the distance between them and the observer,
that they can be considered negligible, that is, they can be
represented by a point. For example: one headlight of a car seen a
kilometers away.

7 - Examples of sources of light punctiform

• Extensive light sources: are those whose dimensions cannot be

neglected, when compared to the distance between it and the
observer. For example: a light reflector illuminating someone
nearby.
8 - Examples of sources of light extensive
b) Light propagation means: these are the different means by which
light can propagate, which can be vacuum or any other material means.
 Depending on the characteristics of this medium, light rays behave in
different ways. Thus, we can classify them into:
• Transparent media: when they offer conditions for light to propagate
through them, in a regular way, that is, without major distortions,
enabling a clear vision.
• Translucent media: when they offer conditions so that the light
propagates through the other, but not to form regular, preventing
one vision sharp.
• Opaque media: when they do not provide conditions for light to
propagate through them, making vision impossible.
c) Optical phenomena: there are situations that occur due to the
behavior of rays of light to focus on one surface which separates two
media in which the light is propagated. The optical phenomena are:
• Reflection of light: happens when the rays of light return, are reflected,
para- lelamente the same half of which were are spreading, not
going to the other half. Can you give to form regular or diffuse:
• Regular reflection: occurs when the surface on which light rays strike
is very smooth, polished, as is the case with mirrors, for example.
This kind of reflec- nection allows a preview perfect.
• Diffuse reflection: happens when the surface on which light rays
strike is irregular, rough. This phenomenon does not enable one
display perfect.
9 – Examples of diffuse and regular reflection of light

• Refraction of light: occurs when the rays of light pass through the
surface of sepa- ration and begin to spread in the other half. When
crossing the separation surface , the light rays “bend”, that is,
deviate, at an angle different from the one on which they hit.

10 - diagram of representation of the refraction of light

• Absorption of light: it happens when the incident light rays are neither
reflec- taken and not refracted. The surface of separation absorbs
the energy light.
 The color of bodies can be explained in part by absorption
and in part by reflection of light. In a very general way , we can explain
the color of a body by the light energy it absorbs and reflects. The so-
called white light is actually composed of an infinite number of colors
(frequencies). Thus, when we illuminate one body with one brush
bright white, the rays of light focus on their surface. If it reflects all
the light, the body will have a white color (ideal white), but if it
absorbs all the light that falls on it, the body will not reflect anything,
so in this case we have the ideal black. However, the body can absorb
some of the light energy and reflect a light brush of another color.

11 - Absorption of light

d) Law of Rectilinear Propagation: the Rectilinear Propagation of Light

Law states that light always to propagate in line straight. The eclipses
and the formation of shadows and penum- bras are a result direct of the
rectilinear propagation of light.
i - s oMbras and P enuMbras
Shadow is defined as a region of space devoid of light. A
shadow is produced when one object opaque prevents that rays of light
from a source light illuminate a given region of space.
When light rays fall on an opaque body, they define regions
of shadow and twilight. Note that while the point light source only
produces shadow, the extended light source also produces penumbra.
Penumbra can be defined as the region of space that is partially
illuminated.
12 - Training of shadow and gloom

Leaving, therefore, the principle of propagation Rectilinear of

Light, we can es- - establish one relationship mathematics to determine
the size and the position of the shadow of an opaque object projected
on a screen.
13 - Training of shadow
 The similarity between the ABO and CEO triangles allows us to
establish the following relationship:

Where:
d is the diameter of the opaque sphere .
D is the diameter of the cast shadow .
x is the distance between the source of light and the sphere opaque.
y is the distance between the opaque sphere and the screen on which the
shadow is projected.

ii - C Amara and SCURA

Another interesting application of the Principle of Straight
Propagation of Light is the phenomenon of capturing images from an
orifice darkroom. The Chamber Dark the hole is one device that
consists of one container closed it pos- sui a small hole. The inner
surface opposite to that in which is the orifice should be composed of
one equipment semitransparent (matte). With the camera dark the hole,
it is possible we capture images of objects.
To understand how this is possible, imagine a certain object
illuminated by a light source . The rays of light that pass through the
object are cap- tured by the housing, when entering the orifice, and
focus on the opposite surface made of one equipment focus which
serves as a screen in which the image is projected.

14 - Chamber dark
As light propagates in a straight line, the projected image is
inverted relative to the object. Besides that, we can establish one
relationship mathematics to from the similarity between the ABO
triangles and A'B'O:
Where:
AB is the size of the object
 A'B' is the size of the image captured by the camera
dark x is the distance between the object and the
camera dark
y is the length of the darkroom

iii - and clipses s olar and l UNAR

The phenomenon of formation of shadows and penumbra,
which are explained by the Principle of Straight Propagation of Light,
is the basis for understanding and analyzing the phenomena of lunar
and solar eclipses .
When the Moon, in its orbit, is between the Sun and the
Earth, it prevents the sun's rays from reaching the Earth, casting a
shadow. In this way, the Sun “disappears ” from the sky. This
phenomenon is called solar eclipse or the Sun. As the Sun is very large,
taking into account its distance from the Moon and Earth, it is
considered an extensive source . For this, we have, besides the
formation of the shadow of the moon on Earth, also the formation of a
penumbra region. A person located in the earth in the shadow region
will be watching a total eclipse of the sun phenomenon. Already
another person located on land in the region of gloom notice one
eclipse part of the sun.
15 – Scheme of a Solar Eclipse
But the lunar eclipse or moon occurs when the earth in its
orbit, stands between the Sun and the Moon. In this case the moon is no
longer illuminated by the sun and, for a person located in the earth, it
"disappears", the be covered up.

16 – Scheme of a lunar eclipse

16.2 and s P elhos P l years

We can set mirrors plans as all surface flat and polished,
by- both regular, able to reflect the incident light in it.
 17 - Regular reflection of light in a plane mirror
16.2.1 l lo of reflection

the
1

Law: The angle of incidence () is equal to the angle of reflection ( ).

18 – The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

the
2

Law: The ray incident I, the standard for surface reflector (C) and the beam
reflected (R) are in the same
plane.
19 - The incidence and the reflection occurs in a same plane

Consider the line N, perpendicular to the reflecting surface,

which we will call Normal to the surface. As it can verify, the straight
standard in serving the refer- ence to the measures of the angles of
incidence and reflection.

16.2.2 C onst r UC ã the a i M to L ens and M s P ethos P l years

We will study the construction of images combined in
one mirror plane, the starting point of a considered object.
Take, therefore, one point P , on the one mirror
plane E , as the following figure shows: 20 - Point P in front
of a plane mirror E
 If we admit light incident I rays of the mirror and passing
through the point P, we have to consider the existence of rays of light
reflected R, the form such that the reflection angles are equal to the
angles of incidence
1 to Act Reflection) , as is indicated in the figure below.

21 - Path of light of rays incident and reflected

To determine the image point P', it is enough that we make
an extension of the reflected light rays. The convergence of these points
is P'. Look at the figure below:
22 - Graphic determination of the P' image point

It can be seen that the distance from point P to mirror E is

equal to the distance from mirror E to image point P´ (PE = EP´), that
is, image P´ is symmetrical to point P.

23 - Symmetry of the image point P' in relation to the object point P

Obs .: As we saw, the images combined by flat mirrors are symmetrical

to the objects, that is, the distance of each point of the mirror to the
object is equal to the distance of the image to mirror the that the leads
to conclude that, in spite of the image have the same size as the object,
they are not exactly the same. In fact, the image is inverted taken in
relation to the object. This phenomenon receives the name of
enantiomorfismo.

24 - Enantiomorfismo: inversion of the image

16.2.3 t rans l to ç ã the of u M s P ld P l year

When we move a mirror, the image conjugated by it also moves.
 Consider an object P located at a
distance d
from a mirror E, as shown in the following figure.
1
25 – Object P distant d from a mirror E
1

As mirrors plans combine images symmetrical in relation to the

object, we have that the image P ' also
finds the one distance d
of the mirror.
1

26 - Picture P ' symmetric to the object P

If we move (translate) the mirror a certain distance to ,
then
we will have

27 - Translation of mirror plane

Note that the distance X between the two successive positions of the
images P' and P'' can be expressed
by:
Look at figure 27 and notice that

Then:

X = 2nd
Thus, it is concluded that the image displacement is twice the mirror
displacement .

16.2.4 r a t the ç ã the of u M s P ld P l year

If, instead of displacing the mirror a distance a, we rotate
it by a certain angle, we can show, in an analogous way, that we
rotate the image by an angle Δ= 2α.
 28 - Rotation of the plane mirror

16.2.5 the SSO C i to ç ã the of s P ethos P l years

When we associate two plane mirrors parallel to each other,
or so that they form angles to each other, we can multiply the number
of conjugated images of a given object.
Thus, let us consider two plane mirrors E1 and E2, which
form an angle α between them , as shown in the following figure .

29 - Association of plane mirrors

The number n of images of P that this association can
conjugate is equal to
o
Note that if α is equal to 180 there is a conjugation of a single
image.
then, in practice, we have only one mirror and, therefore, n=1, that is,
For α equal to zero, we have that the mirrors are parallel and,
mathematically , we would have an impossibility. However, if we think
of a very small value for α, we will realize that n would be equal to
infinity, that is, infinite images. This would only be possible if the
system did not absorb energy.
This expression is only valid for values of α that are
submultiples of 360 o . Otherwise, the number of images is not an
integer.

16.3 and mirrors and sFeriCs

The our daily life is full of situations in which we make use of
es- pelhos spherical. Note, the figures to follow, the applications
everyday of mirrors spherical.
30 – Examples of spherical mirrors
To understand the which is one mirror ball, consider one
 sphere whose surface reflects the light, as in figure 31, the following:

31 – Spherical cap being cut

Dividing this sphere into two parts, we obtain two spherical

caps : one concave and one convex. One can define mirrors
spherical as being one cap spherical with su- perfície
reflecting light.

32 - mirror concave and mirror convex

16.3.1 and ELEMENTS of uM mirror ball

The representation of a mirror can be
done as shown in the figure. the following:

33 - Characteristics of spherical mirrors

With basis in the figure above highlight the elements

geometric most im- portant of representation for the study of one
mirror spherical:
Center of Curvature (C): is the center of the
sphere that originated the spherical cap reflector; reflector;
and

Radius of Curvature (R): is the radius of the sphere that originated the
spherical cap Vertex (V): is the maximum point of the extremity of the
reflecting spherical cap ; Main axis : is the line that passes through the
vertex and the center of curvature
of the reflective spherical cap .
16.3.2 the s foci of æM mirror spherical
In order for an image of a particular object point to be formed
sharply, light, which is reflected by a mirror or deflected by a lens,
must provide a single image point. When this does not happen, there is
a distortion or aberration of the image, as there is the formation of what
we call caustic.
The term caustic, from a mathematical point of view , refers
to a curve or surface. We show in the figure the following, the curve or
surface mathematical designations no caustic generated by rays of light
reflected by mirrors concave and convex.

34 - Formation of caustic in mirrors spherical

Note that, instead of the beams converge to a single point,

that is, for the focus, there is the formation of several points focus,
generating one surface of the rays of light reflected. This surface, called
the caustic, generates images distorted.
In order that a spherical mirror forms a sharp image, it is
necessary that all the rays of light, which imposed parallel to the mirror,
are reflected, or their extensions pass by one single point: the focus (F).
In the following figure, note that in the concave mirror the
parallel rays of light tend to converge to the mirror's focus. In the case
of the mirror convex, the rays of light tend to diverge, however, the pro
longamentos of parallel incident rays tend to focus. As a result, we
conclude that, in convex mirrors , the focus is virtual.
35 – focal point in spherical mirrors
But what conditions are necessary for which the mirror spherical
produce one single focal point?
For this, it is necessary that the mirror is stigmatic, that is,
that meets the conditions of astigmatism established by Gauss:
a) The opening of the mirror cannot exceed 10
(ten degrees). Note that for the opening angle is less than 10
the
the mirror or the lens tends to lose its shape spherical.

36 - mirror stigmatic: angle of opening must be smaller than 10 the

b) The rays incident on the mirror or on the lens must be paraxial, or

better, they are rays close to the main axis and that must not present
great inclinations in relation to it.

37 - Paraxial light rays

For spherical mirrors that comply with Gaussian stigmatism

conditions , the focal length (f ) is half the distance between the vertex
(V) and the center of curvature (C). In other words:
16.3.3 F ormation of images eM mirror spherical
For we represent the formation of images in mirrors spherical,
precisely we take into account the path of the rays of light. So, three
rules are important:
to
1 - A ray of light parallel and close to the axis principal, after the
reflection, always will the focus of the mirror
ball.

38 - Ray of light parallel to the axis principal, after the reflection, always
passes through focus

to
2 - Every ray of light incident that passes through the center of curvature
C, after the reflection back on itself
same.
39 - Ray of light incident that passes through C, reflects on itself same

to
 3 - Every ray of light incident that passes the focus reflect a direction
parallel to the axis main mirror ball.
40 - Ray of light incident that passes by F, after the reflection, spreads for-
lelamente the main axis

16.3.4 C HARACTERISTICS of images formed eM mirror spherical

The image formed on the spherical mirrors can be real or
virtual, straight or inverted, and larger or smaller than the object.
In the concave mirrors , we have:
a) Object before the center of curvature:

41 – Image with the object before the center of curvature

object.

The image is: Real (formed by rays of light), inverted and smaller than the
b) Object over the center of curvature:

42 – Image with the object over the center of curvature

The image is real (formed by the rays of light), inverted and the same
tama- nho the object.
c) Object between the center of curvature and the focus:

43 – Image with the object between the center of curvature and the focus

object.

The image is real (formed by rays of light), inverted and greater than the
a) Object in focus:

44 – Improper image : the object is placed over the focus

 b) Object of the focus and the vertex:
45 – Image with the object placed between the focus and the vertex

The image is virtual (formed by the extensions of the rays),

straight and larger than the object. On the convex mirrors :
46 - Picture in the mirror convex

The image is virtual (formed by extensions of the rays of light), di

reita and smaller than the object.
16.3.5 to and tegic fit of C onjuGação of L auss
The equation of combination of Gauss relates the position
of the object (P) with the position of the image (p ') and the distance
focus (f ). Therefore , we have:
47 – Conjugated image by concave mirror

The use of this equation necessarily involves the definition of

a system of references so that a sign, positive or negative, can be
assigned, differentiating the real (+) from the virtual (-).
In this sense, consider a spherical mirror whose main axis is
the abscissa axis, oriented in the opposite direction to the light incident
on the mirror. In this way, the front of the mirror corresponds to the
values of the positive abscissa , that is, the place where real objects and
images are. Therefore, the region located behind the mirror corresponds
to the negative abscissa values, where objects and virtual images are
located . To define the vertical axis, consider a vertical line passing the
vertex of the mirror, oriented to the top. Thus, the object or the image
that is above the axis leading the mirror will have ordered positive and
the that are below it will be ordered negative.

48 – Definition of reference
 Note that, in accordance with the convention adopted, to the
mirror concave, the center of curvature C and the focus F are positive,
or is, real. For the convex mirror , the center of curvature C and the
focus F are
negative, that is, virtual.

16.3.6 to and tegic fit the linear increase cross-

In the study of the representation of the conjugation of images
by spherical mirrors , we saw that the height of the image can be equal
to, greater or less than that of the object. Considering y, the height of
the object, y' the height of the image and A, the transversal linear
increase of the image, we have that:
49 - Increase the image
 or
Obs .: with respect to the equation
above, notice that:
a) When p and p ' have the same sign, A <0, the which indicates
that the image is inverted in relation to the object.
b) When p and p ' have signs opposite, we have A> 0, the which
indicates that the image is right in relation to the object.

16.4 l eis of the refraction of light

As already noticed, the refraction of light is the
phenomenon of light in which one beam of light incident on a
surface separating two media material tends to cross it and to be
propagated in a medium materials different from that in which it was
issued.
To cross the surface and spread into another medium, the
light beam has a change in its direction by changing the way we
perceive the objects.
In this case, we say that the light beam was refracted, that is,
deflected when it propagated from one material medium to another.
Thus, for example, one pencil, to be placed inside of one glass with
water, it appears to be "warp".
50 - refraction of light

It can be verified experimentally that a portion of the incident

beam is reflected by the surface of contact and the other part is
refracted, that is, goes to the other half, but with the changed direction.
In relation to the straight
regular the surface of contact: 51 -
Scheme of rays of light reflected and
refracted

Incidentally, is why we call the phenomenon of refraction,

 because, according to the Dictionary Houaiss of language Portuguese ,
refracting means diverting something of their primi- tive direction. This
happens because the ray of light, to find one through the material more
dense, suffer one greater resistance to its spread, changing its speed.
Thus , it is common to use the term refringence to refer to the greater
or lesser resistance that a medium offers to the propagation of light. The
Refrangibility or index refraction, n, may be defined as being the ratio
between the speed of light in vacuum and the speed of light in the
medium considered
Thus, when a ray of light starts to propagate in a more
refracting medium than the one in which it was propagating, it tends to
approach the normal line to the surface.
52 - Ray of light propagating in a medium more refractive than that one in
which was spreading
If the luminous ray starts to propagate in a less
refracting medium than the one in which it was propagating, it will
tend to move away from the normal line to the surface.
53 - Ray of light propagating in a medium less refractive than that one in
which it was spreading

16.4.1 l i a s nell d esCartes

The relationship between the angle of incidence and the
angle of refraction is given from the following expression:
where the constants n and n are called indexes of refraction of the
media 1 and 2, respectively.
1 2

This law is known by Law of Snell-Descartes. The change

of medium, the light changes its speed of propagation. The refractive
index quantifies this change. Thus , we have:
and c the speed of light in vacuum and v the speed of light
for one com- ance of wave specified in a certain medium, whose
index of refraction is n.
Thus, by definition, the refractive index of light in vacuum is
considered to be equal to 1, which is
o
 practically that obtained for air: 1.00029 ( temperature of 15 C and 1
atm of pressure). In fact, we treat a
refractive index materials of form on, comparing it with the the vacuum (or
air), or is, how
times the its index of refraction is greater than that one of the vacuum
and therefore one gran- deza dimensionless, which is derived from the
expression

16.4.2 r and F latex ã the t the t al

Reflection and refraction phenomena can occur together.
However, there is one situation limit in which, apparently not there
refraction, ape- in reflection. It is the case in which the angle of
incidence reaches one value limit.
The angle of incidence reaches a limit value when a ray
of light, when propagating from a more refracting medium, n , to a
less refracting medium , n ( ), has its angle of refraction equal to 90 o .
In this case, it
2 1
seems not exist refraction, because the ray refracted it is parallel to the
surface of the separation media:
54 – Limit angle and total reflection
From this angle limit, ie when the angle of incidence is
greater than that the angle limit, but there is occurrence of reflection
and not more refraction. In this case, we say that a total reflection takes
place .

16.4.3 d io P t r to P l years
Flat diopters are systems made up of two homogeneous and
transparent media , separated by a flat
surface .
By cause of deviation suffered by the ray of light to the change of
environment, we observe the image (p
') in different position of the object (p).
 Thus, considering only the incident light rays that reach the
media separation surface with small angles (θ <5 o ) and adopting as
reference the ordinate axis (y) oriented positively downwards,
contrary to the incident
i
light, We have to:

55 – Refraction of light

As y = p and y' = p', we have:

a) Parallel - faced blades :

Blades of sides parallel is constitute in combination of two
dioptros planes, as, for example, air / glass and glass / air.

56 - Lamina of faces parallel

The ray of light, when crossing the blades with parallel faces,
undergoes a displacement , that is, the ray
of light is expected to emerge at point P

, however, it appears at P
1
. Note that (θ
2
= θ ) and that (θ
1 4
= θ ).
2 3

Where (e) is the thickness of the sheet with parallel faces , we can
calculate the displacement (d) from the equation
b) Prisms
A prism is a diopter formed by non-parallel faces. Unlike parallel-
faced blades, prisms not only displace
light rays, but also deflect them. They have different practical
 applications, such as making binoculars , telescopes, photographic
cameras , etc.
Another common application of prisms is white light
scattering. White light is composed of different frequencies, which is
why it is called polychromatic light , as it contains an infinite number
of colors. For this reason, it is possible to separate the light white, it is
polychromatic, in their different lengths of the wave.
To cover the surface of separation of two media, each light
monocromá- optical that constitute the white pass to be moving in
directions different, promoting the phenomenon called light scattering.
Theoretically, white light scattering would occur for any refraction.
However, as the difference of the indices of refraction of the material is
small, this phenomenon only is observed in certain prisms.
57 – Prism
To study the path of a ray of light in a prism, we con- Derar that
one ray of light monochromatic, the
which is propagates in a medium materials whose index refraction is n
, focussing on one prism whose angle of
1
aperture is the ( also called the angle of refraction ) and the index of
refraction is n .
2

form:

And n <n , we can represent the path of the ray of light of the following
1 2

58 - Representation of the ray of light in a prism

Therefore, it is possible to demonstrate that the deviation Δ can be

calculated by: Where:
 OBS .: You know that when one ray of light falls perpendicularly on
one surface, it does not suffer deviation. We also know that if the angle
of incidence is greater than the limit angle of the material on which a
ray of light hits, there is total reflection. So when these two conditions
happen, we have a prism of total reflection.

59 - Prism of reflection Total

The prisms of reflection all are used as one option to mirrors
that degrade over time and impair the quality of the reflected light.

16.5 l entities and sFériCas

Lenses are media materials transparent, or say, that allow the
SBP- sagem of light. Normally, they are made of glass or a plastic
(acrylic or policarbo- nato). But the that the makes it so special? It is
the ability that they have to "bend" the light, or is, refracts it.
Depending on their shape, lenses deflect light rays in different
ways, decisively influencing image formation. To understand how this
happens, let's first get to know the shape of the lenses.
Consider a sphere made of glass.

60 - Sphere of glass

Now admit that you slice this sphere, cutting them into
pieces. Depending on the way as it is done this cut will be obtained
different shapes of spherical lenses.
61 - Profiles of lenses Spherical
The lenses of edges thin tend to deflect the rays of light that
pass by them, so that they converge to a point. Therefore, these types of
lenses are called convergent. The point to where the rays parallel to
light con- vergem is called the lens focus and the distance from that
point to the center of the lens is called the focal length.
 As converging lenses have thin edges, they are represented by
lines whose ends are arrows pointing outwards, as indicated in the
following figure :

62 – Convergent lens

The lenses of lips thick tend to deflect the rays parallel of

light that pass by them, of luck that differ from one given point.
Thus, these types of lenses are called divergent. The point from which
the parallel rays of light diverge is called the lens focus, and the
distance from that point to the lens center is called the focal length.
As divergent lenses have thick edges, they are represented by
lines whose ends are arrows pointing inwards, as indicated in the
following figure :
63 – Divergent lens
16.5.1 and ELEMENTS of onE lens spherical
Besides the focus, the lenses have other characteristics useful for
the com- hold of their behavior
optical.
a) Center and radii of curvature
As we have seen, a spherical lens is composed of at least one
spherical surface. In the case of a
biconvex lens, in which we have two spherical faces, we have that C
and C
1
are the centers of curvature of the
2
spherical caps 1 and 2, respectively , and that R and R are the radii of
curvature of the hubcaps 1 and 2
1 2
respectively.

64 – Radius and centers of curvature of a biconvex lens

 In the case of one of the surfaces of the lens not be spherical,
it is to be flat, the radius of curvature of this surface will be considered
infinite. By convention, the following reference was adopted for the
radii of curvature: for convex faces , the radii of curvature are positive
and, for concave faces , the radii of curvature are negative.
b) Optical center
It is the point (O) through which any ray of light passes through
the lens, without suffering
Detour.

65 – Optical center of a lens

c) Main axis
It is the horizontal line that passes through the optical center of the
lens.
66 – Main axis of a lens

16.5.2 v erGênCia , C onverGênCia or L Rau of onE lens

It is very common, when we hear that someone wears glasses,
we ask what is the grade of the lens they are using. This term, degree,
which usually use to us refer to the lenses, says about the result of the
convergence of one lens (C), which means the ability of this lens has
to change the dimensions of the im- gem of an object. The calculation
of the vergence or convergence (C) of a lens is made from its focal
length (f ):
If the distance focus is given in meters, the convergence of the
lens is given in m -1 or diopter (di). Another way to calculate the
vergence of a spherical lens is through the so-called lens
manufacturers'
equation :
where n is the refractive index of the lens and R
and R
1
are the radius of curvature of the lens. This equation
2
 starts from the consideration that the lens is immersed in air, whose
refractive index was adopted as being equal to one.

16.6 the eye human and the defects of vision

The globe ocular human is very similar to one camera dark, or
is, it is the one camera spherical endowed of a system of lenses:
67 – Human eye

Cornea: is a transparent membrane whose surface has a curvature that

allows us to focus on an object, as it deflects the parallel rays that reach
the eyes, converging them towards the inside of the eye.
Iris and Pupil: The iris is a circular membrane that has a central orifice
called the pupil. The iris is composed of muscles that control the
opening and closing of the pupil, to which, for its part, controls the
input light in the eye.
Crystalline: is a biconvex lens located behind the iris. Its function is to
focus the light beam onto the retina. Through the action of a certain
muscle ( ciliary muscle ), the lens modifies its shape and, therefore,
alters its radius of curvature and, consequently, modifies its focal
length. Thus, the lens is able to ACO Modar our view, in order to enable
us to focus on nearby objects and also distant objects.
Retina: It is a layer that has thousands of photosensor cells, that is,
cells that are sensitive to light and send information to the brain. These
cells are of two types: the cones, which allow us to see color and rod
cells, cells that allow to see the black and white.
Optic nerve: is a system of nerve fibers whose function is to conduct
the images captured by the cells that make up the retina to the brain.
As we can see, the eye is one system optical extraordinarily
sophisticated, whose main characteristic is to focus the rays of light on
the retina. Therefore , every normal or emetropic (non- defective) eye
must be able to focus the parallel rays of light that reach it onto the
retina.
Changes in this ability of the eye characterize defects in vision.
 Among them, the most common are:
Hyperopia: It is the defect of vision characteristic of globes eye short.
In this way, the focus of the rays of light it gives then the retina.

68 – Hyperopia

The correction of this defect is done through the use of converging

lenses .
Presbyopia: It is a particular case of Hyperopia. Of Greek origin –
presi (old, senile) and opia (eye, vision) – presbyopia is a word that
designates the defect of vision caused by aging. As we age, the ciliary
muscles will lose the ability to promote the accommodation of the lens,
the which no per- mite that the rays of light are focused on the retina.
Nearsightedness: Nearsightedness is the opposite of farsightedness.
This vision defect occurs in globes eye more elongated. For this, the
focus of the rays of light occurs before the retina. To correct this
problem, a divergent lens is used.
69 – Myopia

Astigmatism: The astigmatism is one defect in vision due to one

deformation of- sigual the radii of curvature of the surfaces of the
cornea. This deformation makes with that there is more than one
focus. To correct this problem, use up lenses cylindrical.

70 – Astigmatism

16.7 C ONDITIONS of astigmatism of onE lens spherical

As soon as the mirrors spherical, the lenses spherical also are
respected tar some conditions to avoid the formation of caustic.
71 - Training of caustic in lenses Spherical
 Gauss set the following conditions for that one lens spherical can be
considered stigmatic:
I - The lens spherical should be thin (fine), that is, its thickness should
be consid- ered negligible in relation to the distance covered;
II - the rays of light incident should be all paraxial, or is, should have little
inclination to the principal axis.

16.8 F hollow of onE lens spherical

Unlike the mirrors spherical, the lenses spherical not have just one
but two focuses - one object focus
(F) and a focus image (F ') - because the rays of light pass through the
lens. The focal length (f ) is the distance from the optical center of the
lens to each of the foci.
It is also possible to define the anti-major points (C and C') as
points located on the main axis of the lens, symmetrical in relation to
the optical axis , in such a way that, if an object is placed in C, it will
generate an image ( real or
virtual) in C', which will have the same size as the object. In this case,
the transverse linear increase A = -1 (the negative sign is due to the
circumstance that the image and the object have the same nature,
therefore, the image being inverted with respect to the object). The
distance from C to the optical center is equal to twice the focal length,
that is, equal to 2f.

72 - Elements of lenses divergent

For these lenses, the which satisfy the conditions of Gauss, worth the
equation:
16.9 r and F Eren C ial from G to uss Para the study of lenses
We adopt different benchmarks for image and object: the axis
of abscissas coincides with the main axis of the spherical lens, so that
the origin of the axis of abscissas coincide with the center optical the
lens spherical. However, the orien- positive tion is defined differently
for the object and the image. The positive direction for the object is
opposite to the direction of the incident light ray. This has the objective
to keep the reference to the same convention earlier: objects and images
Real have abscissas positive and objects, and images virtual have
abscissas negative.

16:10 F ormation of images in the lenses spherical

For we represent the formation of images in lenses spherical,
we must take into account the path of the rays of light. Four rules are
important:
To the lens spherical converging:
to
1 - A ray of light parallel and close to the axis principal, after the
refraction, always pass the focus image lens
spherical.
73 - Ray of light parallel to the main axis is refracted by the converging
lens passing through the focus

to
2 - Every ray of light incident that passes by the focus object is refracted
parallel to the main axis of the lens.
74 - Ray of light that passes through the focus and refracts in a converging
lens passes parallel to the main axis

to
3 - Every ray of light incident that passes by the center optical the lens
does not suffer deviation.
75 - Ray of light that passes through the center optical of one lens
converging not diffracts
 a
4 – Every incident light ray that passes through the object's anti-main
point, after refraction, will pass through the
image's anti-main point.
76 - Ray of light that passing by points antiprincipal object and image

To the lens spherical divergent:

to
1 - A ray of light parallel and close to the axis principal, after the
refraction, always will differ, but the extension
will the focus image.

77 - Ray of light parallel to the axis main is refracted by the lens divergent.

to
2 - Every ray of light incident that passes by the center optical the lens
does not suffer deviation.

78 – Light beam parallel to the main axis of a divergent lens is not refracted

a
3 – In every incident light ray, whose extension passes through the anti-
main image point , after the refraction,
the extension of the refracted ray will pass through the anti-main object
point .
79 – Prolongations of light rays passing through the anti-main object and
image points of a divergent lens

16:11 C HARACTERISTICS of images formed by lens spherical

The images formed on the lenses spherical can be real or
virtual, direi- tas or inverted and larger or smaller than the object.
On spherical converging lenses :
a) When the object is placed to the left of the
anti-main object point : The image is
real, inverted and smaller than the
object.

b) When the object is placed over the anti-main object point :

The image is real, inverted and the same size as the object.
c) When the object is between the anti-main object point and the focus:

The image is real, inverted and larger than the object.

d) When the object is to the right of the object focus :
The image is virtual, straight and larger than the object.
The lenses spherical divergent, any that is the position of
the object, its image will always be virtual, right , and smaller than
the object.

16:12 to uMento l inear t ransversal

We define as transversal linear
increase the relation or
and that y is the height of the object of abscissa p, and y the height of
the image of abscissa p '. Remember the benchmark adopted: the axis y
has felt positive to above; objects and images rights are positive and
objects and images inverted are negative.

16:13 i INSTRUMENTS optical of observation

The instruments of observation can be of two types:
a) In approach: are those that allow the viewing of objects that are
located too far away from the observer. As examples of this type of
 instrument to observed tion, we can cite the lunettes and the telescopes;
b) Magnification: are those that allow the view of an enlarged image of
small objects . As examples of this type of instrument, we can mention
the magnifying glass and the microscope.
a) a l u Pa and the M i C r os C o P io
A magnifying glass, also called simple microscope, is the
most basic of all the instruments of observation. It consists of a lens
converging the small dis- focal tance. The image obtained is virtual,
straight and larger than the object. The object must be placed between
the focus and the optical center of the lens, as shown in the following
figure :
80 - Diagram of one Magnifying

The microscope compound consists of two lenses converging

coupled coaxially inside of one tube closed. The objective, which
focuses on the object, must have a focal length (f ) smaller
than the focal
objective
length of the ocular lens (f ), through which the observer sees the final
image. Look at the figure below and
ocular
notice that the final image is virtual, inverted
and larger than the object. 81 - Schematic of
a microscope
In practice, f

OCCULAR

is about 10% of the value of the distance between the ocular and objective
lens (L).
Why therefore can despise the its value and assume that L is
approximately equal to p '. Thus, the following equation is usually used
to determine the magnification of the compound microscope , with d
being the distance from the object seen with the naked eye:
b) L links T to or T they C O P io of L alileu
Although Galileo was not the inventor of the telescope, he
was the first to use it for scientific purposes, pointing it to the sky.
Hearing about Hans Lippershey 's idea , Galileo built a telescope
capable of magnifying the image 30 times. Galileo's telescope or
telescope employs two lenses: one divergent (objective), whose focal
length is in the order of meters, and the other divergent (ocular), whose
focal length is in the order of centimeters. From the following figure,
notice that, in Galileo's telescope, the image is not inverted.
82 - Scheme of a telescope

C) t they C O P io r and F r to t or
The refracting telescope uses two converging lenses: an
objective and an eyepiece. See, in the figure below, that the image is
virtual, inverted and larger than the object.

83 – Schematic of a refracting telescope

Since f and f the distances focal the lens eyepiece and objective,
respec- tively, the equation that
eye objective
allows the determination of the increase provided by the telescope is

16:14 i INSTRUMENTS optical 's Projection

The instruments of projection, different of instruments of
observation, although they also provide magnified images of objects,
their main function to make visible an object to a large number of
people. As examples of projection instruments, projectors in general
can be mentioned (overhead projector, slide projector and cinema
 projectors), and the camera.
Thus, we can define projection instruments as those that
provide a real image, and this can therefore be projected onto a screen,
a film or any other screen.

a) M will q uina F a t the L ha F i C the

The structure base of one machine photographic simple it is
for one darkroom in which, at one end, there is a convergent lens
(objected tive) which captures light from the object and at the opposite
end, there is a film , perpendicular to the optical axis of the lens, on
which the object image will be projected :

84 - Diagram of one machine photographic

If the image of the object, conjugated by the lens, is not

projected perfectly onto the film, the photograph obtained will not be
clear. Thus, to focus properly the object of luck that your image is
projected perfectly on the film, the machines cameras are endowed of
devices that allow away or closer to the film lens.

b) P rojetores of slides
As soon as the machine photo, the projectors of slides use one
lens converging to provide one image real, to which, therefore, can be
designed.
The cameras have ambient light that illuminates the object to
be photographed, to sensitize the film. In the case of slide projectors ,
natural ambient light is not enough, and the object, which should be
placed close to the focus of the converging (lens) lens, needs to be
brightly lit. Thus, the image of this object is projected onto a screen:
85 - Diagram of one projector for slides
 In both cameras and slide projectors , the focus of the image
on the screen or on film is important for the quality of the sharpness of
what will be projected. For this, we establish some equations important
that
involve the construction of the images combined by the lens
objective of instruments projection. Consider the layouts of a camera
and a projector, which can be slides or cinema, among others:

assuming that:
p is distance from object to lens;
p' is the distance from the image to the
lens; o is the height of the object;
i is the height of the projected image ; f
is the distance focus of the lens
Observed the figures earlier, we can write the following
equations, taking into account that A is the increased image
17 and letrostatics
17.1 Load Electric
All matter is composed of atoms which, by its turn, is
composed by particles. By way Generally, the atoms are composed of
basically three par- them: protons, electrons and neutrons. All they have
mass, however, only the pro- tons and electrons exhibit a different
property of neutrons: the electric charge. Thus, protons and electrons
tend to engage, one on the other, one force of attraction, while two
protons and two electrons each pair alone, tend to repel. Thus, it was
agreed to call the charge of the electron negative (-) and the proton
positive (+).
In the SI (System International of Units), a unit of load power is the
Coulomb C.

The electric charge of an electron (e) is equal to , while the charge of

the proton is equal to .
However, a question is intriguing, if electrical charges exert
forces of atra- tion one on the other, and if they are inherent to all
 matters for which no observed mos this force power forever?
Because atoms, naturally, appear neutral, that is, with the
number of protons equal to the number of electrons. Thus, as the
number of positive charges is equal to the number of negative ones, the
total electrical charge is nil and, therefore, there are no forces of an
electrical nature .
However, if an atom gains or loses electrons, that is, if it gets
electrified, it starts to exhibit the phenomenon of exerting a force of an
electrical nature. Look at Figure 1 below:

1 – Electrical charges of atoms and ions

Initially, the atoms are neutral; on losing an electron, an atom
turns into a positive ion, called a cation; and the other atom, which has
gained an electron, turns into a negative ion, called an anion. From then
on, it is possible to observe the action of electrical force between them.
Thus, we conclude that the number of electrons, in excess or
in shortage, in a material defines its electric charge (Q).
A body with excess of loads electrical negative
(electrons), a load electric (Q) will be Likewise, if the
body is short of electrons, its electric charge (Q) will
be

Where:
n is the number of electrons in excess;
and is the elementary charge of each electron, that is,

17.2 principle of attraction and repulsion of loads electrical

The principle of attraction and the repulsion states that
particles with loads power of the same sign repel each other while
particles with electrical charges signs opposites attract. Consider Figure
2, below:

2 - Loads power is attracting and was repelling

 1.17. 3 Principle of Conservation of loads electrical

In nature nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is

transformed. This is a Law Natural: the of Conservation. The load
power also to retain, or is, the loads electrical, that a body loses, another
wins.
Thus, one can state the following principle: "In a system it-
isolated trically (which can not exchange electric charges but with the
bodies that are within this system), the sum algebraic of amounts of
loads electrical per- manece constant".

3 - Principle of Conservation of Electric Charges

17.4 electrical conductors and insulators
All matter is made up of atoms. However, depending on the
way how these atoms are structured in the interior of the material, the
electrons or ions po- dem be more free to be move into its interior.
Thus, one can classify the materials in conductive or insulating
(dielectric).
If, inside the material, the electrons are freer to move, we say
they are conductors. Otherwise, if, inside, the electrons are more
trapped, with difficulties to move, these materials will be called
insulators (dielectrics).
4 - wire conductor plates allowing the movement of electrons between the
bodies A and B
In figure 4, we have an example of wires made of a
conductive material, joining bodies A and B to a battery (electric
generator). In wires, the electrons are freer and, therefore, they can
move more easily, favoring the movement of electrons between bodies
A and B. However, if the wire were made of an insulating material , the
electrons would have more difficulty of circular.
It is important to highlight that the property of being an
insulator (dielectric) is not absolute. Depending on conditions, an
insulating material can become a conductor. When this happens, it is
said that the dielectric strength of the material has been broken .
 Air, for example, under normal conditions, is an insulator (a
dielectric). However, if the electricity in a given region, is high enough,
having in view the electrification of the clouds, the carriers of cargo
will get to mo- vimentar by air because it broke its rigidity dielectric.
We can observe this phenomenon in storms: the electrical
energy involved is so high that the dielectric strength of the air is
broken and it becomes a conductor. In this way, we observe the
movement of electrical charges in the form of rays.
5 - Lightning due to disruption of the dielectric strength of the air

17.5 P roCessos of electrification

The electrification is the phenomenon by means of which one
body neutral it makes it- trizado due to the loss or gain of electrons.
In electrified conductors, the electrical charges moving on the
surface of the body, therefore, in these materials, the load electric
present great mobility and, due to forces of repulsion, they tend to
move away from the more than one of the other, of luck that, the inside
of the conductive electrified, the load power is zero (Q = 0).
int.
For that, many times, the charges end up flowing to the environment,
being difficult to retain them in the driver body. In insulating bodies,
this fact does not occur and, therefore, it is easier to keep them
electrified.

6 - The load power in the interior of conductors electrified is null

There are three basic ways to electrify a body: by friction, by contact,
or by induction.

17.5.1 And lectrization By friction

One of the processes by which we can electrify a body is
friction. When two initially neutral bodies are rubbed together, there is
an exchange of free electrons between them, so that one of the bodies is
positively electrified (loses electrons) and the other is negatively
electrified (gains electrons).
At the end of the frictional electrification process, they
acquire electrical charges of the same module and of opposite signs .
The electrification by friction only happens if the corresponding pos
rubbed are of materials different (note the number triboelectric).

7 - electrification by friction
When any two bodies are rubbed together, for example, a
plastic comb and a silk cloth, one of them will be positively electrified,
because it will lose electrons, while the other will be negatively
electrified, because it will gain these lost electrons .
In the figure below, we present a Triboelectric series . It if is a
list of materials arranged vertically, indicating that when atritarmos one
equipment of up with another of down the the top tends to be
electrified- positivamen- te and low, to be electrified negatively.
Whereas the comb is made of polyurethane, to consult the
series triboelectric the following, we know that, after the rubbed with
the silk, the comb was electrified negatively, while the cloth was
electrified positively.
 TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
human
skin
Leather
Skin of
rabbit
Glass
human hair
Nylon Wool
Lead
Cat fur Silk Aluminum Paper Cotton
Steel Wood Amber Rubber Nickel
Copper
Brass Silver Gold Platinum
Polyester Styrofoam PVC
Film
Polyurethane Vinyl Silicone Teflon
8 – Triboelectric series
In frictional electrification, bodies are electrified with different
electrical charges .
17.5.2 E letri z to ç ã the P or C on t a t the
When an electrified body is placed in contact with another,
initially neutral, a flow of electrons (temporary movement of free
electrons) is established from one body to another, until both reach
electrical equilibrium. Thus, it produces one redistribution of charge
between the bodies and the two are eletri- ised with loads of the same
sign.
9 - Electrification by contact

Consider two identical bodies A and B. If A is negatively

electrified and is placed in contact with B, initially neutral, is the
transfer of loads electrical negative in excess of A to B, the way that
both the bodies A and B, will be electrified negatively.
If A is positively charged and is placed in contact with B,
initially neutral, body A attracts B's negative charges, leaving it
positive. In this way, both the bodies A and B, will be electrified
positively.
Note that, unlike the electrification by friction, the
 electrification by con- tact, the bodies are loaded with loads equal.

17.5.3 and letrização For induction

Consider that one body The electrified negatively is close to
another body (neutral). The negative electrical charges on A attract the
positive charges and repel the negative charges on B, so that the
positive and negative charges separate on opposite sides of the body.
This phenomenon is known as electrical induction . To make body B
electrified, a ground wire is connected to the opposite part of the
electrified body.
A. In this case, the electrons of B are attracted by the positive charges
of the ground , leaving it positively electrified . Then just disconnect the
ground wire .
Note that, just like frictional electrification, bodies are electrified
with opposite sign charges.

10 -Eletrização by induction

17.6 l ei of CouloMb
We have already learned that loads of different signals attract
and of equal signals repel. But what is the intensity of the force of
attraction or of repulsion?
Charles Augustin Coulomb, the from of data experimental,
concluded that the intensity of the force electric exerted on two
charges electric punctate (whose size can be considered negligible
compared to the
distances between them) is directly proportional to their product and
inversely proportional to the square the distance they are from each
other.

11 – Action of forces on electrical charges

 Mathematically, we can write:

vacuum
Where
K is one constant related to the medium in which the charges are. At the

In System International of units, the strength is given in N (newtons);

the charges (q and q ) are given in C (coulombs) and the distance (d) is
given in m (meters).
1 2

Note that as one charge moves away from another, the

strength of the electrical force decreases considerably. On the chart the
following may be noted that, for the double of the distance between the
charge electric, the power electric falls by half.

12 – Graph of the intensity of electrical force in relation to the distance

between electrical charges

17.6.1 F luff electrical resulting

When two or more electrical charges interact with each other,
they generate a net force . Since the force is a vector quantity , the
determination of the resultant must follow the rules we learned when
we studied vectors.

13 - Action of forces between electrical charges Therefore:

17.7 C AMPO electric

The electric force acts at a distance, through the electric field,
which serves as a transmitter of the interactions between electric
charges .
Faraday proposed this idea to explain how a force could act
without contact. For the scientist, the electric field constitutes an
alteration of space, due to the presence of an electric charge Q called
source charge. A vector quantity identified as an electric field vector
can be associated with this alteration in space (.
The change in the space generated by the load source is
usually represented by lines of force, in relation to which the vector
field power is always tangent. By convention, electric fields generated
by positive source charges are oriented by divergent lines of force, that
is, they point outward from the charge, while electric fields generated
by negative source electrical charges are represented by converging
lines of force , that is, that point to the charge.

a) (b) (c) 14 – The electric field vector ( ) is always tangent to the lines of
force.
Note that, in the region dashed, there are more lines of
force of that in others: this indicates that the electric field is more
intense.
You can calculate the intensity of the vector field electric (
) in a determined swim point the space of two ways:
The first is to know the value of the load source (Q) and
the distance (d) to which it is the point considered. In this case, we
use the following expression:
where k is the constant that depends on the environment where the
electric charge is. In a vacuum, it's
worth

The unit of electric field in the International System (SI) is the

newton by Coulomb ()
Note that, as well as the intensity of the force electric, the
intensity of the cam- po electric decreases significantly the extent
 that it removes the load electrical source.

15 - graph of the intensity of the field electric the distance of the load
source in relation to the point of the space considered

a) The second is perceiving its influence on a test load (q) placed at the
considered point .
If there is an electric field acting at this point, an electric
force will act on the proof charge q. Thus, we have two possibilities of
representation of the situation proposed, depending on the sign of the
burden of proof:

(b) 16 - Action of force , generated by field electric, on one charge

of proof q: in (a), the burden of proof is positive; in (b) to load the
test is negative
By established convention, if the test charge q is positive,
the electric field and the force will have the same direction. However,
if the burden of proof q is negative, the force and the field power will
senses opposites.
The electric field at point P can be determined by the expression

17.7.1 C ampo and létriCo generated by different loads ELECTRICAL

Consider different electric charges Q , Q , Q , point-shaped,
distant d , d and d , respectively,
1 2 3 1 2 3
from a point P located in space. To determine the resulting electric
field , we need to perform a vector sum . 17 - Electric fields being
generated by different source electric charges at a point P in space
17.8 d iFerence of ELECTRICAL P otential
Consider one load power of proof punctiform q placed in a
region of space, in which is provided one field electric uniform (that is,
in which the module, the direction and the sense not to be change). We
 know that an electrical force will act on this electrical test charge,
displacing it a certain distance d. In this way, there is work to be done.

18 - action of one force electric on one charge of proof

q due to one field established electric Like
Then:
As work is the potential energy change, we can define
the dif- ference of potential electric (ddp) represented by as being

volts (V).
The unit of difference of potential power in the System International SI is
the joule per coulomb () or

When we say that the outlet of a house is 127 V, it means that, if an

electrical appliance is connected to
it, each 1 C electric charge that moves from the outlet to the appliance will
receive 127 J energy .
Having in view one charge source positive (Q) pitting, we can
define the potential power generated in different points of space.
19 – Equipotential surfaces generated
by a positive source charge Q And
so on.
Note that for points equidistant from the source charge Q, the
potential is the same for this, the circumferences broken in about the
load source are called the equipotential surfaces.

17.8.1 P OTENTIAL electric generated by different loads ELECTRICAL

Consider different point electric charges Q ,Q ,
Q and Q , distant from d , d ,
d d ,
1 2 3 4 1 2 3
and 4

respectively, from a P in space. Each one of them will generate an

electric potential at this point P. As the electric potential is not a
 quantity
vector, the determination of the potential in P is the algebraic sum of
the potentials generated by the charges. 20 – Electric potential
generated by different charges Q at a point P in space

18 and letrodynamics
18.1 C orrente ELECTRIC
Electrostatic, we learned that electrical conductor can be
defined as materials in which the electrons to move more easily. Thus ,
if an electric field is established inside a wire, consisting of a
conductive material , with a view to applying a ddp (potential
difference) at its ends, an electric force will act on the free electrons of
the conductor and these are move in its interior.

1 - current power being drawn into the one conductor

It is in this context that the electric current appears , that is, an

orderly movement of electrons inside a conductor.
Note that, as the electrons have load electric negative, they
are moving in the direction opposite to the vector field electric (). This
is the real sense of the electrical current inside a conductor.
However, a matter of convenience of the study, the physicists
decided to de- finir the direction of the electric current as if it were
equal to the electric field vector; thus the starting of now, we will adopt
the sense conventional to current electrical.
2 – Conventional direction of electric current

To set the intensity of electric current (i) that operates a

circuit electric, consider certain number (n) of electrons, each one of
them with one load (and
= ), which passes in a cross section of the conductor ( dashed
 circumference ) per unit of time ( ). The load electric Total (Q)
which passes in section transverse driver in time ( ) is:
In this sense, it is estimated the intensity of current electrical
(i) the expression

In the International System of Units (SI), as is the coulombs (C) and

is given in seconds (s), the unit of electric current is o or A (ampere).
Therefore, when we say that a current of 1 A passes through a
wire ,
we are saying that a section cross that wire, to each second passes one
load power of 1 C.
As 1A is a considerably high current , it is common to use
the prefixes milli (m) and micro () for the current unit . So we have:
1 milliampere
= 1mA = 1
microamp = 1
=
The current electricity can be continuous or alternating.
The current alternating, set in sockets residential, is
characterized when the direction of the field electric not is single, or is,
it changes periodically.
The current continuous, established by the terminals of the
battery of one car and the batteries we use in household appliances, is
characterized in that the direction of the vector field electric be only the
time all, or is, do not vary.

18.1.1 and Made of C orrente electric

a) Joule Effect: the movement of free electrons inside the conductor often
causes collisions between them, generating, as a consequence,
greater atomic agitation . In this way, part of the kinetic energy of
the electrons is transformed into thermal energy (heat). The higher
the conductor resistance, greater will be the effect Joule. The lamps
incandescent work to from this effect: the waves of heat emitted by
the filament of the lamps reach the frequ- ence in the range of the
 visible.
b) Magnetic effect: we saw that the establishment of an electric field
produces an electric current. We will see, later, that the passage of
electric current produces changes in the space around the conductor,
generating what we call a magnetic field .
c) Effect physiologically: is the effect produced when the current electric
traverses the corresponding po human. The shock electric, which
generates one strong feeling of tingling, can, depending on the
intensity of the electric current, generate strong contractions muscle
(highlight to the muscle heart) and serious burns on the skin.
18.2 l useful for the hM
Scientist Georg Simon Ohm, through his studies, proposed
two important laws for the study of electricity.

18.2.1 P irst l i of the hM

In his research, Ohm realized that conductive materials
naturally offered resistance to the passage of electrical current. From
the experi- mentation, Ohm found that by keeping the temperature
constant, the ratio between the voltage applied to the terminals of the
conductor and the current to the runs is one constant feature of this
conductor.
To better understand the first Ohm 's Law, consider three
condu- producers different, 1, 2 and 3 to which are subjected the same
potential difference ( the difference of poten- tial). We realized that,
keeping the temperature constant, the electric current that each resistor
allows to pass is different. Note the chart the following:
3 - Graph of the difference of potential the current electricity

Note that, for the same difference in potential applied, the

driver first stops going i 1 , the conductor 2 lets go i 2 and the conductor
3 gets passed i 3 .
The observation of the different inclinations of the line of the
graph allows us to conclude that, for each driver, have an electrical
 resistance (R) different. So we can write:
The unit of electrical resistance , in the International
System of Units (SI), is given by ; in honor of Ohm, this unit was
known as ohm, or .
It is important to realize that for a same conductor, R does not
change, it is always the same, because by increasing the potential
difference (), the electric current i increases in the same proportion.
18.2.2 s econd l i of the hM
Ohm studied aspects of interfering conductors on the values
of re- sistance to perform. By means of their investigations, he
discovered that one conductor of length L and area A has resistance R
equal to:
4 - conductor plates of length L and area of the section transverse equal to A

Where:
It is the resistivity of the conductor, and is, one characteristic
specific to each sub- tance that the driver is made.
Thanks to Ohm's work, it was possible to build electric
resistors , or is, components that make up the circuits electrical.

5 – Electric resistor

18.3 C irCuitos electrical

An electrical circuit is a closed system, consisting of an
association of different electrical components, in which the circulation
of electrical current is possible . Commonly, an electrical circuit is
composed of the following components:
a) Generator electric: responsible for providing the energy power to
other elements of the circuit. It can be a battery, a battery etc. Its
representation in the circuit is done in the following ways:
6 – Types of representation of an electric generator
 b) Electrical resistor: electrical component capable of dissipating
electrical energy, transforming it into heat (Joule effect) and/or
controlling the electrical current in the circuit. Its representation in the
circuit is done in the following ways:

7 – Types of representation of an electrical resistor

c) Key or switches: responsible for turning the electrical circuit on and

off, interrupting or allowing the passage of electrical current. Its
representation in the circuit is done as follows:

8 - representation of one key or switch electric

d) Incandescent lamps : are electrical devices responsible for

transforming electrical energy into heat and light energy. Its effect on
the circuit is like that of an electrical resistor . Its representation in the
circuit is done as follows :
9 – Representation of an incandescent lamp

e) Electric conductor: these are the wires, that is, the element of the
electrical circuit that connects all the other components and enables the
circulation of electric current. Its representation in the circuit is done as
follows:
10 – Representation of an electrical conductor
f) ) Ammeter: is the electric current intensity meter. It is always
connected in series with the region of the circuit whose intensity of the
current power is to be determined:
11 – Representation of an ammeter
 g) Voltmeter: measuring the difference of potential (potential
difference) between two points of the circuit ele- knitting. The
voltmeter should be always placed in parallel to the branch of the
circuit which it wishes to measure the potential difference.
12 – Representation
of a voltmeter form:
Therefore, we can represent a simple
electrical circuit of the following 13 –
Representation of a simple electrical circuit
18.3.1 t i P os of C i r C u t os
a) Circuit electrically in series: are circuits electric in which there are
two or more resistors Electric that are associated in series, or is, when
the terminal of output of one is connected to the other input terminal.
14 – Representation of electrical circuits in series
The association of resistors in series has the following
characteristics
electric:
• All resistors are carried by the same electrical current. This happens
because the output terminal of each resistor is connected to a single
terminal and, by consequence, there is one single path for the
electrons circulate.
•
• The electrical tension between the association of extremes is the sum of
the stresses on each resistor, therefore, in each resistor, there is
transformation of energy power in energy thermal.
b) Electrical circuits in parallel: are electrical circuits in which there are
two or more electric resistors that are connected in parallel, that is,
when all the terminals of input are connected to the same point A and
all the terminals of output are connected to another point B.
15 – Representation of an electrical circuit in parallel

electric:
 The association of resistors in parallel has the following characteristics
• The current electrical that crosses the association is the sum of current
electricity that runs through each resistor individually. This is
because each resistor is one way for the electrons circulating
within the association.

• The electrical tension between the association of extremes is equal to the

voltage that acts on each resistor, individually seen that all the
resistors are co nectados electrically the same point extremes A and
B.
•

c) Mixed electrical circuits

Are circuit electric that have resistors electrical associated in para-
lelo and series.

16 – Representation of a mixed electrical circuit

18.3.2 r esistênCia equivalent
If, seeking to simplify the circuit, we decided to replace all
resistors by just one single resistor, without with this change any
feature electric, we needed to determine the value of its resistance.
This new resistor, which
replaces all the others, must have a resistance called equivalent (R ).
E

a) Determination of the resistance equivalent to one circuit in series

17 – Replacement of the three electrical resistors in series with an
equivalent resistor (R )
E

Similarly, if we take one association in series with various resistors

of values R , R , R , ..., R , the
1 2 3 n
 resistor equivalent R is equal to
E

b) Determination of resistance equivalent to one circuit in parallel

18 - Replacement of the three electrical resistors in parallel with an

equivalent resistor (RE)

Similarly, if we take one association in parallel with various

resistors of values R , R , R , ..., R , the equivalent resistor R will be
equal to
1 2 3 n E

c) Determination of the equivalent resistance of a mixed circuit

19 – Replacement of the three electrical resistors connected in a mixed way

by an equivalent resistor (R )
E

18.4 P otênCia Electrical Dissipation

One of the great challenges of the present time is the use
rational of energy electrical. The same scientific development , which
brings us the comfort of night lighting , the use of TV, computer,
washing machine, air conditioners , etc., has increased society's
demand for more energy. This causes significant environmental
impacts, so that, in addition to avoiding waste, there is a concern with
developing efficient electrical appliances, capable of carrying out less
work and using less energy.
When a system consumes (or supplies) an energy E, in a time
interval Δt, the average power (Pot) consumed (or supplied) in that time
 interval is defined by

In the International System of Units, the unit of energy is the joule ( J

), the unit of time is the second ( s
) and the unit of power is the watt ( W ).
Each electrical appliance is designed to work with a certain
power, or is, consuming certain energy, a certain interval of time.
A device that, to work, consumes a lot of electricity in a short
period of time, will generate a very high cost in the electricity bill . For
this, or should be changed, or should be used with parsimony.
Note that, as the product of power by the interval of time is
equal to the energy, the longer a device with certain power is used, more
will be the amount of energy expended.

In an electricity bill, popularly called an electricity bill, there

is a history of energy consumption. Note that the unit is kWh
(kilowatt hour), that is, the value multiplied by 1000
multiplied by hour.
20 - Account of energy electric: power dissipated in kWh

The power consumed by one unit electric also can be

calculated from the product of the voltage by the current, or the product
of resistance by current high - squared:
or
Thus, an incandescent lamp, for example, can shine more or
less, depending on the power dissipated by it. In this case, the
brightness of the lamp will depend on the current electric that the
crosses and the stress that it is applied.

19 and LETTROMAGNETISM
19.1 M aGnetism
The magnetic phenomenon is related to the capacity that
certain materials (magnets) have to attract some metallic alloys .
This characteristic of magnets, despite being similar to the electrical
phenomenon, has its peculiarities:
a) Unlike the load electricity that it presents or positive or negative, one
magnet displays regions where the intensity of the attraction force
shown more prominent, the two magnetic poles: one north and one
south (opposite regions on the magnet). Even that us break one magnet,
seeking to separate the poles, the parts return to display both the
polarities, by this, it is impossible to separate two poles of one magnet,
getting one monopole magnetic;
1 – Magnetic poles on a magnet

b) The magnets when hanging by its center of mass and free to turn any
direction, tend to be aligned with the direction North - South
geographic the planet Earth, that is, the pole which is pointed in the
direction of the Earth's North called Magnetic North , while the pole
that is pointed to the South of the Earth is called Magnetic South.

2 - Orientation of the pole North of the magnet with the North Geographic 's
Earth
c) When approaching two magnets one of the other, depending on the
polarity, we can observe one attraction or one repulsion. Poles equal
(North-North, South-South) is repeated lem. Different poles attract
(North-South; South-North).
3 – Attraction and repulsion of magnets

Thus, knowing that equal poles repel each other and different
 poles attract, it is concluded that the Earth is a large magnet, whose
North magnetic pole is located in the geographic South and whose
South magnetic pole is located in the Geographical North .

4 - South and North geographic and South and North magnetic the Earth

19.1.1 C ampo M aGnétiCo

Noting the willingness of filings of iron distributed in around
of one magnet, it is possible to identify lines that suggest the existence
of one field, the which, by their characteristics specific, receives the
name of the field magnetic.
5 - Configuration of the lines of field magnetic
The lines of field magnetic, unlike the lines of force of the
field electric, are continuous (see that they continue inside the magnet,
however, are externalized in the pole North and are captured in the pole
South).
6 – Representation of magnetic field lines in a magnet

field.
The same way, we can associate to these lines one vector, called field
magnetic , tangent to these lines
7 - The vector field magnetic is tangent to the lines of field magnetic

To determine the intensity of the magnetic field vector, it can

be ob- servar the interaction between the field magnetic on one particle
electrified with rope q in motion. Thus, having in view that this particle
has one speed
whose direction forms an angle with the magnetic field vector at a point
P in space, there is a force , perpendicular to the plane of e , acting on
the charge q with an intensity equal to
- Vector strength magnetic acting on one particle of load
q subject to a magnetic field Therefore,
 The unit of the intensity of the vector field magnetic in the
System International Units is:, also called tesla (T) in homena- gem
physical Nikola Tesla.
A rule quite used to determine the direction and the direction
of the force that acts in a load electric q with speed , due to the field
Magnetic is the right hand, imagining that the charge q is in the palm of
the hand right, point your finger thumb in the direction of the vector
speed and the other fingers in the direction of the magnetic field. So,
perpendicular to the palm of the hand, we have the sense of force.
9 - Rule of hand right
That is, if the charge q is positive. If it is negative, the force will have
the opposite direction .
In short:

10 – Direction of force for a positive electric charge and over a negative

electric charge

Note: A very common representation of the magnetic field vector is

configured when we have to imagine the magnetic field vector entering
and leaving the sheet of paper in our notebook. In this situation, we use
the following convention:

11 - Representation of the magnetic field perpendicular to the

plane of the book When is entering the sheet, we have the X,
which indicates the part of back of
arrow of the vector. The point shows that the part of the front of the
arrow is coming in the direction of the reader of this paper.
19.2 the interaction field magnetic and current electrical
Cristian Oersted, a Danish physicist , realized the existence
of a relationship between electricity and magnetism. In their
experiments the scientist noted that a conductor wire to be traversed
by an electric current
generated around the other, a magnetic field whose direction dependent on
the direction of electrical current.

12 - experiment of Oersted

The direction of the field lines can be given by the right hand
rule: the wire is held in the right hand, in such a way that the thumb
points in the direction of the current. Thus, the other fingers, around the
wire, will indicate the direction of the magnetic field lines.
13 - Rule of hand right to determine the field magnetic laid acid by a chain
passing by a rectilinear conductor.
French physicist André-Marie Ampère proposed the
following equation, starting from which it is possible to determine the
magnitude of the vector field magnetic in a point P at a distance d from
a straight conductor traversed by an electric current i.

14 - field magnetic established in a point P by one stream which passes

through a straight conductor.

As the magnetic permeability of air, whose value given in units of the

International System (SI) is

19.2.1 F budgets on uM conductor traversed by onE Current Electrical

We have seen that a charge q moving, it passes through a
 magnetic field with a velocity, is subjected to a force We have also seen
that an electric conductor traversed by an electric current i generates
around itself a field magnetic
Next, consider a conductor of length , traversed by an electric
current i, generating a magnetic field.
What force will act on this conductor?

15 - Force acting on a straight conductor traversed by an electric current

Considering the angle between the magnetic field and the length of
the conductor, we have:
If we have two parallel electrical conductors , separated by a distance
d, both with length l and l very
1 2
large, covered by an electrical current i, we will have the
mutual attraction of the conductors: 16 - Force acting on
two straight conductors traversed by electric current in the
same direction

repulsion:
If one of the conductors is covered by one current in direction contrary river
to the other, we have a

- Force acting on two straight conductors traversed by

electrical current from opposite directions
The strength of forces = = can be calculated by
equation:

19.2.2 C orrente electric traversing a conductor in the form of a coil and of a solenoid
Consider a conductor wound in a circular shape. In this
case, we have a circular coil. Each turn of conductor comprising the
coil is called the turn of the coil.
 18 – Coil and its various turns

If a loop of radius r is traversed by an electric current i, we

have the production of a magnetic field: 19 - Magnetic field
generated by the passage of an electric current in a loop

By symmetry we can determine the module 's field magnetic in cen-

tro the loop, the expression

If, when instead of one coil, the coil is composed of N turns,

we have that the module of the vector field magnetic the center of the
loop valley
If an electric current flows through this coil while it is
traversed by a perpendicular magnetic field, we have the working
principle of an electric motor:

20 - Principle basics of the scheme of operation of one motor electric

If, instead of winding the conductor in a circular way, it is

wound in a spiral shape , we have what is called a solenoid:

21 – A solenoid

equation

In this case, the strength of the magnetic

field can be determined by the where N is the
number of turns.
19.3 i nduction and letroMagnetics
19.3.1 F l u x o M a G neti C o
 Consider one loop of area A, steeped in a field magnetic constant .

22 – Spiral immersed in a constant magnetic field

One can define the magnitude scalar flux magnetic , to which

is relacio- nothing with the number of lines of the field magnet that
passes through the area A of this spiro ra: as higher is the number of
lines of the field to the bridge, greater is that flow.
Since θ is the angle between the vector and the normal
segment (N), the line normal to the surface of the loop taken as a
reference, we can calculate the magnetic flux of the loop as being:
In the International System of Units (SI), the magnetic flux
quantity is given in , which is equal to 1 Wb (weber), in honor of the
German physicist Wilhelm Weber.
Note: Two important cases in the calculation of magnetic flux :
a) When the surface of the coil form one angle of 0 the to the lines of field:

23 - Spiers being crossed by lines of field magnet to form, with the line
normal to the surface at an angle of 0 the
In this case, as cos 0 o = 1, we have
b) When the surface of the coil form one angle of 90 the with the lines of the
field of surface:

24 - Spiers being crossed by lines of field magnet to form, with the line
normal to the surface an angle of 90 the
In this case, as cos 90 o = 0, we have
or is, any line of field through the loop.

19.3.2 l i of F araday and l i a l Enzyme

The English physicist Michel Faraday, in his experiments, he
 realized that, to perform one movement relative between one coil and
one magnet, is the appearance of an electric current induced in the coil.
As we already know from the chapter referring to
electrodynamics, a current arises when an electromotive force is
established, since there is no movement of charges without energy.
Faraday therefore deduced that the relative magnet-coil motion
generated not only an induced current, but also an induced
electromotive force (emf), which originates from the kinetic energy
arising from the relative magnet-coil motion.
25 - Magnet is approaching from one coil generating one current electrical
induced
Thus, Faraday concluded that, in a closed circuit subjected to
the variation of a magnetic flux , an induced current arises , due to the
induction of an emf.
In this way, we can write mathematically the Law of Faraday:
If, to the contrary of one coil, we have one coil with N turns, we
have:
The negative sign of the equation is due to Lenz's Law.
Heinrich Lenz per- cebeu that the induced electric current generated by
the relative movement magnet-coil acts in order to generate one field
magnet in the coil that is opposed to the movement relative, requiring
the completion of work.
26 - Magnet and be away if approaching from one coil generating current
electrical induced in opposite directions

In summary, one can say that the Law of Lenz shows one
conse- copy of the Energy Conservation Act, for without the opposition
of the magnetic field variation of the flow magnetic which generates a
current induced, we would have one chain perpetually tuo , that is, we
would generate energy from nothing.

19.4 the complications of L useful to F araday and l Enzyme

With base in the studies relating to the induction
electromagnetic, it was possible the realization of different applications
 important; among them, we can highlight the
generating electromagnetic, also called the dynamos, and the transformers
of tension.

19.4.1 L eradores electromagnetic

We saw that, by the Laws of Faraday and Lenz, we can
generate electromotive force if we vary the magnetic flux that goes
through a loop. In this case, if we dip a coil, formed by N turns, in a
magnetic field and rotate it, we will have the generation of an emf and,
consequently, of an electric current .

27 – Schematic of an electromagnetic generator

Hydroelectric plants use this principle to generate the electricity

available in our homes.
28 – Schematic of a hydroelectric plant
The potential energy of dammed water turns into kinetic
energy , and rotates the blades, of which, for their part, moving large
coils that generate the women.
19.4.2 t rans F or M modulators of T ens ã the
Consider a coil connected to a generator that circulates an
alternating electrical current through it . It will generate an induced
electrical current and an induced emf , also alternating.
It is thus that works one transformer of voltage electric. In it,
the coil that is connected to the alternating emf is called the primary
winding. The coil where the induced alternating emf arises is the
primary winding.

29 - Diagram of one transformer for voltage electrical

Employing an iron core to wind the coils, helping to

confine the field magnet between them and avoiding, thus, losses, we
can write that
Where:
is the alternating emf on coil 1
is the alternating induced emf in coil 2 N is the number of turns in
coil 1
1

N is the number of turns in coil 2.

2

i is the alternating electrical current in coil 1

1
I is the current power AC induced in coil 2
2