Southern Ocean

10/17/23, 3:49 PM Southern Ocean - Wikipedia
Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic
Ocean,[1][note 4] comprises the southernmost waters of
the world ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S
latitude and encircling Antarctica.[5] With a size of
20,327,000 km2 (7,848,000 sq mi), it is regarded as
the second-smallest of the five principal oceanic
divisions: smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean.[6] Since the
1980s, the Southern Ocean has been subject to rapid
climate change, which has led to changes in the marine
ecosystem.[7]
By way of his voyages in the 1770s, James Cook proved

that waters encompassed the southern latitudes of the
globe. Since then, geographers have disagreed on the
Southern Ocean's northern boundary or even
existence, considering the waters as various parts of The Antarctic Ocean, as delineated by the draft
the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans, instead. 4th edition of the International Hydrographic
However, according to Commodore John Leech of the Organization's Limits of Oceans and Seas (2002)
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO),
recent oceanographic research has discovered the
importance of Southern Circulation, and the term
Southern Ocean has been used to define the body of
water which lies south of the northern limit of that
circulation.[8] This remains the current official policy
of the IHO, since a 2000 revision of its definitions
including the Southern Ocean as the waters south of
the 60th parallel has not yet been adopted. Others
regard the seasonally fluctuating Antarctic
[9]
Convergence as the natural boundary. This oceanic
zone is where cold, northward flowing waters from the
Antarctic mix with warmer Subantarctic waters.
The maximum depth of the Southern Ocean, using the

definition that it lies south of 60th parallel, was
surveyed by the Five Deeps Expedition in early
February 2019. The expedition's multibeam sonar team
identified the deepest point at 60° 28' 46"S, 025° 32' A general delineation of the Antarctic
32"W, with a depth of 7,434 metres (24,390 ft). The Convergence, sometimes used by scientists as
expedition leader and chief submersible pilot Victor the demarcation of the Southern Ocean
Vescovo, has proposed naming this deepest point in the
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ocean 1/35
Southern Ocean the "Factorian Deep", based on the name of the crewed submersible DSV Limiting
Factor, in which he successfully visited the bottom for the first time on February 3, 2019.[10]
Definitions and use

Borders and names for oceans and
seas were internationally agreed
when the International
Hydrographic Bureau, the
precursor to the IHO, convened the
First International Conference on
24 July 1919. The IHO then
published these in its Limits of
Oceans and Seas, the first edition
being 1928. Since the first edition,
the limits of the Southern Ocean
have moved progressively
southwards; since 1953, it has been The International Hydrographic Organization's delineation of the
omitted from the official
"Southern Ocean" has moved steadily southwards since the original 1928
publication and left to local
edition of its Limits of Oceans and Seas.[5]
hydrographic offices to determine
their own limits.
The IHO included the ocean and its definition as the waters south of the 60th parallel south in its
2000 revisions, but this has not been formally adopted, due to continuing impasses about some of the
content, such as the naming dispute over the Sea of Japan. The 2000 IHO definition, however, was
circulated in a draft edition in 2002, and is used by some within the IHO and by some other
organizations such as the CIA World Factbook and Merriam-Webster.[6][11]
The Australian Government regards the Southern Ocean as lying immediately south of Australia (see
).[12][13]
The National Geographic Society recognized the ocean officially in June 2021.[14][15] Prior to this, it
depicted it in a typeface different from the other world oceans; instead, it shows the Pacific, Atlantic,
and Indian Oceans extending to Antarctica on both its print and online maps.[16][17] Map publishers
using the term Southern Ocean on their maps include Hema Maps[18] and GeoNova.[19]
Pre-20th century
"Southern Ocean" is an obsolete name for the Pacific Ocean or South Pacific, coined by the Spanish
explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, the first European to discover the Pacific, who approached it from
the north in Panama.[20] The "South Seas" is a less archaic synonym. A 1745 British Act of Parliament
established a prize for discovering a Northwest Passage to "the Western and Southern Ocean of
America".[21]
Authors using "Southern Ocean" to name the waters encircling the unknown southern polar regions
used varying limits. James Cook's account of his second voyage implies New Caledonia borders it.[22]
Peacock's 1795 Geographical Dictionary said it lay "to the southward of America and Africa";[23]
John Payne in 1796 used 40 degrees as the northern limit;[24] the 1827 Edinburgh Gazetteer used 50
degrees.[25] The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great

Southern Ocean" into the "Southern Ocean" and the "Antarctick
[sic] Ocean" along the Antarctic Circle, with the northern limit
of the Southern Ocean being lines joining Cape Horn, the Cape
of Good Hope, Van Diemen's Land and the south of New
Zealand.[26]
The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described the

waters forming the southern limit of the new province of South
Australia as "the Southern Ocean". The Colony of Victoria's
"Southern Ocean" as alternative to the
Legislative Council Act 1881 delimited part of the division of
Aethiopian Ocean, 18th century
Bairnsdale as "along the New South Wales boundary to the
Southern ocean".[27]
1928 delineation
In the 1928 first edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, the
Southern Ocean was delineated by land-based limits: Antarctica
to the south, and South America, Africa, Australia, and
Broughton Island, New Zealand to the north.
The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in Chile

eastwards to Cape Agulhas in Africa, then further eastwards to
the southern coast of mainland Australia to Cape Leeuwin,
Western Australia. From Cape Leeuwin, the limit then followed 1928 delineation
eastwards along the coast of mainland Australia to Cape Otway,
Victoria, then southwards across Bass Strait to Cape Wickham,
King Island, along the west coast of King Island, then the remainder of the way south across Bass
Strait to Cape Grim, Tasmania.
The limit then followed the west coast of Tasmania southwards to the South East Cape and then went
eastwards to Broughton Island, New Zealand, before returning to Cape Horn.[28]
1937 delineation
The northern limits of the Southern Ocean were moved
southwards in the IHO's 1937 second edition of the Limits of
Oceans and Seas. From this edition, much of the ocean's
northern limit ceased to abut land masses.
In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from

Antarctica northwards to latitude 40°S between Cape Agulhas
in Africa (long. 20°E) and Cape Leeuwin in Western Australia
(long. 115°E), and extended to latitude 55°S between Auckland
Island of New Zealand (165 or 166°E east) and Cape Horn in
South America (67°W).[29] 1937 delineation
As is discussed in more detail below, prior to the 2002 edition the limits of oceans explicitly excluded
the seas lying within each of them. The Great Australian Bight was unnamed in the 1928 edition, and
delineated as shown in the figure above in the 1937 edition. It therefore encompassed former
Southern Ocean waters—as designated in 1928—but was technically not inside any of the three
adjacent oceans by 1937.
In the 2002 draft edition, the IHO have designated 'seas' as being subdivisions within 'oceans', so the
Bight would have still been within the Southern Ocean in 1937 if the 2002 convention were in place
then. To perform direct comparisons of current and former limits of oceans it is necessary to consider,
or at least be aware of, how the 2002 change in IHO terminology for 'seas' can affect the comparison.
1953 delineation
The Southern Ocean did not appear in the 1953 third edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, a note in
the publication read:
The Antarctic or Southern Ocean has been omitted from this publication as the majority of
opinions received since the issue of the 2nd Edition in 1937 are to the effect that there
exists no real justification for applying the term Ocean to this body of water, the northern
limits of which are difficult to lay down owing to their seasonal change. The limits of the
Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans have therefore been extended South to the Antarctic
Continent.
Hydrographic Offices who issue separate publications dealing with this area are therefore
left to decide their own northern limits (Great Britain uses Latitude of 55 South.)[30]: 4
Instead, in the IHO 1953 publication, the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans were extended
southward, the Indian and Pacific Oceans (which had not previously touched pre 1953, as per the first
and second editions) now abutted at the meridian of South East Cape, and the southern limits of the
Great Australian Bight and the Tasman Sea were moved northwards.[30]
2002 draft delineation

The IHO readdressed the question of the Southern Ocean in a survey in 2000. Of its 68 member
nations, 28 responded, and all responding members except Argentina agreed to redefine the ocean,
reflecting the importance placed by oceanographers on ocean currents. The proposal for the name
Southern Ocean won 18 votes, beating the alternative Antarctic Ocean. Half of the votes supported a
definition of the ocean's northern limit at the 60th parallel south—with no land interruptions at this
latitude—with the other 14 votes cast for other definitions, mostly the 50th parallel south, but a few
for as far north as the 35th parallel south. Notably the Southern Ocean Observing System collates data
from latitudes higher than 40 degrees south.
A draft fourth edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas was circulated to IHO member states in August
2002 (sometimes referred to as the "2000 edition" as it summarized the progress to 2000).[32] It has
yet to be published due to 'areas of concern' by several countries relating to various naming issues
around the world – primarily the Sea of Japan naming dispute – and there have been various
changes, 60 seas were given new names, and even the name of the publication was changed.[33] A
reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the

Southern Ocean limits.[34] Effectively, the third edition—which
did not delineate the Southern Ocean leaving delineation to
local hydrographic offices—has yet to be superseded.
Despite this, the fourth edition definition has partial de facto

usage by many nations, scientists, and organisations such as the
U.S. (the CIA World Factbook uses "Southern Ocean", but none
of the other new sea names within the "Southern Ocean", such
as the "Cosmonauts Sea") and Merriam-Webster,[6][11][17]
scientists and nations – and even by some within the IHO.[35]
Some nations' hydrographic offices have defined their own
boundaries; the United Kingdom used the 55th parallel south
for example.[30] Other organisations favour more northerly Area inside the black line indicates the
limits for the Southern Ocean. For example, Encyclopædia area constituting the Pacific Ocean
Britannica describes the Southern Ocean as extending as far prior to 2002; darker blue areas are its
north as South America, and confers great significance on the informal current borders following the
Antarctic Convergence, yet its description of the Indian Ocean recreation of the Southern Ocean and
contradicts this, describing the Indian Ocean as extending the reinclusion of marginal seas.[31]
south to Antarctica.[36][37]
Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society,

show the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans as
extending to Antarctica on its maps, although articles on
the National Geographic web site have begun to
reference the Southern Ocean.[17]
A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was

also seen in the 2002 draft edition when the IHO
delineated 'seas' as being subdivisions that lay within the
boundaries of 'oceans'. While the IHO are often
considered the authority for such conventions, the shift
brought them into line with the practices of other
publications (e.g. the CIA World Fact Book) which
already adopted the principle that seas are contained
within oceans. This difference in practice is markedly
seen for the Pacific Ocean in the adjacent figure. Thus,
for example, previously the Tasman Sea between
Australia and New Zealand was not regarded by the IHO
as being part of the Pacific, but as of the 2002 draft
edition it is. Continents and islands of the Southern Ocean
The new delineation of seas being subdivisions of oceans

has avoided the need to interrupt the northern boundary of the Southern Ocean where intersected by
Drake Passage which includes all of the waters from South America to the Antarctic coast, nor
interrupt it for the Scotia Sea, which also extends below the 60th parallel south. The new delineation
of seas has also meant that the long-time named seas around Antarctica, excluded from the 1953
edition (the 1953 map did not even extend that far south), are 'automatically' part of the Southern
Ocean.
Australian standpoint
In Australia, cartographical authorities define the Southern Ocean
as including the entire body of water between Antarctica and the
south coasts of Australia and New Zealand, and up to 60°S
elsewhere.[38] Coastal maps of Tasmania and South Australia label
the sea areas as Southern Ocean[39] and Cape Leeuwin in Western
Australia is described as the point where the Indian and Southern
Oceans meet.[40]
History of exploration A map of Australia's official

interpretation of the names and
limits of oceans and seas around
Unknown southern land Australia
Exploration of the Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the

existence of a Terra Australis – a vast continent in the far south of
the globe to "balance" the northern lands of Eurasia and North
Africa – which had existed since the times of Ptolemy. The
rounding of the Cape of Good Hope in 1487 by Bartolomeu Dias
first brought explorers within touch of the Antarctic cold, and
proved that there was an ocean separating Africa from any
Antarctic land that might exist.[41] Ferdinand Magellan, who
passed through the Strait of Magellan in 1520, assumed that the
islands of Tierra del Fuego to the south were an extension of this The 1564 Typus Orbis Terrarum, a
unknown southern land. In 1564, Abraham Ortelius published his map by Abraham Ortelius, showed
first map, Typus Orbis Terrarum, an eight-leaved wall map of the
the imagined link between the
proposed continent of Antarctica
world, on which he identified the Regio Patalis with Locach as a
and South America.
northward extension of the Terra Australis, reaching as far as
New Guinea.[42][43]
European geographers continued to connect the coast of Tierra del Fuego with the coast of New
Guinea on their globes, and allowing their imaginations to run riot in the vast unknown spaces of the
south Atlantic, south Indian and Pacific oceans they sketched the outlines of the Terra Australis
Incognita ("Unknown Southern Land"), a vast continent stretching in parts into the tropics. The
search for this great south land was a leading motive of explorers in the 16th and the early part of the
17th centuries.[41]
The Spaniard Gabriel de Castilla, who claimed having sighted "snow-covered mountains" beyond the
64° S in 1603, is recognized as the first explorer that discovered the continent of Antarctica, although
he was ignored in his time.
In 1606, Pedro Fernández de Quirós took possession for the king of Spain all of the lands he had
discovered in Australia del Espiritu Santo (the New Hebrides) and those he would discover "even to
the Pole".[41]
Francis Drake, like Spanish explorers before him, had speculated that there might be an open channel
south of Tierra del Fuego. When Willem Schouten and Jacob Le Maire discovered the southern
extremity of Tierra del Fuego and named it Cape Horn in 1615, they proved that the Tierra del Fuego
archipelago was of small extent and not connected to the southern land, as previously thought.
Subsequently, in 1642, Abel Tasman showed that even New Holland (Australia) was separated by sea
from any continuous southern continent.[41]
South of the Antarctic Convergence

The visit to South Georgia by Anthony de la Roché in 1675 was the first-
ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence, i.e. in the
Southern Ocean/Antarctic.[44][45] Soon after the voyage cartographers
started to depict "Roché Island", honouring the discoverer. James Cook
was aware of la Roché's discovery when surveying and mapping the island
in 1775.[46]
Edmond Halley's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations

in the South Atlantic met the pack ice in 52° S in January 1700, but that
latitude (he reached 140 mi [230 km] off the north coast of South
Georgia) was his farthest south. A determined effort on the part of the
French naval officer Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier to discover Portrait of Edmund Halley
the "South Land" – described by a half legendary "sieur de Gonneyville" – by Godfrey Kneller (before
resulted in the discovery of Bouvet Island in 54°10′ S, and in the
1721)
navigation of 48° of longitude of ice-cumbered sea nearly in 55° S in
1730.[41]
In 1771, Yves Joseph Kerguelen sailed from France with instructions to proceed south from Mauritius
in search of "a very large continent". He lighted upon a land in 50° S which he called South France,
and believed to be the central mass of the southern continent. He was sent out again to complete the
exploration of the new land, and found it to be only an inhospitable island which he renamed the Isle
of Desolation, but which was ultimately named after him.[41]
South of the Antarctic Circle

The obsession of the undiscovered continent culminated in the
brain of Alexander Dalrymple, the brilliant and erratic
hydrographer who was nominated by the Royal Society to
command the Transit of Venus expedition to Tahiti in 1769. The
command of the expedition was given by the admiralty to Captain
James Cook. Sailing in 1772 with Resolution, a vessel of 462 tons
under his own command and Adventure of 336 tons under "Terres Australes" [sic] label
Captain Tobias Furneaux, Cook first searched in vain for Bouvet without any charted landmass
Island, then sailed for 20 degrees of longitude to the westward in
latitude 58° S, and then 30° eastward for the most part south of
60° S, a lower southern latitude than had ever been voluntarily entered before by any vessel. On 17
January 1773 the Antarctic Circle was crossed for the first time in history and the two ships reached
67° 15' S by 39° 35' E, where their course was stopped by ice.[41]
Cook then turned northward to look

for French Southern and Antarctic
Lands, of the discovery of which he
had received news at Cape Town, but
from the rough determination of his
longitude by Kerguelen, Cook reached
the assigned latitude 10° too far east
and did not see it. He turned south James Weddell's second expedition
again and was stopped by ice in in 1823, depicting the brig Jane and
61° 52′ S by 95° E and continued the cutter Beaufroy
eastward nearly on the parallel of
60° S to 147° E. On 16 March, the
Famous official portrait of approaching winter drove him northward for rest to New Zealand and the
Captain James Cook who tropical islands of the Pacific. In November 1773, Cook left New Zealand,
proved that waters having parted company with the Adventure, and reached 60° S by 177° W,
encompassed the southern whence he sailed eastward keeping as far south as the floating ice
latitudes of the globe. "He allowed. The Antarctic Circle was crossed on 20 December and Cook
holds his own chart of the remained south of it for three days, being compelled after reaching
Southern Ocean on the 67° 31′ S to stand north again in 135° W.[41]
table and his right hand
points to the east coast of A long detour to 47° 50′ S served to show that there was no land
Australia on it."[47] connection between New Zealand and Tierra del Fuego. Turning south
again, Cook crossed the Antarctic Circle for the third time at 109° 30′ W
before his progress was once again blocked by ice four days later at
71° 10′ S by 106° 54′ W. This point, reached on 30 January 1774, was the farthest south attained in the
18th century. With a great detour to the east, almost to the coast of South America, the expedition
regained Tahiti for refreshment. In November 1774, Cook started from New Zealand and crossed the
South Pacific without sighting land between 53° and 57° S to Tierra del Fuego; then, passing Cape
Horn on 29 December, he rediscovered Roché Island renaming it Isle of Georgia, and discovered the
South Sandwich Islands (named Sandwich Land by him), the only ice-clad land he had seen, before
crossing the South Atlantic to the Cape of Good Hope between 55° and 60°. He thereby laid open the
way for future Antarctic exploration by exploding the myth of a habitable southern continent. Cook's
most southerly discovery of land lay on the temperate side of the 60th parallel, and he convinced
himself that if land lay farther south it was practically inaccessible and without economic value.[41]
Voyagers rounding Cape Horn frequently met with contrary winds and were driven southward into
snowy skies and ice-encumbered seas; but so far as can be ascertained none of them before 1770
reached the Antarctic Circle, or knew it, if they did.
In a voyage from 1822 to 1824, James Weddell commanded the 160-ton brig Jane, accompanied by
his second ship Beaufoy captained by Matthew Brisbane. Together they sailed to the South Orkneys
where sealing proved disappointing. They turned south in the hope of finding a better sealing ground.
The season was unusually mild and tranquil, and on 20 February 1823 the two ships reached latitude
74°15' S and longitude 34°16'45″ W the southernmost position any ship had ever reached up to that
time. A few icebergs were sighted but there was still no sight of land, leading Weddell to theorize that
the sea continued as far as the South Pole. Another two days' sailing would have brought him to Coat's
Land (to the east of the Weddell Sea) but Weddell decided to turn back.[48]
First sighting of land

The first land south of the parallel 60° south latitude was discovered by
the Englishman William Smith, who sighted Livingston Island on 19
February 1819. A few months later Smith returned to explore the other
islands of the South Shetlands archipelago, landed on King George Island,
and claimed the new territories for Britain.
In the meantime, the Spanish Navy ship San Telmo sank in September
1819 when trying to cross Cape Horn. Parts of her wreckage were found
months later by sealers on the north coast of Livingston Island (South
Shetlands). It is unknown if some survivor managed to be the first to set
foot on these Antarctic islands.
The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately

attributed to one single person. It can, however, be narrowed down to
Admiral von
three individuals. According to various sources,[49][50][51] three men all Bellingshausen
sighted the ice shelf or the continent within days or months of each other:
Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen, a captain in the Russian Imperial
Navy; Edward Bransfield, a captain in the Royal Navy; and Nathaniel Palmer, an American sailor out
of Stonington, Connecticut. It is certain that the expedition, led by von Bellingshausen and Lazarev on
the ships Vostok and Mirny, reached a point within 32 km (20 mi) from Princess Martha Coast and
recorded the sight of an ice shelf at 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W[52] that became known as the Fimbul Ice
Shelf. On 30 January 1820, Bransfield sighted Trinity Peninsula, the northernmost point of the
Antarctic mainland, while Palmer sighted the mainland in the area south of Trinity Peninsula in
November 1820. Von Bellingshausen's expedition also discovered Peter I Island and Alexander I
Island, the first islands to be discovered south of the circle.
Historical maps showing a southern ocean between Antarctica and the continents of
South America, Africa and Australia
1683 map by French Samuel Dunn's 1794 General

cartographer Alain Manesson Map of the World or
Mallet from his publication Terraqueous Globe shows a
Description de L'Univers. Southern Ocean (but meaning
Shows a sea below both the what is today named the South
Atlantic and Pacific oceans at a Atlantic) and a Southern Icy
time when Tierra del Fuego Ocean.
was believed joined to
Antarctica. Sea is named Mer
Magellanique after Ferdinand
Magellan.
A New Map of Asia, from the Freycinet Map of 1811 – resulted

Latest Authorities, by John from the 1800–1803 French
Cary, Engraver, 1806, shows the Baudin expedition to Australia
Southern Ocean lying to the and was the first full map of
south of both the Indian Ocean Australia ever to be published.
and Australia. In French, the map named the
ocean immediately below
Australia as the Grand Océan
Austral ('Great Southern
Ocean').
1863 map of Australia shows 1906 map by German publisher

the Southern Ocean lying Justus Perthes showing
immediately to the south of Antarctica encompassed by an
Australia. Antarktischer (Sudl. Eismeer)
Ocean – the 'Antarctic (South
Arctic) Ocean'.
Map of The World in 1922 by the

National Geographic Society
showing the Antarctic
(Southern) Ocean.
Antarctic expeditions
In December 1839, as part of the United States Exploring
Expedition of 1838–42 conducted by the United States Navy
(sometimes called "the Wilkes Expedition"), an expedition sailed
from Sydney, Australia, on the sloops-of-war USS Vincennes and
USS Peacock, the brig USS Porpoise, the full-rigged ship Relief,
and two schooners Sea Gull and USS Flying Fish. They sailed into
the Antarctic Ocean, as it was then known, and reported the
discovery "of an Antarctic continent west of the Balleny Islands" USS Vincennes at Disappointment
on 25 January 1840. That part of Antarctica was later named Bay, Antarctica in early 1840
"Wilkes Land", a name it maintains to this day.
Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now

known as the Ross Sea and discovered Ross Island
(both of which were named for him) in 1841. He sailed
along a huge wall of ice that was later named the Ross
Ice Shelf. Mount Erebus and Mount Terror are named
after two ships from his expedition: HMS Erebus and
HMS Terror.[53]
1911 South Polar Regions exploration map

Frank Hurley: As time wore on it
became more and more evident
The Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition of 1914, led by Ernest that the ship was doomed
Shackleton, set out to cross the continent via the pole, but their (Endurance trapped in pack ice),
ship, Endurance, was trapped and crushed by pack ice before they National Library of Australia.
even landed. The expedition members survived after an epic
journey on sledges over pack ice to Elephant Island. Then
Shackleton and five others crossed the Southern Ocean, in an open boat called James Caird, and then
trekked over South Georgia to raise the alarm at the whaling station Grytviken.
In 1946, US Navy Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd and more than 4,700 military personnel visited the
Antarctic in an expedition called Operation Highjump. Reported to the public as a scientific mission,
the details were kept secret and it may have actually been a training or testing mission for the
military. The expedition was, in both military or scientific planning terms, put together very quickly.
The group contained an unusually high amount of military equipment, including an aircraft carrier,
submarines, military support ships, assault troops and military vehicles. The expedition was planned
to last for eight months but was unexpectedly terminated after only two months. With the exception
of some eccentric entries in Admiral Byrd's diaries, no real explanation for the early termination has
ever been officially given.
Captain Finn Ronne, Byrd's executive officer, returned to Antarctica with his own expedition in 1947–
1948, with Navy support, three planes, and dogs. Ronne disproved the notion that the continent was
divided in two and established that East and West Antarctica was one single continent, i.e. that the
Weddell Sea and the Ross Sea are not connected.[54] The expedition explored and mapped large parts
of Palmer Land and the Weddell Sea coastline, and identified the Ronne Ice Shelf, named by Ronne
after his wife Edith "Jackie" Ronne.[55] Ronne covered 3,600 miles (5,790 km) by ski and dog sled –
more than any other explorer in history.[56] The Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition discovered and
mapped the last unknown coastline in the world and was the first Antarctic expedition to ever include
women.[57]
Recent history
The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959 and came

into force on 23 June 1961. Among other provisions, this treaty
limits military activity in the Antarctic to the support of scientific
research.
The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New

Zealander David Henry Lewis, in 1972, in a 10-metre (30 ft) steel
sloop Ice Bird. MS Explorer in Antarctica in
January 1999. She sank on 23
A baby, named Emilio Marcos de Palma, was born near Hope Bay November 2007 after hitting an
on 7 January 1978, becoming the first baby born on the continent. iceberg.
He also was born further south than anyone in history.[58]
The MV Explorer was a cruise ship operated by the Swedish explorer Lars-Eric Lindblad. Observers
point to Explorer's 1969 expeditionary cruise to Antarctica as the frontrunner for today's sea-based
tourism in that region.[59][60] Explorer was the first cruise ship used specifically to sail the icy waters
of the Antarctic Ocean and the first to sink there[61] when she struck an unidentified submerged
object on 23 November 2007, reported to be ice, which caused a 10 by 4 inches (25 by 10 cm) gash in
the hull.[62] Explorer was abandoned in the early hours of 23 November 2007 after taking on water
near the South Shetland Islands in the Southern Ocean, an area which is usually stormy but was calm
at the time.[63] Explorer was confirmed by the Chilean Navy to have sunk at approximately position:
62° 24′ South, 57° 16′ West,[64] in roughly 600 m of water.[65]
British engineer Richard Jenkins designed an unmanned "saildrone"[66] that completed the first
autonomous circumnavigation of the Southern Ocean on 3 August 2019 after 196 days at sea.[67]
The first completely human-powered expedition on the Southern Ocean was accomplished on 25
December 2019 by a team of rowers comprising captain Fiann Paul (Iceland), first mate Colin O'Brady
(US), Andrew Towne (US), Cameron Bellamy (South Africa), Jamie Douglas-Hamilton (UK) and John
Petersen (US).[68]
Geography
The Southern Ocean, geologically the youngest of the oceans, was formed when Antarctica and South
America moved apart, opening the Drake Passage, roughly 30 million years ago. The separation of the
continents allowed the formation of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current.
With a northern limit at 60°S, the Southern Ocean differs from the other oceans in that its largest
boundary, the northern boundary, does not abut a landmass (as it did with the first edition of Limits
of Oceans and Seas). Instead, the northern limit is with the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.
One reason for considering it as a separate ocean stems from the fact that much of the water of the
Southern Ocean differs from the water in the other oceans. Water gets transported around the
Southern Ocean fairly rapidly because of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current which circulates around
Antarctica. Water in the Southern Ocean south of, for example, New Zealand, resembles the water in
the Southern Ocean south of South America more closely than it resembles the water in the Pacific
Ocean.
The Southern Ocean has typical depths of between 4,000 and 5,000 m (13,000 and 16,000 ft) over
most of its extent with only limited areas of shallow water. The Southern Ocean's greatest depth of
7,236 m (23,740 ft) occurs at the southern end of the South Sandwich Trench, at 60°00'S, 024°W.
The Antarctic continental shelf appears generally narrow and unusually deep, its edge lying at depths
up to 800 m (2,600 ft), compared to a global mean of 133 m (436 ft).
Equinox to equinox in line with the sun's seasonal influence, the Antarctic ice pack fluctuates from an
average minimum of 2.6 million square kilometres (1.0 × 106 sq mi) in March to about 18.8 million
square kilometres (7.3 × 106 sq mi) in September, more than a sevenfold increase in area.
Sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean

Sub-divisions of oceans are geographical features such
as "seas", "straits", "bays", "channels", and "gulfs".
There are many sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean
defined in the never-approved 2002 draft fourth
edition of the IHO publication Limits of Oceans and
Seas. In clockwise order these include (with sector):
Weddell Sea (57°18'W – 12°16'E)

King Haakon VII Sea[note 5] (20°W – 45°E)
Lazarev Sea (0° – 14°E)
Riiser-Larsen Sea (14° – 30°E) Seas that are parts of the Southern Ocean
Cosmonauts Sea (30° – 50°E)
Cooperation Sea (59°34' – 85°E)
Davis Sea (82° – 96°E)
Mawson Sea (95°45' – 113°E)
Dumont D'Urville Sea (140°E)
Somov Sea (150° – 170°E)
Ross Sea (166°E – 155°W)
Amundsen Sea (102°20′ – 126°W)
Bellingshausen Sea (57°18' – 102°20'W)
Part of the Drake Passage[note 6] (54° – 68°W)
Bransfield Strait (54° – 62°W)
Part of the Scotia Sea[note 7] (26°30' – 65°W)
A number of these such as the 2002 Russian-proposed "Cosmonauts Sea", "Cooperation Sea", and
"Somov (mid-1950s Russian polar explorer) Sea" are not included in the 1953 IHO document which
remains currently in force,[30] because they received their names largely originated from 1962
onward. Leading geographic authorities and atlases do not use these latter three names, including the
2014 10th edition World Atlas from the United States' National Geographic Society and the 2014 12th
edition of the British Times Atlas of the World, but Soviet and Russian-issued maps do.[69][70]
Biggest seas in Southern Ocean

Top large seas:[71][72][73]
1. Weddell Sea – 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi)

2. Somov Sea – 1,150,000 km2 (440,000 sq mi)
3. Riiser-Larsen Sea – 1,138,000 km2 (439,000 sq mi)
4. Lazarev Sea – 929,000 km2 (359,000 sq mi)
5. Scotia Sea – 900,000 km2 (350,000 sq mi)
6. Cosmonauts Sea – 699,000 km2 (270,000 sq mi)
7. Ross Sea – 637,000 km2 (246,000 sq mi)
8. Bellingshausen Sea – 487,000 km2 (188,000 sq mi)
9. Mawson Sea – 333,000 km2 (129,000 sq mi)
10. Cooperation Sea – 258,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi)
11. Amundsen Sea – 98,000 km2 (38,000 sq mi)
12. Davis Sea – 21,000 km2 (8,100 sq mi)
13. D'Urville Sea
14. King Haakon VII Sea
Natural resources
The Southern Ocean probably contains large, and possibly giant,
oil and gas fields on the continental margin. Placer deposits,
accumulation of valuable minerals such as gold, formed by gravity
separation during sedimentary processes are also expected to exist
in the Southern Ocean.[5]
Manganese nodules are expected to exist in the Southern Ocean.

Manganese nodules are rock concretions on the sea bottom Manganese nodule
formed of concentric layers of iron and manganese hydroxides
around a core. The core may be microscopically small and is
sometimes completely transformed into manganese minerals by crystallization. Interest in the
potential exploitation of polymetallic nodules generated a great deal of activity among prospective
mining consortia in the 1960s and 1970s.[5]
The icebergs that form each year around in the Southern Ocean hold enough fresh water to meet the
needs of every person on Earth for several months. For several decades there have been proposals,
none yet to be feasible or successful, to tow Southern Ocean icebergs to more arid northern regions
(such as Australia) where they can be harvested.[74]
Natural hazards
Icebergs can occur at any time of year throughout the ocean. Some may have drafts up to several
hundred meters; smaller icebergs, iceberg fragments and sea-ice (generally 0.5 to 1 m thick) also pose
problems for ships. The deep continental shelf has a floor of glacial deposits varying widely over short
distances.
Sailors know latitudes from 40 to 70 degrees south as the "Roaring Forties", "Furious Fifties" and
"Shrieking Sixties" due to high winds and large waves that form as winds blow around the entire globe
unimpeded by any land-mass. Icebergs, especially in May to October, make the area even more
dangerous. The remoteness of the region makes sources of search

and rescue scarce.
An iceberg being pushed out of a

shipping lane by (L to R)
USS Burton Island, USS Atka, and
USS Glacier near McMurdo Station,
Antarctica, 1965
Physical oceanography
Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctic

Convergence
While the Southern is the second smallest ocean it contains the
unique and highly energetic Antarctic Circumpolar Current which
moves perpetually eastward – chasing and joining itself, and at
21,000 km (13,000 mi) in length – it comprises the world's longest
ocean current, transporting 130 million cubic metres per second
(4.6 × 109 cu ft/s) of water – 100 times the flow of all the world's
rivers.[75]
The Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Several processes operate along the coast of Antarctica to produce, (ACC) is the strongest current
in the Southern Ocean, types of water masses not produced system in the world oceans, linking
elsewhere in the oceans of the Southern Hemisphere. One of these the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific
is the Antarctic Bottom Water, a very cold, highly saline, dense basins.
water that forms under sea ice. Another is Circumpolar Deep
Water, a mixture of Antarctic Bottom Water and North Atlantic
Deep Water.
Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence encircling Antarctica, where
cold northward-flowing Antarctic waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the subantarctic,
Antarctic waters predominantly sink beneath subantarctic waters, while associated zones of mixing
and upwelling create a zone very high in nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with
associated copepods and Antarctic krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals,
penguins, albatrosses and a wealth of other species.[76]
The Antarctic Convergence is considered to be the best natural definition of the northern extent of the
Southern Ocean.
Upwelling
Large-scale upwelling is found in the Southern Ocean. Strong
westerly (eastward) winds blow around Antarctica, driving a
significant flow of water northwards. This is actually a type of
coastal upwelling. Since there are no continents in a band of open
latitudes between South America and the tip of the Antarctic
Peninsula, some of this water is drawn up from great depths. In
Upwelling in the Southern Ocean many numerical models and observational syntheses, the
Southern Ocean upwelling represents the primary means by which
deep dense water is brought to the surface. Shallower, wind-driven
upwelling is also found off the west coasts of North and South America, northwest and southwest
Africa, and southwest and southeast Australia, all associated with oceanic subtropical high pressure
circulations.
Some models of the ocean circulation suggest that broad-scale upwelling occurs in the tropics, as
pressure driven flows converge water toward the low latitudes where it is diffusively warmed from
above. The required diffusion coefficients, however, appear to be larger than are observed in the real
ocean. Nonetheless, some diffusive upwelling does probably occur.
Ross and Weddell Gyres

The Ross Gyre and Weddell Gyre are two gyres that exist within
the Southern Ocean. The gyres are located in the Ross Sea and
Weddell Sea respectively, and both rotate clockwise. The gyres are
formed by interactions between the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
and the Antarctic Continental Shelf.
Sea ice has been noted to persist in the central area of the Ross
Gyre.[77] There is some evidence that global warming has resulted
in some decrease of the salinity of the waters of the Ross Gyre
since the 1950s.[78]
Location of the Southern Ocean
gyres
Due to the Coriolis effect acting to the left in the Southern
Hemisphere and the resulting Ekman transport away from the
centres of the Weddell Gyre, these regions are very productive due to upwelling of cold, nutrient rich
water.
Observations
Observation of the Southern Ocean is coordinated

through the Southern Ocean Observing System
(SOOS).[79][80] This provides access to meta data for a
significant proportion of the data collected in the
regions over the past decades including hydrographic
measurements and ocean currents. The data provision
is set up to emphasize records that are related to
Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs)[81] for the ocean
region south of 40°S.
Climate
Sea temperatures vary from about −2 to 10 °C (28 to
50 °F). Cyclonic storms travel eastward around the
continent and frequently become intense because of
the temperature contrast between ice and open ocean.
Regional Working Group zones for SOOS The ocean-area from about latitude 40 south to the
Antarctic Circle has the strongest average winds found
anywhere on Earth.[82] In winter the ocean freezes
outward to 65 degrees south latitude in the Pacific sector and 55 degrees south latitude in the Atlantic
sector, lowering surface temperatures well below 0 degrees Celsius. At some coastal points, however,
persistent intense drainage winds from the interior keep the shoreline ice-free throughout the winter.
Clouds over the Southern Ocean, with continent labels
Climate change
The Southern Ocean is one of the regions in which rapid climate change is the most visibly taking
place.[83] In this region, small perturbations in temperature lead to major environmental
perturbation. The effects of climate change in the Southern Ocean are expected to manifest
themselves in a regional and diverse manner.[7][83] This will include changes in the climate and
weather patterns across different time-scales with alterations to the long interdecadal background
signals such as the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).[83] Increasing ocean temperatures and
changes in the extent and seasonality of sea ice affect the biological productivity and community of
this ecosystem. The magnitude and exact manifestation of these changes could lead to different
populations of the same species responding and adapting differently to climate change depending on
the region of the Southern Ocean they inhabit.[7] Recent observations and analysis indicate the uptake
of heat and carbon is increasing in the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, in particular, the Subantarctic
Front zone aided by its increasing current strength.[84][85]
Biodiversity
Animals
A variety of marine animals exist and rely, directly or indirectly, on
the phytoplankton in the Southern Ocean. Antarctic sea life
includes penguins, blue whales, orcas, colossal squids and fur
seals. The emperor penguin is the only penguin that breeds during
the winter in Antarctica, while the Adélie penguin breeds farther Orca (Orcinus orca) hunting a
south than any other penguin. The rockhopper penguin has Weddell seal in the Southern Ocean
distinctive feathers around the eyes, giving the appearance of
elaborate eyelashes. King penguins, chinstrap penguins, and
gentoo penguins also breed in the Antarctic.
The Antarctic fur seal was very heavily hunted in the 18th and 19th centuries for its pelt by sealers
from the United States and the United Kingdom. The Weddell seal, a "true seal", is named after Sir
James Weddell, commander of British sealing expeditions in the Weddell Sea. Antarctic krill, which
congregates in large schools, is the keystone species of the ecosystem of the Southern Ocean, and is an
important food organism for whales, seals, leopard seals, fur seals, squid, icefish, penguins,
albatrosses and many other birds.[86]
The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals found in 1
square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the seafloor environment is very similar all around the Antarctic,
hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a uniquely wide
distribution for such a large community. Deep-sea gigantism is common among these animals.[87]
A census of sea life carried out during the International Polar Year and which involved some 500
researchers was released in 2010. The research is part of the global Census of Marine Life (CoML) and
has disclosed some remarkable findings. More than 235 marine organisms live in both polar regions,
having bridged the gap of 12,000 km (7,500 mi). Large animals such as some cetaceans and birds
make the round trip annually. More surprising are small forms of life such as mudworms, sea
cucumbers and free-swimming snails found in both polar oceans. Various factors may aid in their
distribution – fairly uniform temperatures of the deep ocean at the poles and the equator which differ
by no more than 5 °C (9.0 °F), and the major current systems or marine conveyor belt which transport
egg and larva stages.[88] However, among smaller marine animals generally assumed to be the same
in the Antarctica and the Arctic, more detailed studies of each population have often—but not always
—revealed differences, showing that they are closely related cryptic species rather than a single
bipolar species.[89][90][91]
Birds
The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands

provide nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring.
These nesters include species of albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls
and terns.[92] The insectivorous South Georgia pipit is endemic to
South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Freshwater
ducks inhabit South Georgia and the Kerguelen Islands.[93]
The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern

Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on and A wandering albatross (Diomedea
around Antarctica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed exulans) on South Georgia
on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four
species live on the subantarctic islands.[94] Emperor penguins
have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to
breed during the winter.[95]
Fish
There are relatively few fish species in few families in the Southern Ocean. The most species-rich
family are the snailfish (Liparidae), followed by the cod icefish (Nototheniidae)[96] and eelpout
(Zoarcidae). Together the snailfish, eelpouts and notothenioids (which includes cod icefish and
several other families) account for almost 9⁄10 of the more than 320 described fish species of the
Southern Ocean (tens of undescribed species also occur in the region, especially among the
snailfish).[97] Southern Ocean snailfish are generally found in deep waters, while the icefish also occur
in shallower waters.[96]
Icefish
Cod icefish (Nototheniidae), as well as several other families, are
part of the Notothenioidei suborder, collectively sometimes
referred to as icefish. The suborder contains many species with
antifreeze proteins in their blood and tissue, allowing them to live
in water that is around or slightly below 0 °C (32 °F).[98][99]
Antifreeze proteins are also known from Southern Ocean
snailfish.[100]
Fish of the Notothenioidei suborder,
The crocodile icefish (family Channichthyidae), also known as
such as this young icefish, are
white-blooded fish, are only found in the Southern Ocean. They mostly restricted to the Antarctic
lack hemoglobin in their blood, resulting in their blood being and Subantarctic.
colourless. One Channichthyidae species, the mackerel icefish
(Champsocephalus gunnari), was once the most common fish in
coastal waters less than 400 metres (1,312 ft) deep, but was overfished in the 1970s and 1980s.
Schools of icefish spend the day at the seafloor and the night higher in the water column eating
plankton and smaller fish.[98]
There are two species from the genus Dissostichus, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni)
and the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). These two species live on the seafloor 100–
3,000 metres (328–9,843 ft) deep, and can grow to around 2 metres (7 ft) long weighing up to 100
kilograms (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close to the Antarctic mainland,
whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer subantarctic waters. Toothfish are
commercially fished, and overfishing has reduced toothfish populations.[98][101]
Another abundant fish group is the genus Notothenia, which like the Antarctic toothfish have
antifreeze in their bodies.[98]
An unusual species of icefish is the Antarctic silverfish (Pleuragramma antarcticum), which is the
only truly pelagic fish in the waters near Antarctica.[102]
Mammals
Seven pinniped species inhabit Antarctica. The largest, the
elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000
kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest, the Antarctic
fur seal (Arctophoca gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb).
These two species live north of the sea ice, and breed in harems on
beaches. The other four species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater
seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes Weddell seals (Leptonychotes
weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals weddellii) are the most southerly of
(Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live Antarctic mammals.
solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed
on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no
terrestrial predators.[103]
The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's
seals.[104] Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most
numerous large animals on the planet.[105] The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the
rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands,
although historically it had a wider range.[106] Out of all permanent mammalian residents, the
Weddell seals live the furthest south.[107]
There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean: six baleen whales, and four toothed
whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long
weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these species are migratory, and travel to tropical waters during the
Antarctic winter.[108]
Invertebrates
Arthropods
Five species of krill, small free-swimming crustaceans, have been
found in the Southern Ocean.[109] The Antarctic krill (Euphausia
superba) is one of the most abundant animal species on earth,
with a biomass of around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6 Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba)
centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram (0.035 oz).[110] are a keystone species of the food
The swarms that form can stretch for kilometres, with up to
web.
30,000 individuals per 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft), turning the water
red.[109] Swarms usually remain in deep water during the day, ascending during the night to feed on
plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for their own survival.[110] During the winter when
food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as
nutrition.[109]
Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in a brood
pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod, reaching 20 centimetres (8 in)
in length weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft sediments, eating a range of
items, from algae to other animals.[87] The amphipods are highly diverse with more than 600
recognized species found south of the Antarctic Convergence and there are indications that many
undescribed species remain. Among these are several "giants", such as the iconic epimeriids that are
up to 8 cm (3.1 in) long.[111]
Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing as large as a human hand. They feed on the
corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.[87]
Others
Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as
Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others
such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water
above.[87] There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern
Ocean,[112] the largest of which is the colossal squid
(Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni), which at up to 14 metres (46 ft) is
among the largest invertebrate in the world.[113] Squid makes up
most of the diet of some animals, such as grey-headed albatrosses A female warty squid (Moroteuthis
and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is ingens)
one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by
vertebrates.[112]
The sea urchin genus Abatus burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in it.[87] Two
species of salps are common in Antarctic waters: Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai. Salpa
thompsoni is found in ice-free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the high-latitude areas near
ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are normally only eaten by fish, with larger animals such
as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other food is scarce.[114]
Antarctic sponges are long-lived and sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity of the
symbiotic microbial communities within them. As a result, they function as indicators of
environmental health.[115]
Environment
Current issues
Increased solar ultraviolet radiation resulting from the Antarctic ozone hole has reduced marine
primary productivity (phytoplankton) by as much as 15% and has started damaging the DNA of some
fish.[116] Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, especially the landing of an estimated five to six
times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery, likely affects the sustainability of the
stock. Long-line fishing for toothfish causes a high incidence of seabird mortality.
International agreements
All international agreements regarding the world's oceans apply to
the Southern Ocean. In addition, it is subject to these agreements
specific to the region:
The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary of the International

Whaling Commission (IWC) prohibits commercial whaling
south of 40 degrees south (south of 60 degrees south
between 50 degrees and 130 degrees west). Japan regularly
does not recognize this provision, because the sanctuary An adult and sub-adult Minke
violates IWC charter. Since the scope of the sanctuary is
limited to commercial whaling, in regard to its whaling permit whale are dragged aboard the
Japanese whaling vessel Nisshin
and whaling for scientific research, a Japanese fleet carried Maru.
out an annual whale-hunt in the region. On 31 March 2014, the
International Court of Justice ruled that Japan's whaling
program, which Japan has long claimed is for scientific purposes, was a cloak for commercial
whaling, and no further permits would be granted.
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals is part of the Antarctic Treaty System. It was
signed at the conclusion of a multilateral conference in London on 11 February 1972.[117]
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) is part of the
Antarctic Treaty System. The Convention was entered into force on 7 April 1982 and its goal is to
preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. It was established in
large part due to concerns that an increase in krill catches in the Southern Ocean could have a
serious impact on populations of other marine life which are dependent upon krill for food.[118]
Many nations prohibit the exploration for and the exploitation of mineral resources south of the
fluctuating Antarctic Convergence,[119] which lies in the middle of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current
and serves as the dividing line between the very cold polar surface waters to the south and the warmer
waters to the north. The Antarctic Treaty covers the portion of the globe south of sixty degrees
south;[120] it prohibits new claims to Antarctica.[121]
The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources applies to the area south
of 60° South latitude as well as the areas further north up to the limit of the Antarctic
Convergence.[122]
Economy
Between 1 July 1998 and 30 June 1999, fisheries landed 119,898 tonnes (118,004 long tons; 132,165
short tons), of which 85% consisted of krill and 14% of Patagonian toothfish. International
agreements came into force in late 1999 to reduce illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, which
in the 1998–99 season landed five to six times more Patagonian toothfish than the regulated fishery.
Ports and harbors
Major operational ports include: Rothera Station,

Palmer Station, Villa Las Estrellas, Esperanza Base,
Mawson Station, McMurdo Station, and offshore
anchorages in Antarctica.
Few ports or harbors exist on the southern (Antarctic)

coast of the Southern Ocean, since ice conditions limit
use of most shores to short periods in midsummer;
even then some require icebreaker escort for access.
Most Antarctic ports are operated by government
research stations and, except in an emergency, remain
closed to commercial or private vessels; vessels in any
Severe cracks in an ice pier in use for four port south of 60 degrees south are subject to inspection
seasons at McMurdo Station slowed cargo by Antarctic Treaty observers.
operations in 1983 and proved a safety hazard.
The Southern Ocean's southernmost port operates at
McMurdo Station at 77°50′S 166°40′E. Winter
Quarters Bay forms a small harbor, on the southern tip of Ross Island where a floating ice pier makes
port operations possible in summer. Operation Deep Freeze personnel constructed the first ice pier at
McMurdo in 1973.[123]
Based on the original 1928 IHO delineation of the Southern Ocean (and the 1937 delineation if the
Great Australian Bight is considered integral), Australian ports and harbors between Cape Leeuwin
and Cape Otway on the Australian mainland and along the west coast of Tasmania would also be
identified as ports and harbors existing in the Southern Ocean. These would include the larger ports
and harbors of Albany, Thevenard, Port Lincoln, Whyalla, Port Augusta, Port Adelaide, Portland,
Warrnambool, and Macquarie Harbour.
Even though organizers of several yacht races define their routes as involving the Southern Ocean, the
actual routes don't enter the actual geographical boundaries of the Southern Ocean. The routes
involve instead South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Ocean.[124][125][126]
See also
Borders of the oceans
List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands
List of countries by southernmost point
List of seamounts in the Southern Ocean
Seven Seas
Notes
1. Also a translation of its former French name (Grand Océan Austral) in reference to its position
below the Pacific, the "Grand Océan".
2. Used by Dr. Hooker in his accounts of his Antarctic voyages.[4] Also a translation of the ocean's
Japanese name Nankyoku Kai (南極海).
3. Also a translation of the ocean's Chinese name Nánbīng Yáng (南冰洋).
4. Historic names include the "South Sea",[2] the "Great Southern Ocean",[3][note 1] the "South Polar
Ocean" or "South-Polar Ocean",[note 2] and the "Southern Icy Ocean".[2][note 3]
5. Reservation by Norway: Norway recognizes the name Kong Håkon VII Hav, which covers the sea
area adjacent to Dronning Maud Land and stretching from 20°W to 45°E.[32]
6. The Drake Passage is situated between the southern and eastern extremities of South America
and the South Shetland Islands, lying north of the Antarctic Peninsula.[32]
7. The Scotia Sea is an area defined by the southeastern extremity of South America and the South
Shetland Islands on the west and by South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands to the north
and east. As they extend north of 60°S, Drake Passage and the Scotia Sea are also described as
forming part of the South Atlantic Ocean.[32]
References
1. EB (1878).
2. Sherwood, Mary Martha (1823), An Introduction to Geography, Intended for Little Children, 3rd ed.
(https://books.google.com/books?id=u-w7AAAAYAAJ), Wellington: F. Houlston & Son, p. 10 (http
s://books.google.com/books?id=u-w7AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA10)
3. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Great Southern Ocean" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclo
p%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Great_Southern_Ocean). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.).
Cambridge University Press. p. 422.
4. Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1843), Flora Antarctica: The Botany of the Antarctic Voyage, London:
Reeve
5. "Geography – Southern Ocean" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/southern-ocea
n/). CIA Factbook. Retrieved 16 July 2012. "... the Southern Ocean has the unique distinction of
being a large circumpolar body of water totally encircling the continent of Antarctica; this ring of
water lies between 60 degrees south latitude and the coast of Antarctica and encompasses 360
degrees of longitude."
6. "Introduction – Southern Ocean" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/southern-oce
an/). CIA Factbook. Retrieved 16 July 2012. "...As such, the Southern Ocean is now the fourth
largest of the world's five oceans (after the Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Indian Ocean, but
larger than the Arctic Ocean)."
7. Constable, Andrew J.; Melbourne‐Thomas, Jessica; Corney, Stuart P.; Arrigo, Kevin R.; Barbraud,
Christophe; Barnes, David K. A.; Bindoff, Nathaniel L.; Boyd, Philip W.; Brandt, Angelika; Costa,
Daniel P.; Davidson, Andrew T. (2014). "Climate change and Southern Ocean ecosystems I: how
changes in physical habitats directly affect marine biota" (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/
10.1111/gcb.12623). Global Change Biology. 20 (10): 3004–3025. Bibcode:2014GCBio..20.3004C (http
s://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014GCBio..20.3004C). doi:10.1111/gcb.12623 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2
Fgcb.12623). ISSN 1365-2486 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1365-2486). PMID 24802817 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24802817). S2CID 7584865 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:75
84865).
8. "Do You Know the World's Newest Ocean?" (https://www.thoughtco.com/the-new-fifth-ocean-143
5095). ThoughtCo.
9. Pyne, Stephen J.; The Ice: A Journey to Antarctica. University of Washington Press, 1986.
10. "Explorer completes another historic submersible dive" (https://ftw.usatoday.com/2019/02/explor
er-completes-another-historic-submersible-dive). For The Win. 6 February 2019. Retrieved
16 February 2019.
11. "Southern Ocean" (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/southern%20ocean). Merriam-
Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
12. Darby, Andrew (22 December 2003). "Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean" (htt
p://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/12/21/1071941610556.html). The Age. Retrieved 13 January
2013.
13. "Names and Limits of Oceans and Seas around Australia" (https://web.archive.org/web/201803131
30704/http://www.hydro.gov.au/factsheets/WFS_Names_and_Limits_of_Oceans_and_Seas_Aroun
d_Australia.pdf) (PDF). Australian Hydrographic Office. Department of Defence. 2019. Archived
from the original (http://www.hydro.gov.au/factsheets/WFS_Names_and_Limits_of_Oceans_and_S
eas_Around_Australia.pdf) (PDF) on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 12 June 2019.
14. "There's a New Ocean Now" (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/theres-a-
new-ocean-now-can-you-name-all-five-southern-ocean). National Geographic Society. 8 June
2021. Retrieved 8 June 2021.
15. Wong, Wilson (10 June 2021). "National Geographic adds 5th ocean to world map" (https://www.nb
cnews.com/science/science-news/national-geographic-adds-5th-ocean-world-map-n1270318).
ABC News. NBC Universal. Retrieved 11 June 2021. "National Geographic announced Tuesday that
it is officially recognizing the body of water surrounding the Antarctic as the Earth's fifth ocean:
the Southern Ocean."
16. NGS (2014).
17. "Maps Home" (http://maps.nationalgeographic.com/maps). National Geographic Society.
Retrieved 31 March 2014.
18. "Upside Down World Map" (https://archive.today/20140726124436/http://www.hemamaps.com.au/
en/Buy/Wall%20Maps/International%20Wall%20Maps/Upside-Down-World-Laminated). Hema
Maps. Archived from the original (http://www.hemamaps.com.au/en/Buy/Wall%20Maps/Internati
onal%20Wall%20Maps/Upside-Down-World-Laminated) on 26 July 2014. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
19. "Classic World Wall Map" (http://www.mapsales.com/geonova/world-wall-maps/classic-world-
wall-map.aspx). GeoNova. Retrieved 22 July 2014.
20. "Balboa, or Pan-Pacific Day". The Mid-Pacific Magazine. Pan-Pacific Union. 20 (10): 16. "He named
it the Southern Ocean, but in 1520 Magellan sailed into the Southern Ocean and named it Pacific"
21. Tomlins, Sir Thomas Edlyne; Raithby, John (1811). "18 George II c. 17" (https://books.google.com/bo
oks?id=n49KAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA153). The statutes at large, of England and of Great-Britain: from
Magna Carta to the union of the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. Printed by G. Eyre and A.
Strahan. p. 153. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
22. Cook, James (1821). "March 1775" (https://books.google.com/books?id=irYBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA24
4). Three Voyages of Captain James Cook Round the World. Longman. p. 244. Retrieved
1 November 2015. "These voyages of the French, though undertaken by private adventurers, have
contributed something towards exploring the Southern Ocean. That of Captain Surville, clears up
a mistake, which I was led into, in imagining the shoals off the west end of New Caledonia was to
extend to the west, but as far as New Holland."
23. A Compendious Geographical Dictionary, Containing, a Concise Description of the Most
Remarkable Places, Ancient and Modern, in Europe, Asia, Africa, & America, ... (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=8a9bAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA29) (2nd ed.). London: W. Peacock. 1795. p. 29.
24. Payne, John (1796). Geographical extracts, forming a general view of earth and nature...
illustrated with maps (https://books.google.com/books?id=63tZAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA80). London:
G.G. and J. Robinson. p. 80. Retrieved 1 November 2015.
25. The Edinburgh Gazetteer: Or, Geographical Dictionary: Containing a Description of the Various
Countries, Kingdoms, States, Cities, Towns, Mountains, &c. of the World; an Account of the
Government, Customs, and Religion of the Inhabitants; the Boundaries and Natural Productions
of Each Country, &c. &c. Forming a Complete Body of Geography, Physical, Political, Statistical,
and Commercial with Addenda, Containing the Present State of the New Governments in South
America... (https://books.google.com/books?id=YhIyAQAAMAAJ&pg=PR59) Vol. 1. London:
Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. 1827. p. lix.
26. "Physical Geography" (https://books.google.com/books?id=sGpMAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA16). Family
Magazine: Or Monthly Abstract of General Knowledge. New York: Redfield & Lindsay. 3 (1): 16.
June 1835.
27. "45 Vict. No. 702" (http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/legis/vic/hist_act/tlca1881231.pdf#page=87) (PDF).
Australasian Legal Information Institute. 28 November 1881. p. 87. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
28. "Map accompanying first edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special
Publication 23" (http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/map00340.htm). NOAA Photo Library.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 19 January 2014.
29. "Map accompanying second edition of IHO Publication Limits of Oceans and Seas, Special
Publication 23" (http://www.photolib.noaa.gov/htmls/map00341.htm). NOAA Photo Library.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Retrieved 18 January 2014.
30. "Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition" (https://iho.int/uploads/user/pubs/standards/s-23/S-23
_Ed3_1953_EN.pdf) (PDF). International Hydrographic Organization. 1953. Retrieved 28 December
2020.
Alternate location: AWI (https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/29772/) (DOI 10013/epic.37175.d001 scan (http
s://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/29772/1/IHO1953a.pdf) archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190418113
853/https://epic.awi.de/id/eprint/29772/1/IHO1953a.pdf)).
31. "Pacific Ocean" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/pacific-ocean/). The World
Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 27 November 2010.
32. "IHO Publication S-23, Limits of Oceans and Seas, Draft 4th Edition" (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20140202105534/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draf
t_2002.htm). International Hydrographic Organization. 2002. Archived from the original (http://ww
w.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm) on 2 February
2014. Retrieved 22 January 2002.
33. "IHO Special Publication 23" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140201213815/http://eastsea.khoa.go.
kr/eng/open_content/iho/magazine.asp). Korean Hydrographic and Oceanographic
Administration. Archived from the original (http://eastsea.khoa.go.kr/eng/open_content/iho/maga
zine.asp) on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
34. Darby, Andrew (22 December 2003). "Canberra all at sea over position of Southern Ocean" (htt
p://www.theage.com.au/articles/2003/12/21/1071941610556.html). The Age. Retrieved 21 December
2009.
35. Schenke, Hans Werner (September 2003). "Proposal for the preparation of a new International
Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140116194155/http://ww
w.iho.int/mtg_docs/rhc/HCA/HCA3/HCA3-6.3B_Report_on_IBCSO.pdf) (PDF). IHO International
Hydrographic Committee on Antarctica (HCA). Third HCA Meeting, 8–10 September 2003 (http://w
ww.iho.int/mtg_docs/rhc/HCA/HCA3/HCA3docs_list.htm). Monaco: International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO). Archived from the original (http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/rhc/HCA/HCA3/HCA3
-6.3B_Report_on_IBCSO.pdf) (PDF) on 16 January 2014. Retrieved 17 January 2014.
36. "Indian Ocean" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285876/Indian-Ocean).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
37. "Southern Ocean" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/27026/Southern-Ocean).
Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
38. "AHS – AA609582" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180313130704/http://www.hydro.gov.au/factsh

eets/WFS_Names_and_Limits_of_Oceans_and_Seas_Around_Australia.pdf) (PDF) (PDF). The
Australian Hydrographic Service. 5 July 2012. Archived from the original (http://www.hydro.gov.a
u/factsheets/WFS_Names_and_Limits_of_Oceans_and_Seas_Around_Australia.pdf) (PDF) on 13
March 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2013.
39. For example: Chart Aus343: Australia South Coast – South Australia – Whidbey Isles to Cape Du
Couedic (http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090526042934/http://www.hydro.gov.au/webapps/jsp/ch
arts/charts.jsp?chart=Aus343&subchart=0), Australian Hydrographic Service, 29 June 1990,
archived from the original (http://www.hydro.gov.au/webapps/jsp/charts/charts.jsp?chart=Aus34
3&subchart=0) on 26 May 2009, retrieved 11 October 2010, Chart Aus792: Australia – Tasmania –
Trial Harbour to Low Rocky Point (http://www.hydro.gov.au/webapps/jsp/charts/charts.jsp?chart=
Aus792&subchart=0), Australian Hydrographic Service, 18 July 2008, retrieved 11 October 2010
40. "Assessment Documentation for Cape Leeuwin Lighthouse" (https://web.archive.org/web/2011082
5214915/http://register.heritage.wa.gov.au/PDF_Files/00104%20Cape%20Leeuwin%28P-AD%29.PD
F) (PDF). Register of Heritage Places. 13 May 2005. p. 11. Archived from the original (http://registe
r.heritage.wa.gov.au/PDF_Files/00104%20Cape%20Leeuwin%28P-AD%29.PDF) (PDF) on 25 August
2011. Retrieved 13 October 2010.
41. One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public
domain: Mill, Hugh Robert (1911). "Polar Regions". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia
Britannica. Vol. 21 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 961–972.
42. Joost Depuydt, 'Ortelius, Abraham (1527–1598)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford
University Press, 2004
43. Peter Barber, "Ortelius' great world map", National Library of Australia, Mapping our World: Terra
Incognita to Australia, Canberra, National Library of Australia, 2013, p. 95.
44. Dalrymple, Alexander. (1771). A Collection of Voyages Made to the Ocean Between Cape Horn and
Cape of Good Hope. Two volumes. London.
45. Headland, Robert K. (1984). The Island of South Georgia, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-
521-25274-1
46. Cook, James. (1777). A Voyage Towards the South Pole, and Round the World. Performed in His
Majesty's Ships the Resolution and Adventure, In the Years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775. In which is
included, Captain Furneaux's Narrative of his Proceedings in the Adventure during the
Separation of the Ships (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15869/15869-8.txt). Volume II. London:
Printed for W. Strahan and T. Cadell. (Relevant fragment)
47. Dance, Nathaniel (c. 1776). "Captain James Cook, 1728–79" (http://collections.rmg.co.uk/collection
s/objects/14102.html). Royal Museums Greenwich. Commissioned by Sir Joseph Banks. Retrieved
23 January 2014.
48. Weddel, James (1970) [1825]. A voyage towards the South Pole: performed in the years 1822–24,
containing an examination of the Antarctic Sea. United States Naval Institute. p. 44.
49. U.S. Antarctic Program External Panel. "Antarctica – past and present" (https://www.nsf.gov/pub
s/1997/antpanel/antpan05.pdf) (PDF). NSF. Retrieved 14 November 2007.
50. Guy G. Guthridge. "Nathaniel Brown Palmer" (https://web.archive.org/web/20060202101525/http://
quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html). NASA. Archived from the original
(http://quest.arc.nasa.gov/antarctica/background/NSF/palmer.html) on 2 February 2006.
Retrieved 14 November 2007.
51. Palmer Station (https://web.archive.org/web/20060828065910/http://arcane.ucsd.edu/pstat.html).
ucsd.edu
52. Erki Tammiksaar (14 December 2013). "Punane Bellingshausen" [Red Bellingshausen]. Postimees.
Arvamus. Kultuur (in Estonian).
53. "South-Pole – Exploring Antarctica" (http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm). South-Pole.com.

Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060214042438/http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.ht
m) from the original on 14 February 2006. Retrieved 12 February 2006.
54. "Milestones, 28 January 1980" (https://web.archive.org/web/20101125113748/http://www.time.com/
time/magazine/article/0,9171,923941,00.html). Time. 28 January 1980. Archived from the original (h
ttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,923941,00.html) on 25 November 2010. Retrieved
4 May 2010.
55. Historic Names – Norwegian-American Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica (http://traverse.npo
lar.no/historical-traverses/historic-names) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/200803210831
09/http://traverse.npolar.no/historical-traverses/historic-names) 21 March 2008 at the Wayback
Machine. Traverse.npolar.no. Retrieved on 29 January 2012.
56. Navy Military History (http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/teach/ends/ronne.htm) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20131002123044/http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/teach/ends/ron
ne.htm) 2 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. History.navy.mil. Retrieved on 29 January 2012.
57. Finn Ronne (https://web.archive.org/web/20081003214538/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-
Ronne-Fi.html). The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition 2008
58. antarctica.org (http://www.antarctica.org/old/UK/Envirn/pag/antar_history/pag/science1.htm#sci
ence) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071006183555/http://www.antarctica.org/old/UK/
Envirn/pag/antar_history/pag/science1.htm) 6 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine – Science: in
force...
59. "Mar 28 – Hump Day" (http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/living_and_working/diaries/rrs_james_clark_r
oss/antarctic2003_2004/13_27/index.php) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110607103139/
http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/living_and_working/diaries/rrs_james_clark_ross/antarctic2003_200
4/13_27/index.php) 7 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, British Antarctic Survey.
60. Scope of Antarctic Tourism – A Background Presentation (http://www.iaato.org/tourism_overvie
w.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20071016194609/http://iaato.org/tourism_overview.
html) 16 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine, IAATO official website.
61. Reel, Monte (24 November 2007). "Cruise Ship Sinks Off Antarctica" (https://www.washingtonpos
t.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/11/24/ST2007112400367.html). The Washington Post. Archived
(https://archive.today/20120629173246/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/20
07/11/24/ST2007112400367.html) from the original on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 13 May 2010.
62. "154 Rescued From Sinking Ship In Antarctic: Passengers, Crew Boarding Another Ship After
Wait In Lifeboats; No Injuries Reported" (https://archive.today/20130102040206/http://www.cbsne
ws.com/stories/2007/11/23/world/main3534814.shtml). CBS News. 23 November 2007. Archived
from the original (http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2007/11/23/world/main3534814.shtml) on 2
January 2013. Retrieved 14 June 2021.
63. "Doomed Ship Defies Antarctica Odds" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071127153727/http://news.
aol.com/story/_a/doomed-ship-defies-antarctica-odds/20071123061209990001?ncid=NWS0001000
0000001). Reuters. 25 November 2007. Archived from the original (http://news.aol.com/story/_a/d
oomed-ship-defies-antarctica-odds/20071123061209990001?ncid=NWS00010000000001) on 27
November 2007. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
64. "MS Explorer – situation report" (https://archive.today/20120629173227/http://www.falklandnews.
com/public/story.cfm?get=4760&source=3). The Falkland Islands News. 23 November 2007.
Archived from the original (http://www.falklandnews.com/public/story.cfm?get=4760&source=3)
on 29 June 2012.
65. "MV Explorer Cruise Ship Sinking in South Atlantic" (https://archive.today/20120629173224/http://
www.shippingtimes.co.uk/item947_explorer_sinking.htm). The Shipping Times. 23 November
2007. Archived from the original (http://www.shippingtimes.co.uk/item947_explorer_sinking.htm)
on 29 June 2012. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
66. "What Is a Saildrone and How Does It Work?" (https://www.saildrone.com/news/what-is-saildron

e-how-work). www.saildrone.com. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
67. "Saildrone Completes First Autonomous Circumnavigation of Antarctica" (https://www.saildrone.
com/news/unmanned-vehicle-completes-antarctica-circumnavigation). www.saildrone.com.
Retrieved 5 August 2019.
68. "First row across the Drake Passage" (https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/6
04715-first-row-across-the-drake-passage). Guinness World Records. 25 December 2019.
Retrieved 11 January 2020.
69. imgbyid.asp (1609x1300) (https://web.archive.org/web/20070320010621/http://www.rubricon.com/i
mgbyid.asp?ii=1&iid=219112465) (in Russian). Archived from the original (http://www.rubricon.com/
imgbyid.asp?ii=1&iid=219112465) on 20 March 2007.
70. "Map of Antarctica and surrounding waters in Russian" (https://web.archive.org/web/2015091006
0624/http://gturs.com/Maps/pic/ant_fiz.jpg). Archived from the original (http://gturs.com/Maps/pi
c/ant_fiz.jpg) on 10 September 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
71. "The World's Biggest Oceans and Seas" (https://www.livescience.com/29533-the-worlds-biggest
-oceans-and-seas.html). Livescience.com. 4 June 2010. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
72. "World Map" (https://www.worldatlas.com/). worldatlas.com. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
73. "List of seas" (http://listofseas.com/). listofseas.com. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
74. "Water from Icebergs" (http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/edu/learning/player/lesson12/l12la1.html).
Ocean Explorer. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
75. Fraser, Ceridwen; Christina, Hulbe; Stevens, Craig; Griffiths, Huw (6 December 2020). "An Ocean
Like No Other: the Southern Ocean's ecological richness and significance for global climate" (http
s://theconversation.com/an-ocean-like-no-other-the-southern-oceans-ecological-richness-an
d-significance-for-global-climate-151084). The Conversation. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
76. "Antarctica Detail" (https://geonames.usgs.gov/apex/f?p=gnispq:5:0::NO::P5_ANTAR_ID:488). U.S.
Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. 18 October 2000. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
77. Michael L., Van Woert; et al. (2003). "The Ross Sea Circulation During the 1990s". In DiTullio,
Giacomo R.; Dunbar, Robert B. (eds.). Biogeochemistry of the Ross Sea (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=4o7i8yJeEPMC). American Geophysical Union. pp. 4–34. ISBN 0-87590-972-8. p. 10.
78. Florindo, Fabio; Siegert, Martin J. (2008). Antarctic Climate Evolution (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=yUu-x70CZEcC). Elsevier. p. 106. ISBN 978-0-444-52847-6.
79. "Home" (https://soos.aq/). soos.aq. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
80. Rintoul, S. R.; Meredith, M. P.; Schofield, O.; Newman, L. (2012). "The southern ocean observing
system" (https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2012.76). Oceanography. 25 (3): 68–69.
doi:10.5670/oceanog.2012.76 (https://doi.org/10.5670%2Foceanog.2012.76). S2CID 129434229 (http
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:129434229).
81. Constable, A. J.; Costa, D. P.; Schofield, O.; Newman, L.; Urban Jr, E. R.; Fulton, E. A.; Melbourne-
Thomas, J.; Ballerini, T.; Boyd, P. W.; Brandt, A; Willaim, K. (2016). "Developing priority variables
("ecosystem Essential Ocean Variables"—eEOVs) for observing dynamics and change in Southern
Ocean ecosystems" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmarsys.2016.05.003). Journal of Marine Systems.
161: 26–41. Bibcode:2016JMS...161...26C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JMS...161...26C).
doi:10.1016/j.jmarsys.2016.05.003 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmarsys.2016.05.003). S2CID 3530105
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3530105).
82. "The World Fact Book: Climate" (https://web.archive.org/web/20190111173825/https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/resources/the-world-factbook/fields/284.html#OO). U.S. Central Intelligence
Agency. Archived from the original (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-worl
d-factbook/fields/284.html#OO) on 11 January 2019. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
83. Trathan, P.n; Forcada, J; Murphy, E.j (29 December 2007). "Environmental forcing and Southern
Ocean marine predator populations: effects of climate change and variability" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2443178). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B:
Biological Sciences. 362 (1488): 2351–2365. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1953 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Fr
stb.2006.1953). PMC 2443178 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2443178).
PMID 17553770 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17553770).
84. Shi, JR., Talley, L.D., Xie, SP. et al. "Ocean warming and accelerating Southern Ocean zonal flow."
Nat. Clim. Chang. 11, 1090–1097 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-021-01212-5. Retrieved 16
September 2022.
85. Long, Matthew C et al. "Strong Southern Ocean carbon uptake evident in airborne observations."
Science (New York, N.Y.) vol. 374,6572 (2021): 1275–1280. https://doi:10.1126/science.abi4355.
Retrieved 16 September 2022.
86. "Creatures of Antarctica" (https://web.archive.org/web/20050214015049/http://www.knet.co.za/an
tarctica/fauna_and_flora.htm). Archived from the original (http://www.knet.co.za/antarctica/fauna
_and_flora.htm) on 14 February 2005. Retrieved 6 February 2006.
87. Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Seabed (benthic) communities" (http://www.antar
ctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seabed-benthic-communities). Government of
Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130319154433/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/a
bout-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seabed-benthic-communities) from the original on 19 March
2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
88. Kinver, Mark (15 February 2009). "Ice oceans 'are not poles apart' " (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sci
ence/nature/7888558.stm). BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 22 October
2011.
89. Havermans, C.; G. Sonet; C. d'Udekem d'Acoz; Z. T. Nagy; P. Martin; S. Brix; T. Riehl; S. Agrawal; C.
Held (2013). "Genetic and Morphological Divergences in the Cosmopolitan Deep-Sea Amphipod
Eurythenes gryllus Reveal a Diverse Abyss and a Bipolar Species" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/
pmc/articles/PMC3783426). PLOS ONE. 8 (9): e74218. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...874218H (https://ui.ads
abs.harvard.edu/abs/2013PLoSO...874218H). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074218 (https://doi.org/10.137
1%2Fjournal.pone.0074218). PMC 3783426 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC378342
6). PMID 24086322 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24086322).
90. Hunt, B.; J. Strugnell; N. Bednarsek; K. Linse; R.J. Nelson; E. Pakhomov; B. Seibel; D. Steinke; L.
Würzberg (2010). "Poles Apart: The "Bipolar" Pteropod Species Limacina helicina is Genetically
Distinct Between the Arctic and Antarctic Oceans" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P
MC2847597). PLOS ONE. 5 (3): e9835. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...5.9835H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2010PLoSO...5.9835H). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0009835 (https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.p
one.0009835). PMC 2847597 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2847597).
PMID 20360985 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20360985).
91. Uriz, M.J.; J.M. Gili; C. Orejas; A.R. Perez-Porro (2011). "Do bipolar distributions exist in marine
sponges? Stylocordyla chupachups sp.nv. (Porifera: Hadromerida) from the Weddell Sea
(Antarctic), previously reported as S. borealis (Lovén, 1868)". Polar Biol. 34 (2): 243–255.
doi:10.1007/s00300-010-0876-y (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00300-010-0876-y). S2CID 25074505
92. Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Flying Birds" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about
-antarctica/wildlife/animals/flying-birds). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20130319154403/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/flying
-birds) from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
93. British Antarctic Survey. "Land Animals of Antarctica" (https://web.archive.org/web/201211221455
09/http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_antarctica/wildlife/land_animals/index.php). Natural
Environment Research Council. Archived from the original (http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/about_an
tarctica/wildlife/land_animals/index.php) on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 18 March 2013.
94. Australian Antarctic Division. "Penguins" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/

animals/penguins). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130319154
517/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/penguins) from the original
on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 6 April 2013.
95. Australian Antarctic Division. "Adapting to the cold" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarcti
ca/wildlife/animals/adapting-to-the-cold). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20130118055107/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/adapti
ng-to-the-cold) from the original on 18 January 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
96. Eastman, J.T.; M.J. Lannoo (1998). "Morphology of the Brain and Sense Organs in the Snailfish
Paraliparis devriesi: Neural Convergence and Sensory Compensation on the Antarctic Shelf".
Journal of Morphology. 237 (3): 213–236. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-4687(199809)237:3<213::aid-
jmor2>3.0.co;2-# (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28sici%291097-4687%28199809%29237%3A3%3C213%
3A%3Aaid-jmor2%3E3.0.co%3B2-%23). PMID 9734067 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9734067).
S2CID 29489951 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29489951).
97. Eastman, J.T. (2005). "The nature of the diversity of Antarctic fishes". Polar Biol. 28 (2): 93–107.
doi:10.1007/s00300-004-0667-4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00300-004-0667-4). S2CID 1653548
98. Australian Antarctic Division (13 December 2012). "Fish" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-anta
rctica/wildlife/animals/fish). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
30319154530/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/fish) from the
original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 5 April 2013.
99. Cheng, C.-H.C.; L. Chen; T.J. Near; Y. Jin (2003). "Functional Antifreeze Glycoprotein Genes in
Temperate-Water New Zealand Nototheniid Fish Infer an Antarctic Evolutionary Origin" (https://d
oi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg208). Mol. Biol. Evol. 20 (11): 1897–1908.
doi:10.1093/molbev/msg208 (https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fmolbev%2Fmsg208). PMID 12885956 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12885956).
100. Jung, A.; P. Johnson; J.T. Eastman; A.L. Devries (1995). "Protein content and freezing avoidance
properties of the subdermal extracellular matrix and serum of the Antarctic snailfish, Paraliparis
devriesi". Fish Physiol Biochem. 14 (1): 71–80. doi:10.1007/BF00004292 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FB
F00004292). PMID 24197273 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24197273). S2CID 1792885 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1792885).
101. Urbina, Ian (28 July 2015). "A Renegade Trawler, Hunted for 10,000 Miles by Vigilantes" (https://w
ww.nytimes.com/2015/07/28/world/a-renegade-trawler-hunted-for-10000-miles-by-vigilantes.ht
ml). The New York Times.
102. Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.) (2017). "Pleuragramma antarcticum " (http://www.fishbase.or
g/summary/SpeciesSummary.php?genusname=Pleuragramma&speciesname=antarcticum) in
FishBase. December 2017 version.
103. Australian Antarctic Division. "Seals and sea lions" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctic
a/wildlife/animals/seals-and-sea-lions). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20130319154452/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seals-a
nd-sea-lions) from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
104. Australian Antarctic Division. "Pack-ice seal species" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarc
tica/wildlife/animals/seals-and-sea-lions/pack-ice-seals/pack-ice-seal-species). Government
of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120826005443/http://www.antarctica.gov.a
u/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seals-and-sea-lions/pack-ice-seals/pack-ice-seal-specie
s) from the original on 26 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
105. Australian Antarctic Division. "Salps" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/ani

mals/seals-and-sea-lions/crabeater-seals). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.arc
hive.org/web/20120819150020/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/se
als-and-sea-lions/crabeater-seals) from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
106. Australian Antarctic Division. "Sea lions" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/
animals/seals-and-sea-lions/sea-lions). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20120803014932/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/seals-
and-sea-lions/sea-lions) from the original on 3 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
107. Australian Antarctic Division. "Weddell seals" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wil
dlife/animals/seals-and-sea-lions/weddell-seals). Government of Australia. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20120804170832/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/anim
als/seals-and-sea-lions/weddell-seals) from the original on 4 August 2012. Retrieved 8 April
2013.
108. Australian Antarctic Division (26 April 2012). "What is a whale?" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/abo
ut-antarctica/wildlife/animals/whales/what-is-a-whale). Government of Australia. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20120530194925/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlif
e/animals/whales/what-is-a-whale) from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
109. Australian Antarctic Division. "Krill: magicians of the Southern Ocean" (http://www.antarctica.gov.
au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/krill/krill-magicians-of-the-southern-ocean). Government
of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120929115143/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/
about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/krill/krill-magicians-of-the-southern-ocean) from the original
on 29 September 2012. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
110. Australian Antarctic Division. "Krill" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/anim
als/krill). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130122123635/http://
www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/krill) from the original on 22 January
111. d'Udekem d'Acoz, C; M.L. Verheye (2017). "Epimeria of the Southern Ocean with notes on their
relatives (Crustacea, Amphipoda, Eusiroidea)" (https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fejt.2017.359). European
Journal of Taxonomy (359): 1–553. doi:10.5852/ejt.2017.359 (https://doi.org/10.5852%2Fejt.2017.35
9).
112. Australian Antarctic Division. "Squid" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/ani
mals/squid). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130319154439/htt
p://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/squid) from the original on 19 March
113. Anderton, J. (23 February 2007). "Amazing specimen of world's largest squid in NZ" (https://www.
beehive.govt.nz/node/28451). beehive.govt.nz. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
114. Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Salps" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antar
ctica/wildlife/animals/salps). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
130319154345/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/salps) from the
original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
115. Australian Antarctic Division (12 August 2010). "Sponges" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-ant
arctica/wildlife/animals/sponges). Government of Australia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20130319154351/http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/animals/sponges)
from the original on 19 March 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2013.
116. Smith RC, Prézelin BB, Baker KS, Bidigare RR, Boucher NP, Coley T, Karentz D, MacIntyre S,
Matlick HA, Menzies D, et al. (1992). "Ozone depletion: ultraviolet radiation and phytoplankton
biology in antarctic waters". Science. 255 (5047): 952–59. Bibcode:1992Sci...255..952S (https://ui.a
dsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992Sci...255..952S). doi:10.1126/science.1546292 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2F
science.1546292). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 1546292 (htt
ps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1546292).
117. Wolfrum, Rüdiger; Bockslaff, Klaus, eds. (1984). Antarctic Challenge: Conflicting Interests,
Cooperation, Environmental Protection, Economic Development: Proceedings of an
Interdisciplinary Symposium, June 22nd–24th, 1983 (88 ed.). Berlin: Duncker & Humblot /
Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Internationales Recht / Universität Kiel. p. 99. ISBN 978-3-
428-05540-1. OCLC 470642138 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/470642138).
118. "Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources" (http://www.ccamlr.or
g/). ccamlr.org. 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
119. "The World Fact Book: Environment – International Agreements" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
140125104638/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2033.html). U.S.
Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original (https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/
the-world-factbook/fields/2033.html) on 25 January 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2014.
120. The Antarctic Treaty (https://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp), article 6
121. The Antarctic Treaty (https://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp), article 4, clause 2
122. "Text of the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources" (http://www.c
camlr.org/en/system/files/e-pt1.pdf) (PDF). ccamlr.org. Convention for the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources. 1972. Retrieved 23 January 2014.
123. "Unique ice pier provides harbor for ships," (http://antarcticsun.usap.gov/2005-2006/Documents/
01-08-2006_antarcticsun.pdf#page=3) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20070630113555/htt
p://antarcticsun.usap.gov/2005-2006/Documents/01-08-2006_antarcticsun.pdf) 30 June 2007 at
the Wayback Machine Antarctic Sun. 8 January 2006; McMurdo Station, Antarctica.
124. "S-23 Draft 2002" (https://web.archive.org/web/20140202105534/http://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/co
m_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.htm). www.iho.int. Archived from the
original (https://www.iho.int/mtg_docs/com_wg/S-23WG/S-23WG_Misc/Draft_2002/Draft_2002.ht
m) on 2 February 2014. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
125. "Golden Globe Race 2018 – YB Tracking Race Viewer" (http://yb.tl/ggr2018). yb.tl. Retrieved 3 May
2019.
126. "Volvo Ocean Race Tracker" (https://gis.ee/vor/?leg=7). gis.ee. Retrieved 3 May 2019.
Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878), "Antarctic Ocean" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_B
ritannica,_Ninth_Edition/Antarctic_Ocean), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 2 (9th ed.), New York:
Charles Scribner's Sons, p. 100
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911), "Great Southern Ocean" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclo
p%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Great_Southern_Ocean), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 12 (11th ed.),
Cambridge University Press, p. 422
Brindley, David, ed. (2014), "Antarctic Ocean, Austral Ocean, Southern Ocean" (http://stylemanual.
ngs.org/home/A/antarctic-ocean), Style Manual (http://stylemanual.ngs.org), Washington:
National Geographic Society, retrieved 31 July 2015.
Further reading
Arndt, JE et al.: The International Bathymetric Chart of the Southern Ocean Version 1.0 – A new
bathymetric compilation covering circum-Antarctic waters. Geophysical Research Letters, 40(9),
1–7, 2013. doi:10.1002/grl.50413
Gille, Sarah T.: Warming of the Southern Ocean since the 1950s. Science: Vol. 295 (no. 5558),
1275–1277, 2002. doi:10.1126/science.1065863
Descriptive Regional Oceanography, P. Tchernia, Pergamon Press, 1980, ISBN 978-0080209197.
Matthias Tomczak and J. Stuart Godfrey. 2003. Regional Oceanography: an Introduction. (see the
site (https://web.archive.org/web/20070630202249/http://www.es.flinders.edu.au/~mattom/rego
c/))
External links
The CIA World Factbook's (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/oceans/southern-ocean/)
entry on the Southern Ocean
The Fifth Ocean (http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.htm) Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20080906122032/http://geography.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.htm) 6
September 2008 at the Wayback Machine from Geography.About.com
International Hydrographic Organization (IHO): Limits of Oceans and Seas (https://hdl.handle.net/
10013/epic.37175) (2nd Edition), extant 1937 to 1953, with limits of Southern Ocean.
NOAA FAQ about the number of oceans (https://web.archive.org/web/20070313190338/http://finda
nswers.noaa.gov/noaa.answers/consumer/kbdetail.asp?kbid=595&start=121)
Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (http://www.ccamlr.org/)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_Ocean&oldid=1179535250"

Southern Ocean

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Southern Ocean

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

10/17/23, 3:49 PM Southern Ocean - Wikipedia

By way of his voyages in the 1770s, James Cook proved

The maximum depth of the Southern Ocean, using the

Definitions and use

degrees.[25] The Family Magazine in 1835 divided the "Great

The United Kingdom's South Australia Act 1834 described the

The detailed land-limits used were from Cape Horn in Chile

In the second edition, the Southern Ocean then extended from

2002 draft delineation

reservation had also been lodged by Australia regarding the

Despite this, the fourth edition definition has partial de facto

Other sources, such as the National Geographic Society,

A radical shift from past IHO practices (1928–1953) was

The new delineation of seas being subdivisions of oceans

History of exploration A map of Australia's official

Exploration of the Southern Ocean was inspired by a belief in the

South of the Antarctic Convergence

Edmond Halley's voyage in HMS Paramour for magnetic investigations

South of the Antarctic Circle

Cook then turned northward to look

First sighting of land

The first confirmed sighting of mainland Antarctica cannot be accurately

1683 map by French Samuel Dunn's 1794 General

A New Map of Asia, from the Freycinet Map of 1811 – resulted

1863 map of Australia shows 1906 map by German publisher

Map of The World in 1922 by the

Explorer James Clark Ross passed through what is now

1911 South Polar Regions exploration map

The Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959 and came

The first person to sail single-handed to Antarctica was the New

Sub-divisions of the Southern Ocean

Weddell Sea (57°18'W – 12°16'E)

Biggest seas in Southern Ocean

1. Weddell Sea – 2,800,000 km2 (1,100,000 sq mi)

Manganese nodules are expected to exist in the Southern Ocean.

dangerous. The remoteness of the region makes sources of search

An iceberg being pushed out of a

Antarctic Circumpolar Current and Antarctic

Ross and Weddell Gyres

Observation of the Southern Ocean is coordinated

Clouds over the Southern Ocean, with continent labels

The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands

The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern

The Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary of the International

Ports and harbors

Major operational ports include: Rothera Station,

Few ports or harbors exist on the southern (Antarctic)

38. "AHS – AA609582" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180313130704/http://www.hydro.gov.au/factsh

53. "South-Pole – Exploring Antarctica" (http://www.south-pole.com/p0000081.htm). South-Pole.com.

66. "What Is a Saildrone and How Does It Work?" (https://www.saildrone.com/news/what-is-saildron

94. Australian Antarctic Division. "Penguins" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/

105. Australian Antarctic Division. "Salps" (http://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/wildlife/ani

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Southern_Ocean&oldid=1179535250"

You might also like