GEOP 501

Chapter 2
Borehole Seismology

Dr. Abdullatif Al-Shuhail (KFUPM)

 Introduction

 Borehole seismology involves the recording of

seismic energy using one or more wells.

 The main benefits of borehole seismology are higher

resolution and less near-surface effects.

 Drawbacks of this method:

– Expensive because it requires drilling wells.
– Only near-well area (0.1 – 100 m) is sampled.
– Low spatial resolution because wells are usually drilled far
from each other.
 Types of Borehole Seismic Surveys

 Acoustic well logging

 Uphole

 Check shot

 Vertical seismic profiling

 Crosshole
 Acoustic Well Logging
 It involves recording the acoustic characteristics of
subsurface formations.
 This is done by measuring the time required for an
acoustic wave to travel a specific distance through a
formation.
 The travel time of the wave in a formation depends
on the following properties of the formation:
– Porosity
– Lithology
– Fluid content
 Acoustic Well Logging
Operation
 The main instrument used is called the sonde.
 A basic sonde consists of a source and two
receivers one-foot apart.
 The sonde is lowered down the borehole and waves
are generated and recorded continuously.
 The sonde is usually positioned in the borehole
center using centralizing springs.
 Frequencies used are in the range of 2 - 35 kHz.
 Typical investigation radius is 0.1 – 1.0 m.
Acoustic Well Logging
Sonde types
Acoustic Well Logging
Transit time
 Acoustic Well Logging
Interpretation
 The output log is a plot of transit time (t) versus
tool depth.
 The reciprocal of t gives the formation velocity
(Vr) at that depth.
 The total formation (sonic) porosity () is
calculated as:
1 / Vr  1 / Vs

1 / V f  1 / Vs
– Vr: formation velocity
– Vf: pore-fluid velocity (tabulated)
– Vs: rock-matrix velocity (tabulated)
Acoustic Well
Logging
Typical logs
Acoustic Well
Logging
Example
 Uphole Surveys

 It involves the recording of first arrivals along a

shallow well (50-100 m) that penetrates the
subweathering layer.
 Objective is estimating the velocity and thickness of
the weathering layer for use in static corrections.
 Two methods:
– Uphole survey: Sources are placed in the borehole at
known depths and a receiver is placed near the well head.
– Downhole survey: Receivers are placed in the borehole at
known depths and a source is placed near the well head.
 Uphole Surveys
Uphole survey
R
T
Z3 Z2 Z1 S1
S2
S3
Weathering
layer

Subweathering
layer
Z
 Uphole Surveys
Downhole survey
S
T
Z3 Z2 Z1 R1
R2
R3
Weathering
layer

Subweathering
layer
Z
 Uphole Surveys
Interpretation

 Interpretation of an uphole survey data includes the

following steps:
1. Picking the first arrivals from each depth level
2. Applying any necessary corrections to these times
3. Plotting the data on a T-Z plot
4. Identification of various layers
5. Fitting lines to the T-Z dataset of each layer
6. Computing the velocity and thickness of each layer
 Uphole Surveys
Interpretation
 The following corrections are generally required:
– Conversion to absolute time
– Conversion to vertical time

 Conversion to absolute time involves checking for

possible system delays as well as data
extrapolation.

 Conversion to vertical time involves the

computation of vertical time from the measured
slant time.
 Uphole Surveys
Interpretation

 Picked times represent rays that traveled along

slanted paths. S X S

 We need time along a vertical path.

 The correction formula is:
ZTS
TV 
Z

Z2  X 2
– TV: vertical (corrected) time
R
– TS: slanted (measured) time
– Z: receiver depth, X: shot offset from well head
– This formula is correct for a flat surface and a
surface shot.
 Uphole Surveys
Interpretation
T T T

Layer 1 T1 = Z / V1
Thickness
of layer 1
Layer 1

Layer 2 Layer 2
T2 = T02 + Z / V2
Z Z Z
Plot T-Z data and Fit lines to T-Z dataset Estimate thickness
identify layers by of each layer and velocity of layers
grouping points lying
along a common slope
 Uphole Surveys
Examples
 Raw downhole survey traces with first-break picks
 Uphole Surveys
Examples
 The following is a T-Z table of an actual uphole
survey after corrections.
Z (ft) T (ms) Z (ft) T (ms) Z (ft) T (ms)
15 3.8 165 24.3 315 34.8
30 7.3 180 25.4 330 35.7
45 13.1 195 26.3 345 37
60 15.3 210 27.9 360 38.2
75 17.3 225 28.8 375 38.9
90 18.5 240 29.8 390 39.5
105 20.1 255 30.9 405 41
120 21.1 270 31.8 420 42
135 22.1 285 33.1 435 42.9
150 23.4 300 33.5
 Uphole Surveys
Example
 The following is an interpretation of this uphole
survey: 50
45

40

35

V1 = 3,785 ft/s 30 y = 0.0703x + 12.65

Weathering-layer R2 = 0.9985
T (ms)

V2 = 14,261 ft/s 25 thickness = 65 ft

H1 = 65 ft 20

15

10 y = 0.2642x
2
R = 0.9737
5

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Z (ft)
 Check Shot Surveys

 It involves the recording of first arrivals along a well

that penetrates fairly deep target layers.
 Objective is estimating the velocity and thickness of
subsurface layers.
 It is performed using receivers that are placed in the
borehole at known depths and a source that is placed
near the well head.
 It is similar to a downhole survey but using a deeper
well and larger receiver spacing.
 Check Shot Surveys
S
Interval Velocity
Z3 Z2 Z1

R1

R2

R3

Z
 Check Shot Surveys
Interpretation

 Interpretation of a check-shot survey data includes

the following steps:
1. Picking the first arrivals from each depth level
2. Applying any necessary corrections to these times
3. Calculating the interval velocity between each successive
receivers
4. Computing the RMS velocity profile
 Check Shot Surveys
Interpretation

 Correction from slant to vertical times may be

neglected because depths are large compared to
shot offset.
 The interval velocity between two successive
receivers (Ri, Ri+1) is calculated as:
Z
Vi 
Tvi
 Z: receiver spacing
 Tvi: difference in vertical time from datum
to receivers (Ri, Ri+1)
 Check Shot Surveys
Interpretation
 The RMS velocity to the bottom of the Nth layer is
calculated as:
N

 i Tvi
V 2

VRMS N  i 1
N

 T
i 1
vi

 Vi: interval velocity within the ith interval

 Tvi: vertical time within the ith interval
 This RMS profile is comparable to the RMS profile
found by velocity analysis of surface seismic data.
 Check Shot Surveys
Interpretation
Interval Velocity RMS Velocity

Z Z
Calculate interval velocity Calculate RMS velocity
 Check Shot Surveys
Examples

 Raw traces of a check-shot survey

 Check Shot Surveys
Examples
 The following is a T-Z plot of an actual check-shot
survey after necessary corrections.

T (ms)
0 250 500 750 1000 1250
0

3000

6000
Z (ft)

9000

12000

15000
 Check Shot Surveys
Example
 The following is a plot of Vi-Z:

Vi (ft/s)
5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000
0

3000

6000
Z (ft)

9000

12000

15000
 Check Shot Surveys
Example
 The following is a plot of VRMS-Z:

VRMS (ft/s)
5000 7000 9000 11000 13000 15000
0

3000

6000
Z (ft)

9000

12000

15000
 Check Shot VRMS (ft/s)

11000

13000

15000
5000

7000

9000
Surveys 0.00
Example 0.25

0.50

0.75

TWTT (s)
1.00
 The following is a plot of
VRMS-TWTT: 1.25

1.50

1.75

2.00

2.25
 Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP)

 It involves the recording and analysis of several

arrivals along a well that penetrates target layers.

 Objective is estimating the velocity and thickness of

subsurface layers.

 It is performed using receivers that are placed in the

borehole at known depths and sources that are placed
on the ground surface.
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Geometry
S
D Z=H Z

Downgoing T=D/V
wave TZ/V

TH/V
H Z
R Upgoing wave

V TT0-Z/V
Layer 1 T=T0 =2H/V

Layer 2

T
 Vertical Seismic Profile
The Direct Wave
 The direct wave arrives at the receiver as a
downgoing wave with the following T-Z curve:

D2  Z 2
Td 
V

 This is the equation of a hyperbola that approximates

a line (TZ/V) as D2/Z2 << 1, which is typical in
exploration VSP surveys.
 Vertical Seismic Profile
The Reflected Wave
 The reflected wave arrives at the receiver as an
upgoing wave with the following T-Z curve:

D 2  (2 H  Z ) 2
Tr 
V
 This is the equation of a hyperbola that approximates
a line (T2H/V-Z/V) as D2/Z2 << 1, which is typical
in exploration VSP surveys.
 The depth at which the T-Z curves of the direct and
reflected waves intersect is the layer thickness.
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Processing
 Processing steps specific to VSP include:
1. Correction for tool rotation and well deviation
2. Deconvolution of upgoing wave by downgoing wave
3. Separation of the downgoing and upgoing waves
4. Moveout correction of the primary upgoing event by:
1. Adding the downgoing wave time to the same depth if the source
offset is small compared to the depth
2. Using ray tracing if the source offset is comparable to the depth
 The product will be a seismic section that is readily
comparable with stacked surface seismic sections.
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Processing
 Transformation to surface-seismic two-way time
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Processing
 Separation of upgoing and downgoing waves and
transformation of upgoing wave from VSP to
surface-seismic display
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Processing
 Deconvolution of upgoing wave after
transformation from VSP to surface-seismic display
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Advantages and Disadvantages
 The main advantages of VSP are:
1. High resolution (usable frequency up to 250 Hz)
2. Better control on multiples
3. Better control on attenuation effects
4. Ability to study converted waves
5. Ability to study areas closely below and above an
interface
 The main disadvantages of VSP are:
1. Need a fairly deep borehole
2. Samples only rocks near the borehole (10-100 m)
Vertical Seismic Profile
Zero-offset VSP
Vertical Seismic Profile
VSP types
Vertical Seismic Profile
More VSP types
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Examples
 A typical seismic section of a zero-offset VSP
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Examples
 A typical seismic section of a walkaway VSP
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Examples
 3-C VSP survey
 Vertical Seismic Profile
Examples
 VSP section
dominated by tube
wave
 Tube wave is a wave
that travels along the
borehole axis with a
speed that is lower
than the P-wave in
rocks surrounding
the borehole.
 Crosshole Survey
 It involves two nearby wells (< 1 km), one is used
for sources and the other for receivers.
 It gives a detailed model of the rocks between the
wells, especially if tomography is used.
 Advantages include:
– It bypasses the problems of the near surface because the
source and receivers are below the weathering layer.
– It delivers high –frequency data (~ kHz) leading to very
high spatial resolution of the derived model.
– Availability of shear and converted waves.
 Crosshole Survey
Operation
 The source is fired at the lowest depth and the
receivers are allowed to record.
 The process is repeated after lowering the source
while holding the receivers depths constant.
 The receivers depths may be changed in order to
have better subsurface coverage.
 Crosshole Survey
Processing and Interpretation
 Data processing of reflected P-waves involves:
– Removal of direct waves
– Separation of downgoing and upgoing reflected P-wave
– CDP mapping using ray tracing
 Interpretation of crosshole data involves:
– Construction of detailed S- and P-wave velocity structure
between wells using all arrival types and/or tomography
– Construction of depth-offset seismic section from all shot
records
Crosshole Survey
Velocity computation
Crosshole Survey
Application
Crosshole Survey
Example
 Crosshole Survey
Processing – raw receiver
gather (at depth 1392 m)
 Crosshole Survey
Processing – after direct-
waves removal
 Crosshole Survey
Processing – Separation to downgoing and upgoing
reflected P-wave sections
Upgoing Downgoing
 Crosshole
Survey
Processing – CDP
mapping
 Crosshole Survey
Interpretation – construction of depth-offset
seismic section
 Crosshole Survey
Interpretation – end result of crosshole
tomography