Proceedings of National Conference Without Crop 11

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.
net/publication/359187170
A BRIEF VISIT TO THE LANDSCAPE OF CLOUD DDOS ATTACKS
Conference Paper · October 2019
CITATION READS
1 196
2 authors:
Rajkumar Batchu Amogh Katti

PVP Siddhartha Institute of Technology GITAM University
5 PUBLICATIONS 22 CITATIONS 10 PUBLICATIONS 53 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
DDoS attacks in cloud computing View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Rajkumar Batchu on 12 March 2022.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

RECENT ADVANCES
IN COMPUTER BASED
SYSTEMS,
RECENT PROCESSES
ADVANCES IN
AND APPLICATIONS
COMPUTER BASED
SYSTEMS, PROCESSES AND
APPLICATIONS
Edited by
Anupama Namburu
PROCEEDINGS
Soubhagya SankarOF RECENT ADVANCES IN COMPUTER
Barpanda
BASED SYSTEMS, PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS
(RACSPA-2019), OCTOBER21-22, 2019
Edited by
Anupama Namburu
and Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda
PROCEEDINGS OF NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON RECENT ADVANCES
IN COMPUTER BASED SYSTEMS, PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS
(RACSPA-2019), VELLORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, AMARAVATI, INDIA,
22–23 OCTOBER 2019
RECENT ADVANCES
IN COMPUTER BASED
SYSTEMS, PROCESSES
AND APPLICATIONS
Edited by
Anupama Namburu
Vellore Institute of Technology - Andhra Pradesh
Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda

Vellore Institute of Technology - Andhra Pradesh
First published 2020
by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
and by CRC Press

6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2020 selection and editorial matter, Anupama Namburu and Soubhagya Sankar
Barpanda; individual chapters, the contributors
CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited
The right of Anupama Namburu and Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda to be identified as the
authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been
asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act
1988.
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the
author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the
consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if
permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not
been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any
form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented,
including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, access www.
copyright.com or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400. For works that are not available on CCC please
contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Print edition not for sale in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan or
Bhutan).
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
ISBN: 978-1-003-04398-0 (ebk)

Recent Advances in Computer based Systems, Processes And Applications
© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-003-04398-0
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword vii

Committees ix

About the Editors xi
Computer Based Systems 1
01. A Short Survey of Dimensionality Reduction Techniques 3

V. Lakshmi Chetana, Soma Sekhar Kolisetty and K. Amogh
02. A Brief Visit to the Landscape of Cloud DDoS Attacks 15

B. Raj kumar and Amogh Katti
03. Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models 27

Sudhakar Putheti and Kurmala Gowri Raghavendra Narayan
Computer Based Processes 33
04. Range Doppler ISAR Imaging using Chirp Pulse 35

G. V. Sai Swetha, P. Anjali Reddy and Dr. A. Naga Jyothi
05. Trust-Based Hybrid Ids for Rushing Attacks in Wireless Mesh Networks 49
K. Ganesh Reddy and P. Santhi Thilagam
06.
Text Mining from Internet Resources using Information
Retrieval Techniques 59
Z. Sunitha Bai1, Dr. M. Sreelatha
07. Image Based Centroid Selection for Clustering 73

Gagan Kumar Koduru, Prof. Nageswara Rao Kuda and
Anupama Namburu
Computer Based Applications 79
08.
Single Valued Triangular Neutrosophic Fuzzy C-Means for
Mr Brain Image Segmentation 81
Anupama Namburu, Sibi chakkaravarthy, Meenalosini Vimal Cruz
and Hari Seetha
09. Real-Time 2D Avatar Lip Syncing for the on Demand Interactive Chatbots 89
Venkata Susmitha Lalam, Abhinav Dayal, Sajid Vali Rehman Sheik
and Vinay Kumar Adabala
v
Table of contents
10. DCNN-SVM: A New Approach for Lung Cancer Detection 97

Bibhuprasad Sahu, Amrutanshu Panigrahi and Dr. Saroj Kumar Rout
11.
Multimodal Medical Image Fusion Based on Gradient Domain
Guided Image Filter 107
K. Vanitha, D. Satyanarayana and M. N. Giri Prasad
12. A Brief Analysis on the Top Performing Companies Across the Globe 117
Kalluri Lakshmi Prathyush and Hari Kishan Kondaveeti
13. Smart Home Security System 127

Vemireddy Sai sindhu reddy, P. V. K. Sai and Anupama Namburu
14. Brain Tumour Classification using Convolution Neural Networks 135

Prathibha Goriparthi, Srinu Madhav V. and Narendra M.
15.
Prediction of Crop Yield using Deep Learning Techniques:
A Concise Review 145
Geetha Pratyusha Miriyala and Arun Kumar Sinha
16.
Design of Mems Model to Study the Radiation Effects
on Brain Tumour 161
Shameem syed, Arunmetha S., Sri Haritha C.H., Chandana Sindhu G.
and Sambasivarao K.
17.
An Improved Telecommunication Churn Prediction System
by PPFCM Clustering Hybrid Model 169
Vijaya J., Srimathi S., Karthikeyan S. and Siddarth S.
18. Grammar Expert an Automated Essay Scoring Application 177

Vikash Varma Sayyaparaju, Ramya Bhargavi Pichukala,
Vidyadhari Tummalapalli and Abhinav Dayal,
Index 185
FOREWORD
On behalf of organising committee, we welcome you to the first annual conference on

Recent Advances in computer based systems, processes and Applications (RACSPA
2019), held on 21st–22nd October 2019. This is the first conference organized by
the school of Computer Science Engineering in VIT-AP University campus with
the cumulative efforts of all the faculty members. We are very ambitious with this
conference as in coming years, we are planning for organising this conference at
international level, with paper indexing in reputed publishing house.
The RACSPA-2019 shall create an environment to discuss recent advancements
and novel ideas in areas of interest. During the conference participants will have
opportunities to discuss issues, ideas and work that focus on a topic of mutual concern.
Presentations can cover topics such as advances in computer based systems, processes
and Applications. With the valuable contribution of renowned personalities in the ﬁeld,
five keynotes will be included in the conference of the RACSPA-2019. We strongly
say that the participants will revive with new ideas of research. We have selected 23
papers for the two days sessions with high quality with thorough plagiarism check and
reviews. 18 papers will be published in Taylor and Francis proceedings; selected and
extended papers will publish in Scopus indexed journal.
We thank our management for supporting us in conducting the conference. We are
very grateful to Vice-Chancellor VIT-AP, Prof. D. Subhakar and Management of VIT-
AP, for their support and encouragement to RACSPA 2019; we extend our heartfelt
thanks to the advisory board for their suggestion and support. We extend our deep
sense of gratitude to the keynote speakers for sharing and motivating the participants
with the keynote address. We wish all a productive, stimulating conference and a
memorable stay at the conference.
Organizing committee
School of computer science engineering
Vellore Institute of Technology-Andhra Pradesh, University Amaravati,
Andhra Pradesh, India
vii
COMMITTEES
CHAIR
• Dr. Anupama Namburu, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
CO-CHAIR
• Dr. Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
PROGRAM CHAIR
• Dr. Amogh katti, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
TECHNICAL COMMITTEE
• Dr. Hari Seetha, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. Pradeep Reddy, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Srinivas battula, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. D. Nagaraju, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. D. Sumati, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Ravi Sankar Sangam, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Vijaya J., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Sibi Chakkaravarthy S., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
ORGANIZING COMMITTEE
• Dr. Nandh Kumar R., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Ms. Garima Singh, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Ms. Ashwini Umakant Rahangdale, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Shruti Mishra, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Dr. Aravapalli Rama Satish, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Ravi Sankar Barpanda, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Asish Kumar Dalai, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Saroj Kumar Panigrahy, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Sudhakar Ilango S., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Prabha Selvaraj, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Balu Laxman Parne, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. BKSP Kumarraju Alluri, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Mallikharjuna Rao, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Ganesh Reddy Karri, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
ix
Committees
• Dr. K. Gokulnath, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Mr. Hari Kishan Kondaveeti, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Jonnadula Harikiran, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Abhijit Adhikhari, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Sibi Chakkaravarthy S, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Ms. Deepasikha Mishra, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Sandipan Maiti, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Dr. Sunil kumar singh, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Nitesh Asaramji Funde, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Karthikeyan S., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Ajith Jubilson E., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
• Mr. Hussain Sayed, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
WEBSITE AND DIGITAL MEDIA
• R. Balaji Programmer, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Ravi Kumar Thota, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh
ABOUT THE EDITORS
Anupama Namburu has received her doctoral degree

from the Department of Computer Science & Engineering,
Jawaharlal Nehru technical university, kakinada, India.
She has completed her M. Tech degree from the Andhra
University. She has worked as Sr. Software Engineer in
Wipro Technologies, Hyderabad for 4 years. Her research
interests include Image processing, soft computing and
fuzzy systems. She has published research articles in many
journals and conferences of international repute. Currently, she is working as an
associate professor in the School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP
University, Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh India.
Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda has received his doctoral

degree from the Department of Computer Science &
Engineering, National Institute of Technology Rourkela,
India. He has completed his M. Tech degree from the same
institute. His research interests include biometric security
and classical image processing. He has published research
articles in many journals and conferences of international
repute. Currently, he is working as an associate professor
in the School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-
AP University Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh India.
xi
Computer Based Systems
A Short Survey of Dimensionality Reduction Techniques

V. Lakshmi Chetana, Soma Sekhar Kolisetty and K. Amogh
Brief Visit to the Landscape of Cloud DDoS Attacks

Rajkumar Batchu and Amogh Katti
Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models.

Sudhakar Putheti and Kurmala Gowri Raghavendra Narayan
1 A SHORT SURVEY OF DIMENSIONALITY

REDUCTION TECHNIQUES
V. Lakshmi Chetana1, Soma Sekhar Kolisetty1 and K. Amogh2

School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University,
1,2
Amaravati - 522 237, Andhra Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT: Advancement in data collection has increased the availability of high-

dimensional data. High dimensional data results in data overload which makes the storage
and processing complex. Most of the data mining and machine learning algorithms use
dimensionality reduction techniques. Dimensionality reduction techniques convert the
high -dimensional feature space to low-dimensional feature space to ease the storage
and processing of the data. It further enhances the scalability of the machine learning
algorithms. In this paper, we discuss various dimensionality reduction techniques used to
reduce the feature space.
Keywords: Dimensionality reduction, Data reduction, Feature relection, Feature extraction,

Scalability
I. INTRODUCTION
High-Dimensional data leads to data overload and plays an important role in many
scientific and research applications. It considerably escalates the computational time
and storage space requirements of data processing [1]. Many data mining and machine
learning algorithms use dimensionality reduction to transform high dimensional
space to low-dimensional space. Text categorization, image classification, intrusion
detection, genome analysis, etc., are some of the applications where dimensionality
reduction techniques are most commonly used. The dimensions of the pre-processed
data usually are columns (features), rows (samples) and values for a feature. So, the
three basic operations of dimensionality reduction, in general, would be deleting a row
or a column and reducing the number of values for a column (by smoothing or binning).
In this paper, we focus on column-based dimensionality reduction techniques.
A feature is an individual and significant property of the input data that is
considered for data analysis. It can also be called as column, attribute, characteristic
or variable of a data set. The cardinality of features in a dataset is called its
dimensionality. Most of the real-world applications do not require all the features
of the high-dimensional data space because it may contain redundant, irrelevant
and noisy data. Dimensionality reduction is effective in compressing the features by
eliminating irrelevant and redundant data, which in turn improves the efficiency and
performance of the model [2]. According to Bellman, as the dimensionality of the
3
Recent Advances in Computer based Systems, Processes and Applications
input data increases, the number of samples to be considered while training a model
increases exponentially. This phenomenon is called “Curse of Dimensionality” which
was coined in 1961. Most of the datasets with the so-called “large 𝑝, small 𝑛” problem
(where 𝑝 is the number of features and 𝑛 is the number of samples) have more chances
of overfitting [3,8]. An overfitted model makes the training model complex and results
in poor performance. To address the curse of dimensionality, the pre-processing
step introduced in high dimensional data analysis, visualization, and modeling is
dimensionality reduction [4].
Apart from relevance, redundancy, and noise in the input data, most of the machine
learning algorithms suffer from scalability problems due to the ever-increasing data
size. Scalability is the capability of handling large scale high-dimensional data.
For example, consider a recommendation engine that helps to personalize items
to the users. Applications like Amazon, Netflix, LinkedIn, Facebook, Spotify, etc.,
personalize items to its users using some machine learning algorithms. But these
algorithms may not be scalable when the size of the users and items increase [5].
Similarly, in a fault-tolerant large-scale distributed system, it becomes very critical
to find the faulty node from the cluster when the number of nodes in a cluster is
extremely large [6]. The scalability problem affects the processing speed, accuracy,
and performance of the learning algorithm. Dimensionality reduction techniques can
deal with scalability problems and help to produce fast and accurate results.
The major goals of dimensionality reduction in machine learning are 1) To
remove noisy, missing and redundant data. 2) To reduce the requirement of storage
space. 3) To enable the speed of the learning model. 4) To build a model with better
accuracy. 5) To decrease the model complexity. 6) To reduce overfitting. 7) To permit
the visualization of the data and observe their patterns more clearly.
II. APPROACHES TO DIMENSIONALITY REDUCTION
The two most common types of dimensionality reduction techniques are feature
selection and feature extraction, which is shown in Figure.1. Feature selection is a
process of reducing the dimensional space by selecting the relevant subset of features
for the analysis while feature extraction is a process of generating novel features by
combining or transforming the existing ones [3].
A. Feature Selection
Feature selection can be generally viewed as a search problem and it is defined as the
process of selecting an optimal feature subset based on some criteria from the input
feature set [7]. An optimal subset consists of a relevant and non-redundant features
set that improves the performance of the model. The selection of the feature subset is
based on Occam’s Razor concept [8]. It is a problem-solving principle which states
that “select the simplest among various competing hypothesis that make the same
predictions and with less assumptions”, i.e., the optimal feature set from various
4
feature subsets should be preferred and it is considered to be the best subset for
prediction [9]. Let X = {x1,x2,…xn} be the dimensions of the initial data. Now, the
task of feature selection is to find the best subset Y = {y1,y2,…ym} where m<n, that
optimizes the model. Feature selection has to evaluate 2n subsets (along with the empty
set) to find the optimal set of features. For large values of ‘n’, it is computationally
expensive and is considered as an NP-hard problem. The feature selection process
shown in Figure.2 typically involves the following steps: 1) Subset Generation,
2) Subset Evaluation, 3) Stopping Criterion, and 4) Result Validation [10].
Figure 1. Classification of dimensionality reduction techniques
i. Subset generation
In this step, candidate-feature subsets are produced using a search strategy. In many
cases, it is considered as an NP-hard problem. Some of the search strategies in the
literature are complete, sequential and random.
In a complete search, an optimal solution is found by considering all the
possible subsets. However, if the number of features increases, this process becomes
computationally expensive and hence heuristic methods like a branch and bound
techniques are used to find the optimal solution.
Sequential search strategies are greedy based techniques. The two familiar
sequential search strategies are sequential forward selection and sequential backward
elimination. In sequential forward selection, the subset starts with an empty features
set which is considered as a reduced set. The best feature is chosen from the initial
feature space and is added to the reduced set. At each subsequent step, a new feature
is added to the reduced set. This process continues until all the necessary features are
added that makes the objective function optimal. Sequential backward elimination is
similar to forward feature selection but the only difference is that it begins with the
initial feature space. At each step, the worst feature is removed, which improves the
performance of the model. A feature is considered as the best or worst depending on
the criteria used during the evaluation step of feature selection.
5
Figure 2. Control flow of feature subset selection

The result of the above two methods is suboptimal and suffers from a “nesting
effect”. It means that in Sequential Forward Selection (SFS), a feature once selected
cannot be discarded and in Sequential Backward Elimination (SBE), a feature once
discarded cannot be reselected [11]. To prevent the nesting effect of features, two
other techniques called Sequential Floating Forward Selection (SFFS) and Sequential
Floating Backward Selection (SFBS) methods are introduced and discussed in [11].
These are more flexible than the previous methods as an additional backtracking step
is added. The Plus-L-Minus-r is another approach that surpass the nesting effect. In
this technique, at each cycle, L variables were added and r variables were removed
until the suitable subset is attained. The parameters L and r are randomly selected [12].
The major problem with this technique is, there is no theoretical way of predicting
the values of L and r to achieve the optimal feature subset [11]. Sequential search
strategies are more prone to local optima and overfitting. To circumvent these issues,
random search strategies are used. In random search, subsets are generated at random
and the search process may be either deterministic or non-deterministic.
ii. Subset evaluation
In this step, the feature subsets generated from the first phase are evaluated using some
evaluation criterion for their goodness. Based on the way the features are evaluated,
the feature selection techniques are of three types: Filter Methods, Wrapper Methods,
and Embedded Methods.
Filter method is a pre-processing step to optimize a learning algorithm. In this
method, undesirable features are eliminated before applying them. Features that
satisfy the selection criteria are considered as desired features otherwise, they are
undesirable. These are independent of the learning algorithms and they use the
6
information, correlation and instance-based approaches to select features. The filtering

techniques are classified into Univariate and Multivariate schemes, based on the
number of features involved during the selection process. The process of filter-based
feature selection is depicted in Figure.3.
Figure 3. Filter process

In a univariate scheme, individual feature is evaluated while in the multivariate scheme
two or more features are evaluated as a group [13]. Some of the univariate filtering
methods in the literature are entropy [14], information gain [15], Mutual Information [14],
Gini-index [16], Chi-square test [17], Pearson’s correlation [18], Fisher Score [13],
Relief [19], Relative Discriminant Criteria (RDC) [20] and some of the multi-
variate methods are Minimum Redundancy and Maximum Relevance (mRmR) [21],
Multi-Variate Relative Discriminant Criteria (MRDC) [13]. Entropy, Information
gain, Gini Index, Mutual Information are information theory-based filtering methods.
Pearson’s Correlation, Chi-square Test are correlation-based techniques and Relief and
Fisher Score are instance-based feature selection methods. Filter methods are simple,
computationally efficient and the result is zero biased to the learning algorithm. But
the disadvantage is, as the dimensionality of the input space increases, subset selection
using complete search becomes complex.
In the wrapper method, feature selection is done based on a learning algorithm.
This method was popularized by Kohavi and John in 1997 [22]. The search strategy is
wrapped by the learning algorithm and the candidate subsets are evaluated based on
its accuracy. Feature subsets that maximize the accuracy and minimizes the error are
selected by the learning algorithm. In literature [13], given a learning algorithm, the
wrapper method involves the below mentioned steps:
Step-1: Generating candidate feature subsets.

Step-2: Evaluate the subsets based on the performance of a learning algorithm.
Step-3: Repeat steps 1 & 2 until the required quality is reached.
The process of wrapper-based feature selection is depicted in Figure. 4.
7
Figure 4. Wrapper process

Depending on the search strategy used, wrapper methods are of two types:
sequential and randomized. Sequential wrapper methods use sequential search
techniques to find the optimal subsets before applying them to learning algorithms
for evaluation.
Some of the sequential methods in the literature are Sequential Forward
Selection (SFS) [23], Sequential Backward Elimination (SBE) [23], Recursive
Feature Elimination [23]. Sequential algorithms are computationally less expensive
and work well with smaller data sets. But, for the larger datasets, sequential
algorithms are considered to be low in performance. Hence, for selecting the
features in larger datasets, randomized methods are used. They select the features
in a random manner. Some of the randomized wrapper methods are Genetic
Algorithms [24, 25] and Simulated Annealing [26]. Most of the randomized
algorithms are either deterministic or non-deterministic. The main drawback of
the wrapper method is, it is computationally expensive and time-consuming for
high-dimensional problems. As the entire process is dependent on the learning
algorithm, it may lead to overfitting.
Embedded methods use both filter and wrapper methods by combining their
advantages. The idea of embedded method is, to make use of wrapper approach on
the features that were selected by the filter approach [26]. First, several candidate
subsets are generated using filter method. Second, it selects subsets whose learning
model accuracy is high [27]. The search strategy and the learning algorithm are
embedded as a single optimization problem and the process of embedded-based
feature selection is shown in Figure. 5 These methods are computationally better
than wrappers and filters.
8
Figure 5. Embedding process

In literature [13], embedding is done in three ways. The first type is pruning methods.
These methods train the learning algorithm with all the features and start eliminating
each feature iteratively based on its accuracy. Some of the examples of the first
type are Support Vector Machine-Recursive Feature Elimination (SVM-RFE) [27],
Random Forest-Recursive Feature Elimination (RF-RFE) [28], Support Vector
Machine-Genetic Algorithm (SVM-GA) [29]. The second type of methods are feature
selection methods like Decision Trees (ID3 [30], C4.5 [31]), Random Forests [32].
The third type is regularization models that optimize the objective function of the
learning model and minimizes the error in fitting the model. Compared to the above
two types, regularization models are good in performance and attract much attention
these days. Some of the regularization models are LASSO Regression [33], RIDGE
Regression [34, 35], ElasticNet [36].
iii. Stopping criteria
This step decides when the feature selection procedure should terminate. The most
commonly used termination criteria are: 1) the search process may be completed,
2) the given threshold value is reached, 3) the accuracy of the algorithm is reducing
further if the process is continuing and 4) subsequent addition and removal of feature
do not produce a good optimal subset.
iv. Result validation
The model generated from the above three steps is tested using unknown data for
validation. The accuracy of the learning algorithm is calculated and compared.
9
B. Feature Extraction
The second type of dimensionality reduction is feature extraction which is also named
as feature transformation. As the input feature space is too large to be processed and
as the values of the input feature space is expected to be redundant, the feature space
is transformed into a reduced set of features which is called feature extraction. Let
X = {x1, x2, x3,… xn} be the input feature set. Feature extraction uses some function
mapping F to generate a new set of feature set Y = {y1, y2, y3,... ym} and it is represented
as follows:
Yi = F ( X 1 , X 2 ..... X n )
Based on the type of function F, feature extraction techniques are classified into two
types: Linear and Non-Linear. Linear techniques aim to reduce the dimensionality
of data that are linear combinations of the actual dimensions. Nonlinear techniques
focus on decreasing data dimensions by nonlinear combinations of the actual
dimensions [4].
i. Linear methods
If the variables of the new feature space are obtained by a linear combination
of variables of input feature space, then it is defined as linear feature extraction.
A lot of research has been done by many researchers, but the most commonly
used linear feature extraction methods are Principle Component Analysis (PCA)
[37, 38, 40], Independent Component Analysis (ICA) [39], Linear Discriminant
Analysis (LDA) [40, 41], Factor Analysis [40], Generalized Discriminant Analysis
(GDA) [40, 41], Fisher Discriminant Analysis (FDA) [40], Canonical Correlation
Analysis (CCA) [40, 43], Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) [42, 44], Matrix
Factorization [45].
ii. Non-Linear Methods
Mostly, real-world data sets are randomly spread and analyzing such data sets using
linear feature extraction methods may ignore some of the relevant features. This may
lead to inaccurate results by the learning algorithm. To thwart such issues, non-linear
feature extraction methods are introduced.
If the variables of a new feature space are generated by a non-linear
combination of variables of input feature space, then it is considered as non-linear
feature extraction. Some of the non-linear feature extraction methods found in the
literature are Multi-Dimensional Scaling [46], Kernel Fisher Discriminant Analysis
(KFDA) [46], Locally Linear Embedding (LLE) [47, 50], Isomap [48, 49, 50],
Kernel Principle Component Analysis (KPCA) [50], Laplacian Eigenmaps [50],
t-distributed Stochastic Neighbor Embedding (t-SNE) [50, 51], Sammon’s mapping
[50], Auto encoders [50].
10
III. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
Advancements in data collection methods lead to the availability of heterogeneous

and high-dimensional data. Most of the high-dimensional data consists of irrelevant
and redundant data which gives inaccurate results on processing. The processing
time of the algorithm increases with the increase in dimensions of the data. So,
Dimensionality reduction techniques are used as a pre-processing step to eliminate
irrelevant, redundant and noisy data. Feature selection and feature extraction are the
two types of dimensionality reduction.
Feature selection is a process of generating an optimal subset of features with
high relevance and low redundancy. Subset generation, subset evaluation, stopping
criterion, and result validation are the four major steps involved in feature selection.
First, various subsets are generated from the initial set of features i.e., if the dataset
consists of ‘n’ dimensions then the number of subsets that can be generated will be
‘2n’. Second, the optimal subset is selected from these ‘2n’ subsets based on some
selection criteria. Filter, wrapper and embedded methods evaluate the feature subsets
to find the optimal subset. The filter method uses complete search strategy and filters
the initial set of features by using some ranking/ weighing methods. It does not use
any learning algorithm. Wrapper methods wrap the searching process around some
learning algorithm to select a subset of features. Embedded methods use both wrapper
and filter methods to select the features. Third, the evaluation process stops once the
criteria is reached. And, finally, the model is tested on unknown datasets for validation.
Generating new features from the existing features by some transformation/
function is called feature extraction. If the function is a linear combination of existing
features, then it is called linear feature extraction otherwise, it is considered as non-
linear feature extraction. Linear methods do not promote high accuracy for most of
the applications. Non-linear methods give better accuracy compared to linear methods
even though they are complex to implement.
Existing dimensionality reduction techniques do not scale well with the over-
whelmed data generated by the present real-time applications. It is becoming hectic to
process such large volumes of data in a sequential manner. Recent improvements in
high-performance and high-throughput computing enables the researchers to propose
a parallel framework for dimensionality reduction techniques for handling large-scale
data. It improves the overall efficiency or performance of the model.
REFERENCES
1. J. Gui, Z. Sun, S. Ji, S. Member, D. Tao, and T. Tan, “Feature Selection Based on Structured
Sparsity : A Comprehensive Study,” IEEE Trans. Neural Networks Learn. Syst., vol. 28,
no. 7, pp. 1490–1507, 2017.
2. S. Khalid, T. Khalil, and S. Nasreen, “A survey of feature selection and feature extraction
techniques in machine learning,” Proc. 2014 Sci. Inf. Conf. SAI 2014, pp. 372–378, 2014.
11
3. M. Labani, P. Moradi, F. Ahmadizar, and M. Jalili, “A novel multivariate filter method

for feature selection in text classification problems,” Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell., vol. 70, no.
November 2016, pp. 25–37, 2018.
4. Kantardzic, M. (2011). Data Mining: Concepts, Models, and Algorithms.
5. X. Su and T. M. Khoshgoftaar, “A Survey of Collaborative Filtering Techniques,” Adv.
Artif. Intell., vol. 2009, no. Section 3, pp. 1–19, 2009.
6. A. Katti, G. Di Fatta, T. Naughton, and C. Engelmann, “Scalable and fault tolerant failure
detection and consensus,” ACM Int. Conf. Proceeding Ser., vol. 21–23-September-2015,
2015.
7. H. Liu and H. Motoda, Feature Extraction, Construction and Selection: A Data Mining
Perspective. 1998.
8. Z. M. Hira and D. F. Gillies, “A Review of Feature Selection and Feature Extraction
Methods Applied on Microarray Data,” Adv. Bioinformatics, vol. 2015, no. 1, pp. 1–13,
2015.
9. P. Domingos, “The Role of Occam’s Razor in Knowledge Discovery,” Data Min. Knowl.
Discov., vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 409–425, 1999.
10. H. Liu, S. Member, L. Yu, and S. Member, “Toward Integrating Feature Selection
Algorithms for Classification and Clustering,” Knowl. Creat. Diffus. Util., vol. 17, no. 4,
pp. 491–502, 2005.
11. P. Pudil, J. Novovieova, and J. Kittler, “Floating search methods in feature selection,”
Pattern Recognit. Lett., no. June 1993, pp. 365–366, 1994.
12. G. Chandrashekar and F. Sahin, “A survey on feature selection methods,” Comput. Electr.
Eng., vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 16–28, 2014.
13. H. L. Jiliang Tang, Salem Alelyani, ‘Feature Selection for Classification : A Review’, Data
Classif. Algorithms Appl., pp. 37–64, 2014.
14. T. M. Cover, J. A. Thomas, D. L. Schilling, J. Bellamy, and R. L. Freeman, Elements of
Information Theory, 2nd Editio. Wiley Series in Telecommunications, 1991.
15. L. Liu, J. Kang, J. Yu, and Z. Wang, “Comparative Study on Unsupervised Feature Selection
Methods for Text Clustering A- f - Liu et al. - 2005.pdf,” vol. 00, pp. 597–601, 2005.
16. W. Shang, H. Huang, H. Zhu, Y. Lin, Y. Qu, and Z. Wang, “A novel feature selection
algorithm for text categorization,” Expert Syst. Appl., vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 1–5, 2007.
17. Li, Y., Luo, C., & Chung, S. M.,” Text clustering with feature selection by using statistical
data,” IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 20(5), 641–652,2008.
18. L. Yu and H. Liu, “Feature selection for high-dimensional data: a fast correlation-based filter
solution. Proceedings of the twentieth international conference on machine learning,” 2003.
19. K. Kira and L. A. Rendell, A Practical Approach to Feature Selection. Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers, Inc., 2014.
20. A. Rehman, K. Javed, H. A. Babri, and M. Saeed, “Relative discrimination criterion - A
novel feature ranking method for text data,” Expert Syst. Appl., vol. 42, no. 7, pp. 3670–
3681, 2015.
21. C. Ding and Hanchuan Peng, “Peng: Minimum redundancy feature selection from
microarray gene expression data,” J. Bioinfo. Comp. Bio., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 185–205, 2005.
22. H. J. G. Kohavi Ron, “Wrappers for feature subset selection,” Lect. Notes Comput. Sci.
(including Subser. Lect. Notes Artif. Intell. Lect. Notes Bioinformatics), vol. 7920 LNCS,
no. 97, pp. 654–678, 2013.
12
23. M. Kudo and J. Sklansky, ‘Comparison of algorithms that select features for pattern
classifiers’, Pattern Recognit., vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 25–41, 2000.
24. Holland J. H., ‘Genetic Algorithms and Adaptation. In: Selfridge O. G., Rissland E. L.,
Arbib M. A. (eds) Adaptive Control of Ill-Defined Systems’, NATO Conf. Ser. (II Syst. Sci.,
vol. 16, pp. 317–333, 1984.
25. R. Neruda, ‘Hybrid Evolutionary Algorithm for Multilayer Perceptron’, pp. 1620–1627,
2007.
26. M. Kudo and J. Sklansky, ‘Comparison of algorithms that select features for pattern
classifiers’, Pattern Recognit., vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 25–41, 2000.
27. I. Guyon, J. Weston, S. Barnhill, T. Labs, and R. Bank, ‘Tracking cellulase behaviors’,
Biotechnol. Bioeng., vol. 110, no. 1, p. fmvi-fmvi, 2013.
28. P. M. Granitto, C. Furlanello, F. Biasioli, and F. Gasperi, ‘Recursive feature elimination
with random forest for PTR-MS analysis of agroindustrial products’, Chemom. Intell. Lab.
Syst., vol. 83, no. 2, pp. 83–90, 2006.
29. H. Fröhlich and O. Chapelle, ‘Feature Selection for Support Vector Machines by Means of
Genetic Algorithms Feature Selection for Support Vector Machines by Means of Genetic
Algorithms -Diploma Thesis in Computer Science- Holger Fr ¨ Supervisors : Philipps-
University Marburg’, Tools with Artif. Intell., no. December 2003, pp. 142–148, 2003.
30. J. R. Quinlan. Induction of decision trees. Machine learning, 1(1): 81–106, 1986.
31. J. R. Quinlan. C4.5: Programs for Machine Learning. Morgan Kaufmann, 1993.
32. L. Breiman, ‘Random Forests. Otras caracteristicas’, pp. 1–33, 2001.
33. J. B. Moore, ‘The relation of international law to national law in the American Republics’,
Proc. Am. Soc. Int. Law its Annu. Meet., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 11–23, 1915.
34. N. Problems, A. E. Hoerl, and R. W. Kennard, ‘American Society for Quality Ridge
Regression: Biased Estimation for’, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 55–67, 1970.
35. Donald W. Marquardt and Ronald D. Snee, ‘Ridge Regression in Practice Author (s):
Published by Taylor & Francis, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 3–20, 2016.
36. H. Zou and T. Hastie, ‘Erratum: Regularization and variable selection via the elastic net
(Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series B: Statistical Methodology (2005) 67
(301–320))’, J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B Stat. Methodol., vol. 67, no. 5, p. 768, 2005.
37. I. T Jolliffe, Principal Component Analysis, Second Edi. Springer, 2007.
38. J. E. Jackson, A User’s Guide to Principal Components (partial copy). 1991.
39. A. Hyvärinen and E. Oja, “Independent Component Analysis: Algorithms and
Applications,” vol. 1, no. 1, 2000.
40. Z. W. Birnbaum, E. Lukacs, and K. V Mardia, Multivariate Analysis, United Sta. Academic
Press Limited, 1995.
41. N. Veterinary, “Comparative Study of Linear and Nonlinear Feature Extraction Methods,”
vol. 33, no. 45, 2004, pp. 30–33.
42. C. Lord, “On the Early History of the Singular Value Decomposition,” Soc. Ind. Appl.
Math., vol. 35, no. 4, 1993.
43. J. P. Cunningham and Z. Ghahramani, “Linear dimensionality reduction: Survey, insights,
and generalizations,” J. Mach. Learn. Res., vol. 16, pp. 2859–2900, 2015.
44. J. Lambers, “The SVD Algorithm,” Lect. 6 Notes, vol. CME335, no. Spring Quarter 2010–
11, pp. 1–2, 2010.
45. J. E. McDade, “Matrix Factorization Techniques for Recommender Systems,” IEEE
Comput. Soc., no. August, pp. 30–37, 2009.
13
46. H. W. Cho, “Nonlinear feature extraction and classification of multivariate data in kernel
feature space,” Expert Syst. Appl., vol. 32, no. 2, pp. 534–542, 2007.
47. S. T. Roweis and L. K. Saul, “Nonlinear Dimensionality Reduction by Locally Linear
Embedding,” vol. 290, no. December, pp. 2323–2326, 2000.
48. P. Tavan, H. Grubmüller, and H. Kühnel, “Self-organization of associative memory and
pattern classification: recurrent signal processing on topological feature maps,” Biol.
Cybern., vol. 64, no. 2, pp. 95–105, 1990.
49. Minkook Cho, Hyeyoung Park,” Nonlinear dimension reduction using ISOMap based on
class information,” 2009 International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, IEEE, 14–19
June 2009.
50. L. van der Maaten, E. Postma, and J. van den Herik, “Dimensionality reduction: A
comparative review; Tilburg University Centre for Creative Computing, Technical Report
TiCC-TR 2009–005,” 2009.
51. G. H. Laurens van der Maaten, “Visualizing data using t-SNE,” J. Mach. Learn.,
pp. 2579–2605, 2008.
14
2 A BRIEF VISIT TO THE LANDSCAPE OF CLOUD

DDOS ATTACKS
B. Raj kumar1 and Amogh Katti2

1,2
School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP, Amaravati, India.
ABSTRACT: Cloud computing is virtually unlimited computing resources and is

allocated based upon the request of the user in the pay-as-you-go model. This advancement
leads to the economic and geographical enhancement of multiple sectors/applications
such as healthcare, energy, education, e-commerce, information technology, etc. At the
same time, it became a tedious task for the stakeholders to protect this cloud data while
transferring across multiple nodes. Hence, providing security is one of the major concerns
in this regard to safeguard the data from hackers. There are many potential attacks among
which Distributed Denial of Service (DDOS) is one of the major attacks which is scaling
up year by year across multiple cloud computing applications. This paper pays a brief visit
to the DDOS attacks in cloud environments.
Keywords: Cloud Computing, Cloud Security, DDOS Attacks, DDOS Attacks in Cloud,
Cloud Security Parameters
I. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the term cloud computing (CC) became a buzzword, which is a model
that provides unlimited computing resources (e.g., applications, services, storage,
networks, and servers) for the user and can be released as per their request to the service
provider. As the cloud services matured in technical and business aspects, it will be
smoother for service providers to maximize their benefits. Since the advancements
of cloud, the benefits to the organizations in terms of cost, maintenance, and in many
more aspects; leading to most users adopting cloud model. As the usage of cloud
services increases day-by-day, it also attracted attackers towards the cloud.
Many users adapting the cloud because of its essential characteristics, deployment
models, and service models [1]. Even crackers found it very interesting to exploit
because of its services. This increased the challenges and complexity in securing the
cloud services/resources from intruders. So, securing the cloud services from multiple
attackers/intruders became a challenge for the research community. Many authors or
researchers worked and proposed several security models to protect the data from
multiple attacks, but still, this attack is challenging to cloud security. There are several
types of attacks on cloud servers by which an attacker interrupting the services of
the cloud and makes financial and other types of loss to the service providing giants.
There are many potential attacks noted [2] such as cloud malware injection attacks,
15
abuse of cloud services, denial of service attacks, side-channel attacks, wrapping

attacks, man-in-the-cloud attacks, insider attacks, account or service hijacking,
advanced persistent threats, etc. among which Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS)
is one of the major attacks which is raising up in terms of its strength year-by-year.
It is about 39% increase when compared to 1H of 2018 [3]. There are several service
models which include: Software-as-a-Service (SaaS) offers the facility to run and use
the software/ application without installing it on your personal computer. Platform-
as-a-Service (PaaS) provides developers with the necessary environment/platform
for the development of their application. Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) use the
virtualization technology to provide requested Infrastructure by distributing the
hardware with multiple tenants [4].
Figure 1. Cloud market revenue for different service models

In “Figure. 1”, Cloud market increment with respect to time in a year (as per McAfee)
is shown. The adaption of cloud service is increased when compared to the previous
year and this growth is shown in terms of revenue generated in the market.
The rest of the work is organized as follows: In section II, we discuss various
cloud characteristics; In section III, we discuss various cloud computing deployment
models; In section IV, we discuss the DDoS attacks and the occurrence of various
types of DDoS attacks in OSI layer; In section V, we discuss various critical
parameters to be considered for better solution; and finally discuss the conclusion
of the work.
II. CLOUD CHARACTERISTICS ATTRACTING THE ATTACKERS
The essential characteristics which attracted the users to adopt and attackers to
exploit are:
A. Multi-Tenancy
Multi-Tenancy allows cloud customers to share the same computing resources such
as applications or physical infrastructure. Sometimes due to lack of bandwidth and
traffic isolation makes multi tenancy vulnerable in cloud computing. Malicious
tenants/neighbors may launch attacks towards tenants who are residing in the same
data center. If the service provider has poor controls among tenants, an ignorant or
malicious tenant may modify the security of residing [5] tenants.
16
A Brief Visit to the Landscape of Cloud DDoS Attacks
B. Rapid Elasticity and Scalability
It is the ease of using the service providers’ resources based on the demands of the
customer [6], to satisfy the actual requirements of the customer the cloud service
providers have to be scalable in providing the resources like computing power, storage
and other resources in up and down as per requirement of the customer. This makes the
attacker to generate fake requests and make the user to scale up the resources which
leads to increase in cost.
C. Multiple Stakeholders
In the cloud computing model, there are multiple stakeholders, Cloud Vendor (CV):
Maintains interaction interfaces between internal operations and product development
capability. Cloud Partner (CP): Provides components to cloud vendors to provide
valuable services to the clients, and Cloud Customer (CC): These are the users who
uses the hosted cloud services according to their business needs [7]. Most of the cases
the attackers concentrate on Cloud vendors to interrupt their services.
D. Third Party Control
This is an important challenge in security; there are advantages and disadvantages of

third-party(cloud service providers) companies when the organization’s information
[8] is hosted in the cloud server when any issue arises then the service provider is
responsible to ensure the problem is fixed. So, a lot of companies are placing their data
in the servers of experience cloud providers instead of maintaining the infrastructure
in-house. The minimal control over the data attracts attacker to steal or modify the data.
E. Security
Security is one of the important features of the cloud. It creates a backup of the stored
data so that the customers may not lose their data even if any one of the server damages.
The stored data cannot be hacked or manipulated by any unauthorized person and can
be accessed quickly throughout the globe.
F. Shared Resource Pooling
The service provider offers to pool various virtual and physical resources such as
memory, network bandwidth, processing, storage, etc. to serve multiple customers
in a multi-tenant model. This availability of pooled resources attracts the aggressor
to send pretend requests to allot the number of computing resources and/or asking to
decrease the computing resources as a real client to the service provider. This leads
to economic loss, reputation damage to the client and service provider.
III. CLOUD COMPUTING DEPLOYMENT MODELS
There are four different cloud deployment models, as shown in “Figure. 2”.
It explains how different cloud services are provided to the customer based
17
upon their needs and also their vulnerability to the attacks. Various deployment
models are:
A. Private Deployment Model
In this model, the infrastructure of an organization is operated exclusively. This

infrastructure can be taken care of by the organization or outside people and this
infrastructure may exist within the organization or outside the organization. This
model gives extra security than public clouds. In the attacker point-of-view, the
external attackers can not attack but there is a possibility of internal attacks [9].
B. Community Deployment Model
In this model, the infrastructure is shared to specific community users and is shared
by multiple organizations which support specific community users that have the same
type of concerns. Example (Ex): research community, police department etc. Here,
within a community, any user from any location can launch attacks to disturb the users
of the community for various reasons [10].
C. Public Deployment Model
In this model, the cloud service providers rent their services, applications to the public,
organizations which are of a small scale or large scale, based on their needs. In a
public model, there is a lot of scope for internal as well as external attackers to disturb
the services, mainly external attackers concentrate on this model [9].
D. Hybrid Deployment Model
When public, private, or community deployment models alone cannot satisfy the
requirements of the customer/user then the hybrid model is suggested. This model
contains a combination of multiple deployment models that remain unique objectives
and are bonded together with standardized technology. Ex: online retailer [11] need
more resources during holidays.
Figure 2. Various cloud deployment models
18
IV. UNDERSTANDING THE DDOS ATTACK
Distributed Denial of Service attack (DDoS): In this attack, the attacker launches
the attack by compromising multiple systems from various locations with malicious
information and use them to generate abnormal traffic which is more than the usual
traffic on websites, server, or online services etc. which cannot be served by the
target [12].
The general structure of DDoS attacks in the cloud is shown in “Figure. 3”. This
structure consists of mainly three sections first section contains attacker, the second
section contains slaves and the third section contains victim. DDoS is fired by upsetting
the victim in the following ways:
• Attacker: The attacker scans and detects the systems which are vulnerable
and compromises them with malicious programs or information.
• Slave: Slaves are the compromised machines which are infected by
malicious code of the attacker. The attacker coordinates and requests
attack commands to slave machines and make them launch large volumes
of requests toward the victim.
• Victim: A victim is a target machine or application which is harmed by the
attackers.
Attackers compromise the service provider’s security to launch these attacks by using
spoofed IP address. This makes tough to identify the source of an attacker. The main
target of the attackers is resources like servers, bandwidth, CPU, etc.
Figure 3. General DDoS structure in cloud
Table I. Shows the largest frequency of attacks noticed.
19
Table I. Largest DDOS attacks noticed
Company/Sector Traffic in (Tbps) Date of Attack Ref.

Github
1.3 02-28-2018 [13]
(Code hosting site)
US Company
1.7 03-05-2018 [3]
(wired telecommunication carrier)
In literature, multiple techniques evolved from the past, identified various domains
where DDoS is launched, different types of DDoS attacks in OSI layers are discussed.
Robert Lemos [14] cyber security journalist surveyed and listed various attack
techniques from past 20 years is shown in Table II.
Table II. Evolution of DDoS attacks techniques
DDoS Attack Launching Technique Year

Manual DOS protest attacks are launched by Activists 1995
Self-installed and the floodNet DDoS bots 1998
Smurf attacks causing disruptions 1998
Trinoo is the first server botnets 1999
DoS attackers leverage domain name service (DNS) 2000
Fast-spreading worms focuses on windows security 2003
MyDoom worm launched over U. S, South Korean websites 2009
IoT devices which are insecure are used to amplify 2016
Memcached as DOS tool used by the attacker 2018
As per the NetScout [15] survey report, the Table III presents the various sectors
targeted by DDoS attacks with frequency and traffic speed.
TABLE III. DDoS attacks observed for various sectors
Industries Attacked Most Frequency of Attacks Largest

Wired Telecommunications Carriers 793,377 1.7 Tbps
Telecommunications 491,314 302 Gbps
Data Processing, Hosting & Related Services 316,395 316.9 Gbps
Wireless Telecommunications Carriers 157,388 327.5 Gbps
Software Publishers 44,724 170.6 Gbps
Non-traditional Telecommunications 39,004 600.0 Gbps
Electronic Shopping & Mail-order Houses 39,493 170.6 Gbps
Customer Computer Programming Services 31,837 170.6 Gbps
Educational Services 27,164 96.8 Gbps
International Affairs 40,711 34.3 Gbps
20
These DDoS attacks are simple to launch but defending is difficult. There are different
types of DDoS attacks and mainly they occur in three layers of OSI networking model.
A. Application Layer (AL)
In this layer, the attackers will attack specific webserver, applications. These AL attacks
send huge legitimate http requests [16]. There are different attacks in AL; they are as
fallows [17]. The different types of application layer attacks are shown in Table IV.
Few authors used the following mechanisms to detect the DDOS in application layers:
Fourier analysis, adaptive selective verification, naïve Bayes and entropy techniques
[19–21].
B. Transport Layer Attacks (TL)
When a logical/communication is happening between multiple hosts these are the

possible attacks launched by the attacker. The different types of transport layer attacks
are shown in Table V.
Table IV. Application layer attacks
Attack Type Description

Slow Loris [18] It is a software/program which gives numerous http requests to the
target and maintains the connection in open-state.
slow post [17] Legitimate http post headers are sent and their message body is sent at
very slow-rate.
slow read [17] The response from the target is read at slow speed.
Http flood [16] Denying the services of the server by flooding with huge http traffic.
Low & Slow [17] This will generate a legitimate traffic but the rate of speed is very slow.
Large payload [17] The data from the webserver is given in xml format, when decoded it
uses huge memory.
Mimicked user [17] Botnets are uses to send requests as they legitimate and overwhelms
the target resources.
Table V. Transport layer attacks

SYN Flood [22] This attack uses 3-way handshake process, by flooding huge syn
packets to target and receives syn-ack and leaves half-open.
UDP Flood [23] Large number of udp packets are sent from spoofed IP addresses
& overwhelming the target to process, thus server responds with a
“ICMP destination unreachable” packet
21
IPsec Flood (IKE & In this protocol suite, it utilizes internet key exchange (IKE) to make
IKAKMP association sure connections & authenticate the packets sent via IP network.
attempt) [24]
Other TCP Floods The victim is flooded with huge FIN or RST packets which doesn’t
[25] have any sessions noted in database thus results in unavailability of
services.
Table VI. Network layer attacks
Smurf Attack [27] A packet is sent from the spoofed Ip, the ICMP message from
packet requests the n/w nodes to respond the n/w IP address which
causes never ending loop.
ICMP Flood [28] Attackers send large no. of ICMP packets to overwhelm a target
which results in denial of service (DoS) to other requests.
IP/ICMP Fragmentation Attackers send datagram (DG) packets that cannot be re-assembled
[29] at server.
Routing (RIP) Attacks Attackers mimic the “RIP” packet, saying this host (attacker) has
[30] the super-fast path in the n/w, so all the packets within the n/w are
routed to attacker’s host.
Ping-of-Death [30] This generate IP packets whose complete size crosses the max.
Limit size (65,536 bytes). Leads to system crash.
Tear Drop [30] Wrong offset information is kept in fragmented packets which
leads to overlapping/empty the fragments and makes system
unstable state.
Packet Sniffing [30] Using packet sniffer tool, attackers monitors the incoming and
outgoing packets and notes the sensitive information.
C. Network Layer Attacks (NL)
This layer permits establishing a communication between multiple remote nodes/

servers and this is established by using the functionalities of this layer and the below
table represents the possible attacks in this layer [26]. The different types of network
layer attacks are shown in Table VI.
Authors in [31–33] surveyed on DDoS attacks detections, classifications,
mitigations and counter measures with their limitations in cloud.
22
V. CRITICAL PARAMETERS TO BE CONSIDERED FOR BETTER

SOLUTION
The following are the different critical parameters which need to be considered
while designing the robust solution for DDoS attacks in cloud. The different critical
parameters to obtain better solution are described in Table VII.
Table VII. Critical parameters
Parameter Description
Autoscaling [34] Make sure that the auto scaling is happening based on the legitimate
user traffic and can be done in horizontal and vertical as per the
customer requirement.
Multitenant In MTE, since many users sharing same resources, there is a chance of
Environment (MTE) vulnerabilities and these should be controlled efficiently.
[35]
Data Migration [31] During the attack, sometimes the data will be migrated to another vm
/server. Multiple factors need to be considered during migration, this
situation should be considered in designing a solution.
Solution Pricing While designing a DDoS solution model, we need to make it more
[36] cost-effective. The pricing should be bearable for small, medium and
various levels of organizations.
Service Availability Service availability in cloud is one of the biggest challenges when a
[31] DDoS attack occurs. The solution should be able to provide services
at any situation.
Correctness The method implemented/designed should be accurate, it should not

block the legitimate requests when they request for service and should
block only the fake requests which are generated by an attacker.
Energy Efficiency EE is important factor for cloud providers while developing solutions
(EE) [37] for different cyber-attacks, if a design or a model is consuming more
energy for running their solution, then there may be a chance of side
effects like cost, maintaining infrastructure etc.
Metered Service/ It is more beneficial for both the customers and the service providers.
pay-as-you-go Always, the bill should be generated based on the usage of the customer.
Once customer’s data is completely hosted in the server and if the
number of requests to the customer increases then, the customer will
upgrade to higher plan. So, services are provided like utility model.
23
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we familiarize the DDOS attacks encountered in the cloud and the
exponential growth of these attacks in recent years. This paper also focused on the
various characteristics and deployment models of cloud which attract the attacker. It
also provides a better understanding of DDOS attacks in the cloud environment and
the layers in which these attacks occur by surveying multiple researchers’ work. We
identified some of the critical parameters which need to be considered to design an
effective solution for DDOS attacked environments.
REFERENCES
1. Mell, Peter, and Tim Grance. “The NIST definition of cloud computing.” (2011).
2. Different types of cyber-attacks in cloud. https://www.apriorit.com/dev-blog/523-cloud-
computing-cyber-attacks [Online; accessed 27-Aug-2019].
3. NETSCOUT Threat Report 1H 2019. https://www.netscout.com/threatreport[Online;
accessed 15-July-2019].
4. Daryapurkar, Juee U., and Karuna G. Bagde. “Cloud Computing: Issues and Challenges.” no.
April (2014): 770–773.
5. https://www.owasp.org/index.php/Cloud10_Multi_Tenancy_and_Physical_Security
[Online; accessed 27-Aug-2019].
6. Al-Dhuraibi, Yahya, et al. “Elasticity in cloud computing: state of the art and research
challenges.” IEEE Transactions on Services Computing 11.2 (2017): 430–447.
7. Abdelmaboud, Abdelzahir, et al. “Identification of stakeholder’s roles in cloud environment:
A Survey.” 2019 International Conference on Computer and Information Sciences (ICCIS).
IEEE, 2019.
8. Katre, Noopur, and Deepti Theng. “Trusted third party for data security in cloud
environment.” 2016 2nd International Conference on Advances in Electrical, Electronics,
Information, Communication and Bio-Informatics (AEEICB). IEEE, 2016.
9. Private cloudhttps://www.redhat.com/en/topics/cloud-computing/what-is-private-cloud
[Online; accessed 29-June-2019].
10. Kaura, W. C. N., & Lal, A. “Survey paper on cloud computing security”. 2017 International
Conference on Innovations in Information, Embedded and Communication Systems
(ICIIECS) 2017.
11. Cloud Deployment Modelhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/ topics/computer-science/cloud-
deployment model [Online; accessed 29-July-2019].
12. Yan, Qiao, et al. “Software-defined networking (SDN) and distributed denial of service
(DDoS) attacks in cloud computing environments: A survey, some research issues, and
challenges.” IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials 18.1 (2015): 602–622.
13. Github DDOS incident report https://github.blog/2018–03–01-ddos-incident-report/
[Online; accessed 10-June-2019].
14. DDoS attack techniques. https://www.eweek.com/ security/how-ddos-attacks-techniques-
have-evolved-over-past-20-years [Online; accessed 19-June-2019].
15. NETSCOUT Threat Report final 2018. https://www. netscout.com/ threat report [online;
accessed 30-Nov-2018].
24
16. Praseed, Amit, and P. Santhi Thilagam. “DDoS attacks at the application layer: Challenges
and research perspectives for safeguarding Web applications.” IEEE Communications
Surveys & Tutorials Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 661–685, year. 2018.
17. Application layer attacks https://www.netscout.com/what-is-ddos/ application-layer-
attacks[online; accessed 15-Aug-2019].
18. Slowloris attack https://imperva.com/learn/application- security/slowloris/[online;
accessed 15-Aug-2019].
19. Dantas, Yuri Gil, Vivek Nigam, and Iguatemi E. Fonseca. “A selective defense for
application layer ddos attacks.” 2014 IEEE Joint Intelligence and Security Informatics
Conference. IEEE, 2014.
20. V. Katkar, A. Zinjade, S. Dalvi, T. Bafna, and R. Mahajan, “Detection of dos/ddos attack
against http servers using naive bayesian,” in 2015 International Conference on Computing
Communication Control and Automation, Feb 2015, pp. 280–285.
21. Oshima, Shunsuke, Takuo Nakashima, and Toshinori Sueyoshi. “Early DoS/DDoS
detection method using short-term statistics.” 2010 International Conference on Complex,
Intelligent and Software Intensive Systems, IEEE, 2010.
22. Ngo, Duc-Minh, Cuong Pham-Quoc, and Tran Ngoc Thinh. “An Efficient High-
Throughput and Low-Latency SYN Flood Defender for High-Speed Networks.” Security
and Communication Networks 2018.
23. Mahjabin, Tasnuva, et al. “A survey of distributed denial-of-service attack, prevention,
and mitigation techniques.” International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 13.12
(2017): 1550147717741463.
24. IPsec Floods https://www.netscout.com/what-is-ddos/ ipsec-flood [Online; accessed 30-
Aug-2019].
25. Other TCP Flood attacks fin or rsthttps://ddos-guard.net/en/terminology/attack_type/rst-
or-fin-flood.
26. Bouabdellah, Mounia, et al. “Network layer attacks and countermeasures in cognitive radio
networks: A survey.” Journal of information security and applications 38 (2018): 40–49.
27. Smurf attack: https://usa.kaspersky.com/resource-center/ definitions/what-is-a-smurf-
attack [Online; accessed 30-Aug-2019].
28. ICMP Attack https://security.radware.com/ddos-knowledge-center/ddospedia/icmp-flood/
[Online; accessed 30-Aug-2019].
29. IP/ICMP fragmentation attack. https://nordvpn.com/ blog/ipfragmentation-attack/ [Online;
accessed 30-Aug-2019].
30. Routing(rip),ping of death,tear drop, packet sniffinghttp://networkmitigations.blogspot.
com/2011/01/layer-3-network-layer-attacks.html [Online; accessed 30-Aug-2019].
31. Somani, Gaurav, et al. “DDoS attacks in cloud computing: Issues, taxonomy, and future
directions.” Computer Communications 107 (2017): 30–48.
32. Mahjabin, Tasnuva, et al. “A survey of distributed denial-of-service attack, prevention,
and mitigation techniques.” International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks 13.12
(2017): 1550147717741463.
33. Carlin, Andrew, Mohammad Hammoudeh, and Omar Aldabbas. “Defence for distributed
denial of service attacks in cloud computing.” Procedia computer science 73 (2015):
490–497.
34. Sotiriadis, Stelios, et al. “Vertical and horizontal elasticity for dynamic virtual machine
reconfiguration.” IEEE Transactions on Services Computing 99 (2016): 1–1.
25
35. Rimal, Bhaskar Prasad, and Martin Maier. “Workflow scheduling in multi-tenant cloud
computing environments.” IEEE Transactions on parallel and distributed systems 28.1
(2016): 290–304.
36. Laatikainen, Gabriella, and Eetu Luoma. “Impact of Cloud Computing Technologies on
Pricing Models of Software Firms–Insights from Finland.” International Conference of
Software Business. Springer, Cham, 2014.
37. Mastelic, Toni, and Ivona Brandic. “Recent trends in energy-efficient cloud
computing.” IEEE Cloud Computing 2.1 (2015): 40–47.
26
3 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF IMAGE

COLORIZATION NEURAL NETWORK MODELS
Sudhakar Putheti1 and Kurmala Gowri Raghavendra Narayan2

Computer Science and Engineering Vasireddy Venkatadri Institute of Technology,
1,2
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India
ABSTRACT: This paper is a complete survey of different Convolutional neural network

models and comparison among them in various real time image colorization challenges.
Models discussed are ResNet50, InceptionV3, Xception, Inception-ResNet-V2 and
NASNetLarge. We intend this paper to be useful to researchers and practitioners interested
in real time image processing. We also implemented the Image colorization methodology
by taking a pre-trained neural network model which is one among the above mentioned and
this will convert the old black and white images into colored image by performing certain
methodologies throughout the stages involved in it.
Keywords: CNN, Deep Learning, RGB color image, Greyscale image, Color framework,
ImageNet Dataset
I. INTRODUCTION
A critical system that is utilized to colorize the grayscale images as per the distortion
of the human mind and preparing a framework with the assistance of neural network
and we utilize a current enormous scale scene grouping database to prepare the neural
network[1]. This model exhibits to indicate practical colorizations to grayscale images
from over a hundred years back this technique can process pictures of any goals not
at all like most existing methodologies dependent on the current convolution neural
network[6]. We assess a calculation utilizing a colorization turning test requesting
that human members pick between a created and ground truth shading picture. The
fundamental vulnerability of the issue by acting it like an arrangement undertaking
and use class rebalancing to build the decent variety of hues as it is an incredible guise
task for self-administered highlight getting the hang of going about as a cross channel
encoder that outcomes on a few element learning benchmarks. When applying these
systems on the info pictures an earlier colorization step can help improve the results[5].
Be that as it may, arranging, structuring, executing a powerful and solid robotized
framework is a difficult errand in this the client needs to indicate the procedure of
direction and exact accuracy esteems.
27
II. NETWORK MODELS
A large portion of the neural system models that we examine are pre-prepared models,
which are as of now prepared by passing the ImageNet Dataset. ImageNet is a picture
dataset sorted out as indicated by the WordNet pecking order. Each important idea
in WordNet, potentially depicted by different words or word phrases, is known as
an “equivalent word set” or “synset”. There are in excess of 100,000 synsets in
WordNet [7], lion’s share of them are things (80,000+). In ImageNet, we intend to give
by and large 1000 pictures to represent every synset. Pictures of every idea are quality-
controlled and human-commented on. In its consummation, we trust ImageNet will
offer a huge number of neatly arranged pictures for the greater part of the ideas in the
WordNet chain of command [11].
The ImageNet undertaking is enlivened by a developing slant in the picture
and vision research field – the requirement for more information. As far back as the
introduction of the computerized period and the accessibility of web-scale information
trades, specialists in these fields have been endeavoring to structure an ever increasing
number of modern calculations to record, recover, compose and comment on sight and
sound information. Be that as it may, great research needs great asset. To handle these
issue in huge scale (think about your developing individual gathering of computerized
pictures, or recordings, or a business web internet searcher’s database), it would be
enormously useful to scientists if there exists a huge scale picture database. This is the
inspiration for us to assemble ImageNet. We trust it will end up being a valuable asset
to our examination network, just as anybody whose exploration and instruction would
profit by utilizing an enormous picture database [11].
A. Residual Network
Picture Recognition has progressed as of late because of accessibility of huge datasets

and incredible GPUs that has empowered preparing of extremely profound models.
Simonyan et al. creators of VGG showed that by essentially stacking more layers,
we can improve accuracy [5], before this, in 2009, Yoshua Bengio in his monograph,
“Adapting Deep Architecturesfor AI” gavepersuading hypothetical investigation of
the adequacy of profound designs.
In the previous posts, I showed how to apply different strategies including group
standardization, dropout and information expansion to convolutional unbiased systems.
Would we be able to manufacture progressively exact frameworks by basically stacking
an ever increasing number of layers of convolution-clump standardization relu layers?
To some point, precision would improve, however past about 25+ layers, exactness
would prefer to drop. Kaiming et al., 2015 originally exhibited the profundity issue
and proposed an amazing arrangement which has since permitted the preparation of
more than 2000 layers! with expanding precision.
Expecting you have a seven layer organize. In a leftover arrangement, you would
not just pass the yield of layer 1 to layer 2 and on, however you would likewise include
the yields of layer 1 to the yields of layer 2 [3].
28
Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models
Denoting each layer by f(x), In a standard network y = f(x)

However, in a residual network,
y = f(x) + x (1)
Figure 1. Typical structure of aresnet module

Applying this rule, the creators won Imagenet 2015 and arrived at new best in class
results on all standard PC vision benchmarks. The thought has since been ventured
into every single other space of profound getting the hang of including discourse and
common language processing [9].
III. INCEPTION
Beginning is a generally utilized picture acknowledgment model that has been

appeared to achieve more noteworthy than 78.1% precision on the ImageNet dataset.
The model is the climax of numerous thoughts created by various analysts throughout
the years. It depends on the first paper: “Reexamining the Inception Architecture for
Computer Vision” by Szegedy, et. Al [2].
The model itself is comprised of symmetric and hilter kilter building squares,
including convolutions, normal pooling, max pooling, concats, dropouts, and
completely associated layers. Batchnorm is utilized widely all through the model
and applied to enactment information sources. Misfortune is registered by means of
Softmax [1].
A high-level diagram of the model is shown below:
Figure 2. Inception model
29
IV. XCEPTION
We present a translation of Inception modules in convolutional neural systems just

like a transitional advance in the middle of standard convolution and the profundity
insightful divisible convolution activity (a profundity astute convolution pursued by
a point shrewd convolution). In this light, a profundity savvy detachable convolution
can be comprehended as an Inception module with a maximally enormous number of
towers [2]. This perception drives us to propose a novel profound convolutional neural
system design roused by Inception, where Inception modules have been supplanted
with profundity savvy divisible convolutions. We demonstrate that this engineering,
named Xception, somewhat beats Inception V3 on the ImageNet dataset (which
Inception V3 was intended for), and fundamentally outflanks Inception V3 on a bigger
picture arrangement dataset containing 350 million pictures and 17,000 classes [7].
Since the Xception engineering has indistinguishable number of parameters from
Inception V3, the exhibition additions are not because of expanded limit but instead to
a progressively productive utilization of model parameters [9].
Figure 3. Xception architecture
V. CONCLUSION
In this venture we approves that a start to finish profound learning design could be
reasonable for some picture colorization errands. Specifically, our methodology can
effectively shading elevated level picture parts, for example, the sky, the ocean or
woodlands. All things considered, the presentation in shading little subtleties is still
to be improved.
30
Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models
Table 1. Comparison among network models
Top-1 Top-5
Model Size Parameters
Accuracy Accuracy
ResNet 50 99 MB 0.759 0.929 25,636,712
Inception V3 92 MB 0.788 0.944 23,851,784
X caption 88 MB 0.790 0.945 22,910,480
Inception ResN etV2 215 MB 0.804 0.953 55,873,736
NASNet Large 343 MB 0.825 0.960 88,949,818
As we just utilized a decreased subset of ImageNet, just a little bit of the range of
potential subjects is spoken to, hence, the exhibition on inconspicuous pictures
exceptionally relies upon their particular substance. To defeat this issue, our system
ought to be prepared over a bigger preparing dataset. I close it with the examination
of various neural system models in which they have pre-prepared on the equivalent
ImageNet dataset and coming up next is appeared in the beneath figure [9, 10].
REFERENCES
1. R. M. Bell and Y. Koren. Lessons from the netflix prize challenge. ACM SIGKDD
Explorations Newsletter, Vol. 9, no. (2), pp. 75–79, year 2007.
2. A. Berg, J. Deng, and L. Fei-Fei. Large scale visual recognition challenge 2010. www.
imagenet.org/challenges. 2010.
3. L. Breiman. Random forests. Machine learning, 45(1): 5–32, 2001.
4. D. Cire¸san, U. Meier, and J. Schmidhuber. Multi-column deep neural networks for image
classification. Arxivpreprint arXiv: 1202.2745, 2012.
5. D. C. Cire¸san, U. Meier, J. Masci, L. M. Gambardella, and J. Schmidhuber. High-
performance neural networks for visual object classification. Arxiv preprint arXiv:
1102.0183, 2011.
6. J. Deng, W. Dong, R. Socher, L.-J. Li, K. Li, and L. Fei-Fei. ImageNet: A Large-Scale
Hierarchical Image Database. In CVPR09, 2009.
7. J. Deng, A. Berg, S. Satheesh, H. Su, A. Khosla, and L. Fei-Fei. ILSVRC-2012, 2012. URL
http://www.image-net.org/challenges/LSVRC/2012.
8. L. Fei-Fei, R. Fergus, and P. Perona. Learning generative visual models from few training
examples: An incremental bayesian approach tested on 101 object categories. Computer
Vision and Image Understanding, 106(1): 59–70, 2007.
9. Sik-ho-tsang, URL https://towardsdatascience.com/review-xception-with-depthwise-
separable-convolution-better-than-inception-v3-image-dc967dd42568.
10. Keras documentation, URL https://keras.io/applications/#inceptionresnetv2.
11. ImageNet organization documentation, URL http://image-net.org/about-overview.
31
Computer Based Processes
Range Doppler ISAR Imaging using Chirp Pulse

G. V. Sai Swetha, P. Anjali Reddy and Dr. A. Naga Jyothi
Trust-based Hybrid IDS for Rushing Attacks in Wireless Mesh Networks

Ganesh Reddy Karri
Text Mining from Internet Resources using Information Retrieval Techniques

Z. Sunitha Bai and Dr. M. Sreelatha
A Novel Initial Centroid Selection Algorithm for Brain Image Clustering.

Gagan Koduru, Nageswara Rao Kuda and Anupama Namburu
4 RANGE DOPPLER ISAR IMAGING USING CHIRP

PULSE
G. V. Sai Swetha1, P. Anjali Reddy2 and Dr. A. Naga Jyothi3

1,2,3
ECE, VIIT, Visakhapatnam, India
ABSTRACT: The Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) generates an electromagnetic

image of a moving target in accordance with the radar. This paper is about the technique
of ISAR imaging of a moving target with respect to the radar. The Doppler frequency shift
produces a backscattered data that is received by the radar. The target in general consists of
many scattering points, which are very much necessary to analyze the performance of the
targets reflectivity function i.e., target image and is obtained from the collected complex
signal with the use of chip pulse technique in Matlab simulation. Range compression is
employed to every single digitized pulse by pulse compression technique, which consists of
matched filtering for every returned pulse with replication of original pulse. Subsequently,
an Inverse Fourier Transform (IFT) operation is accomplished with the pulse index, in
order range dimensions and also the noise at the receiver is suppressed.
Keywords: Synthetic Aperture Radar, Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar, Chirp pulse,
Range-Doppler, Automatic target recognition, Cross-Range, Range bins, Range profiles,
Scattering points
I. INTRODUCTION
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar (ISAR) is a dominant technique in signal

processsing, which provides the electromagnetic image of the target in two
dimensions. This radar imaging technique is used in any weather condition. The
technique ISAR has been derived from the Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
technique. The radar is kept stationary as the target moves round as shown in figure
1. In SAR it increases the size of antenna so as to increase the resolution of the
image. As the radar moves, at many positions pulses are being transmitted, and the
returned signals (echoes) are increased in antenna aperture [1]. Likewise, the ISAR
is employed to produce moving target’s images in Matlab simulation; the rest of the
process is similar to the SAR. The techniques SAR and ISAR are being the highly
interested platforms for the researches.
In general the SAR and ISAR images are extracted by a systematic signal
processing of the received radar echo signals of the transmitted pulses. The images
with high range resolution are obtained with a large bandwidth of the pulses
transmitted; meanwhile a high resolution is obtained in the cross range direction by
synthetic aperture produced by the target moments. Motion compensation is processes
35
when the target or radar takes an unknown path (trajectory) in the image formation.
The Automatic Target Recognition (ATR) found on these SAR and ISAR images are
highly important in the recognition of target, while the target motion or radar equal to
the received echoes by the radar at various aspect angles, the images of SAR and ISAR
of the considered target are simulated by the use of scattered fields of the frequency
band and also the aspect angles of range [1, 2].
The received radar signals are processes in such a way that the signal is being
transformed to time and Doppler frequency. The processing time is done with the
frequency bandwidth of radar pulses. The motion of the target in accordance with
the radar gives a Doppler frequency shift, making the radar collect all the scattering
points of the target. The analysis of the Doppler frequency resolves the scattering
points with the cross range axis, known as the perpendicular axis to the Radar Line
of Sight (RLOS) direction. This paper is all about the technique ISAR imaging
with the considered scenarios where the target is in motion with respect to the
radar and Doppler frequency shift produces a backscattered data that is received
by the radar. In this approach the target is in the centre of the scattered fields and
is being computed over a frequency band that gives the range resolution and cross
range resolution is given by a band of angles [2]. The ISAR imaging of the target
in a specified angle is obtained by performing Inverse Fourier Transformation
(IFT) of 2D information.
Figure 1. ISAR configuration
II. METHODOLOGY
To perform the ISAR operation, the aspect scattering is represented targets rational,
as well as its tangential motion in accordance with the radar. The below represented.
Figure 2 is the radar at stationary position on the ground and the target is in aerial [3].
By applying adequate frequency bandwidth the range resolution or the line of sight
resolution can be achieved. When the target is in rotation, and its angular diversity can
be formed in between the pulses received.
36
Range Doppler isar Imaging using Chirp Pulse
Figure 2. Configuration of a moving target with respect to radar

If the target is not in rotation and is in a straight path as in Figure 2, its motion is
framed into motion of radial translation, which is the motion along the axis of RLOS.
In this case, the target is angular diversity is obtained for a considerably large time
because the targets tangential motion generates a Doppler frequency Shift which is
slower than the target rotating in the previous case [4]. If the distance of the target
from the radar is R and its speed is V as in Figure 2, its tangential speed of ϑ1 = ϑ sinφ
Then its corresponding angular rotational speed is
J
w = 1 (1)
R
When the coherent integration time (coherent processing time) is t, then the total
angular width viewed by the radar is
W = wT (2)
This total angular width gives the necessary Doppler frequency shift. In general the
aerial targets move on a straight path and rotations are made so rarely. Hence, the
angular diversity needed to produce ISAR image is obtained by tangential motion of
the target with respect to the radar [4, 8].
Step 1: Chirp Pulse Train

A regular radar pulse train consists of N chirp pulse waveforms as represented in figure
3, where Tp is the duration of the pulse (length of the pulse), TPRI is the pulse repetition
interval (PRI),T is dwell time (coherent integration time) and is determined as
T = N. TPRI (3)
= N/PRF
Here PRF is pulse repetition frequency.
In order to avoid the ambiguity in the range, every echo pulse should be arrived at
the radar receiver before the transmission of next pulse is taken place. If the distance
between the target and the radar is R, then the minimum PRI to avoid the ambiguity
in range is
37
2R
TPRI = (4)
min C
This shows that the PRF must be less than the maximum PRF values
C
PRFmax = (5)
2R
The frequency variation in the chirp pulse gives the necessary frequency bandwidth
to find out the points which are the range dimensions. The chirp pulse bandwidth is
C
B= (6)
2.D r
Here D r is the range resolution desired. The instantaneous frequency is given as
fi = fo + k.t; 0 ≤ t ≤ Tp (7)
Where fi is the instantaneous frequency of the single chirp pulse waveforms, f0 is the
initial frequency of the chirp, k is the chip rate. The chirp rate of linear frequency
modulated (LFM) pulse is
B
K= (8)
Tp
Figure 3. Waveform of chirp pulse
Step 2: Isar Receiver For The Chirp Pulse Radar

The chirp pulse train waveform is used widely in the SAR and ISAR techniques. The
block diagram of the chirp pulse ISAR receiver block is represented in Figure 4.the
received signal is processed in pulse by pulse, so that the range profile of each pulse is
achieved. The Doppler frequency shift of every range bin is derived with the Fourier
transformation to get a 2D range Doppler image of the given target. At first the received
chirp pulses of the target are collected and are given to the Intermediate Frequency
(IF) amplifier, to amplify the signal at the IF stage for the further processing [5].
38
To compress each incoming pulses the matching filter is applied, its output will be the
compressed
Form of received pulse. Therefore the obtained result is the targets one
dimensional (1D) range profile of a specified pulse. Here N range profiles, accord
with N pulse returns are obtained. Followed by a Quadrature Detection (QD) to
identify the amplitude and phase information of the returned echo signal at the
frequency base bands. Up to this point the entire process is analogy. The next step
is sampling and digitization of I and Q pairs at the output of Quadrature Detection
(QD) by the use of samples and Analog to Digital (A/D) converter, so that every
range profile gets digitized to M range cells are also known as range bins. Then the
range profiles which are digitized with length M are kept side by side to the range
positions, so that every range cell has to represent in the same respective range
positions of the target [6]. If not, the image gets blurred, as the change of the range
positions from one profile to the others. As the compensation of range walk in the
2D information is set, the 1D discrete Fourier transform (DFT) is employed to the
azimuthally time instants so as to transform the signals to the Doppler frequency
space. The output 2D matrix is an N by M range Doppler ISAR image of the
considered target.
Figure 4. Block diagram of ISAR receiver with chirp pulse
Step 3: Matched Filter

To maximize the Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) of the wave reflected in presence of the
noise, a matched filters is used, it is shown in Figure 5
Figure 5. Matched filter receiver
39
As the transmitted signal is now determined, so the signal reflected with noise is
tested another signal which is of same type, so as to maximize the signal energy if the
reflected wave with additive noise. Let’s say, the frequency response of the matched
filter receiver is H(f), then its impulse response filter would be h(t) = f-1{H(f)}.
The assumed signal that is collected at the receiver is Sm(t) with an additive noise
n(t). This noise is Gaussian while noise (GWN) which is commonly considered. The
result of the matched filter is obtained quickly by performing Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT). The output of filter yout(t) can be determined as an impulse function of the filter
convoluted:
yout ( t ) = x ( t ) * h ( t ) (9)
By considering the equation (9), the below equation can be obtained:
Y ( f ) = X ( f ) .H ( f ) (10)
Hence equation (9) can be denoted clearly as:
{ { } }
yout ( t ) = IFT FT x ( t ) .H ( f ) (11)
A block diagram of the matched filter is shown below in Figure 6. If the signal received
is sampled and digitized, and then its FFT gets multiplied with a transfer function of
the matched filter [7]. Its resultant product undergoes an inverse fast Fourier transform
(IFFT) operation to achieve the final output signal of the matched filter.
Figure 6. Matched filter accomplished using FFT
Step 4: Forming The Range Doppler Isar Image

As shown in Figure 7, the target is modelled in such a way that it contains N points of
scatterers, which are located at (xm, yn) where n is from 1 to N. So, the received signal
is estimated as
N - j2k æç R 0 + x n ö÷ - j2pf t
Es ( k , t ) @ å A n .e è ø
.e Dn (12)
n =1
Here, An is complex magnitude of nth scattering, K is the wave number that can be
denoted as
k @ k c = 2pfc / c (13)
40
Kc is the wave number of the centre frequency fc, the Doppler frequency shift fd
is caused by the Radial velocity of n scattering points. Considering the origin of the
target the phase centre of the geometry, phase term e-j2kr0 is suppressed to obtain
- j2pçç 2cf ÷÷ x n - j2pf t

æ ö
s N
E (f , t ) @ å A n .e è ø
.e Dn (14)
n =1
by considering the 2D IFT of the signal which is backscattered with respect to 2f/c
and t is
{ }
F2-1 Es ( f , t ) @ ISAR ( x , f D ) (15)
Figure 7. Doppler processing of a target in rotation

This shows the 2D image data resulting on the plane of Range-Doppler frequency.
From the above done computation, the range elements of the scattering centres that
are xns can be resolved easily. The Doppler frequency axis is directly proportional
to the Cross Range axis [8]. When the target’s rational velocity is determined, then
the transformation of Doppler frequency space to the cross range space is done, by
applying the below mentioned equation 16,
l
y = c .f D (16)
2w
Where wavelength with respect to the centre frequency λc, post transformation, the
cross range elements yns are also obtained and the ISAR image of cross range plane
is formed.
III. ANALYSIS OF CHIRP PULSE BASED ON ISAR IMAGING
The target consists of many scattering points is a necessary standard to analyse the
performance of the proposed methodology. The centre of the target is said to be placed
at the point of (x0, y0) on the 2D coordinate system. The reflectivity of the target
is assumed to be featured by many scattering points of equal magnitude [12]. The
Figure 8 and 9 represents the considered scenarios and locations of the discrete perfect
41
point scatterers which have equal scattering amplitudes. Here 39 scattering centres are
determined.
The target moves in a direction of x with a constant velocity of ϑx. The parameters
of the radar and the target are shown in table1and table 2. As the target is a fast moving
one, chirp pulse waveforms are often preferred.
Figure 8. Range-Doppler ISAR imaging scenario
Figure 9. Target with perfect scattering points

The chirp pulses from the transmitter are as
é m -1ù T £ t £( m -1).T + T
ì 2 ö ù ëê ûú 2 2 pü
ï é æ t ï
Stx ( t ) » íexp ê j2p ç f0 t + K ÷ ú ý (17)
ç 2 ÷
ï êë è ø úû ï
î þ
Where m = 1: Np = variable pulse number
T2 = 1/PRF = PRI: Pulse Repetition Interval
42
Table I. Parameters of target
Parameter name Symbol Value
Target’s initial position in x x0 0m
Target’s initial position in y y0 24km
Target’s velocity along x vx 120 m/s
Table II. Parameters of radar
Parameter name Symbol Value
Centre frequency of chirp fc 10GHz
Frequency bandwidth of chirp B 2.5GHz
Pulse duration of single pulse Tp 0.4µs
Chirp rate K = Tp/B 6.25e15s/Hz
Figure 10. Waveform of chirp pulse transmitted

The above Figure 10 represents the chirp pulse waveform. The signal received from
the radar is
( m -1)T + 2R £ t £( m -1)T + 2R +Tp
2 C 2 C
ìï ( t - 2cR ) 2 ü
ï
s rx ( t ) = íexp é j2p(fo ( t - 2R ù ) + K ý (18)
ë C û 2
îï þïelsewhere
Where
R = (( x 0 - v x .t )2 + y0 2 )1/ 2 (19)
In the equation 18, the trajectory of the EM wave R changes with respect to time due
to the motion of the target. Hence, the received signal frequency Srx, will consist of the
43
same additive noise because of the clutter such as atmospheric effects [8,9]. Thereby
the received signal is grx (t) will be
g rx ( t ) = s rx ( t ) + n ( t ) (20)
If the bandwidth of the signal transmitted is B, then the sampling time interval is
ts = 1
(21)
B
Every pulse is sampled by N sample points, that is
Tp
Nsample = (22)
ts

As the sampling process is done, the received information is written in 2D matrix as
Mp time of Nsample. Every digitized pulse is compressed by applying range compression
which includes a matched filter for every returned pulse with the mirror image of the
original pulse. It is shown in figure 11, which is used as a replication for transmitted
pulse in frequency domain.
Figure 11. Matched filter response of chirp pulse
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
After employing the matched filter operation, the obtained range compression
information is plotted in figure 12, in which range profile for every azimuthal time
instant is observed easily at different range bins [10]. The additive noise effect can be
viewed from the obtained image in Matlab simulation, while the noise is shown as a
clutter around the image. Because of the high PRF rate bout 3000, the range profiles
are well aligned at various azimuthal time instants.
44
Figure 12. Range bins with respect to azimuth time
Figure 13. Range-Doppler ISAR image of the target
Therefore, an IFT method is carried out along the pulse index, by that the scattering
points in Cross-Range dimension is found, while they are appeared in different
Doppler frequency shift values, resulting an ISAR image for Range-Doppler plane
as shown in figure 13. The scattering points are framed out well in the range
direction and also in Cross-Range direction because of the target’s finite velocity
along the direction of azimuth [11, 12]. The matched filter suppresses the noise at
the receiver.
By means of estimating the target’s angular velocity a Range-Cross Range ISAR
image is depicted as in figure 14. Therefore transformation of Doppler frequency shift
axis to the Cross-Range axis is performed.
45
Figure 14. Cross-Range ISAR image of the target
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper the ISAR image generation of moving targets with the use of chirp pulse
waveform is proposed. This Matlab simulation technique is based on the transform
parameters of an assumed moving target model and the following conclusions are
noted:
• The targets placed at the centre of the coordinate system and the point
scattering fields are obtained in a band of frequencies that gives the range
resolution and also a band of angles that gives the Cross-Range resolution.
• The induced Doppler frequency shift backscattered information is received
by the radar, which is transformed to time and Doppler frequency.
• The analysis of Doppler frequency made it possible to find the scattering
points along with the Cross-Range axis.
• The range compression is employed for every digitized pulse by using pulse
compression technique, to which IFT is performed by resulting in resolved
Cross-Range dimensions.
VI. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work is being supported by Ministry of Science & Technology, of Science and
Engineering Research Board (SERB), with the Grant No: ECR 2017–000256 dated
15/07/2017.
46
REFERENCES
1. Prickett, M. J., and C. C. Chen. “Principles of inverse synthetic aperture radar/ISAR/

imaging.” EASCON’80; Electronics and Aerospace Systems Conference. 1980.
2. Skolnik, Merrill Ivan. “Introduction to radar systems.” New York: McGraw Hill Book Co.,
1980. 590 pp. (1980).
3. Zhang, Lei, et al. “Achieving higher resolution ISAR imaging with limited pulses via
compressed sampling.” IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters 6.3 (2009): 567–571.
4. Xing, Mengdao, et al. “Migration through resolution cell compensation in ISAR
imaging.” IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters Vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 141–144,
year 2004.
5. Shin, Seung Yong, and Noh Hoon Myung. “The application of motion compensation of
ISAR image for a moving target in radar target recognition.” Microwave and Optical
Technology Letters 50.6 (2008): 1673–1678.
6. Prickett, M. J., and C. C. Chen. “Principles of inverse synthetic aperture radar/ISAR/
imaging.” EASCON’80; Electronics and Aerospace Systems Conference. 1980.
7. Soumekh, Mehrdad. Synthetic aperture radar signal processing. Vol. 7. New York: Wiley,
1999.
8. Skolnik, Merrill Ivan. “Radar handbook.” (1970).
9. Ozdemir, Caner. Inverse synthetic aperture radar imaging with MATLAB algorithms. Vol.
210. John Wiley & Sons, 2012.
10. Mahafza, Bassem R. Radar systems analysis and design using MATLAB. Chapman and
Hall/CRC, 2005.
11. Walker, Jack L. “Range-Doppler imaging of rotating objects.” IEEE Transactions on
Aerospace and Electronic systems 1 (1980): 23–52.
12. Brown, William M., and Ronald J. Fredricks. “Range-Doppler imaging with motion
through resolution cells.” IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems 1
(1969): 98–102.
47
5 TRUST-BASED HYBRID IDS FOR RUSHING

ATTACKS IN WIRELESS MESH NETWORKS
K. Ganesh Reddy1 and P. Santhi Thilagam2

1
School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP university,Amaravati,
Andhra Pradesh, India.
2
NITK Surathkal, Mangalore, Karnataka, India
ABSTRACT: Securing wireless mesh networks is a more challenging and complex

issue due to their inherent characteristics such as shared wireless medium, multi-hop,
and inter-network communication, highly dynamic network topology and decentralized
architecture. These vulnerable features lead to several types of attacks like backhole,
grayhole, wormhole and rushing attacks in the network layer. Out of all these attacks,
rushing attacks are more difficult to detect due to the difficulty levels to find the exact
processing delay at each node in WMNs. Existing security mechanisms to protect against
the rushing attacks suffer from high false positives, false negatives and control overhead. In
this paper, we proposed a trust-based IDS for rushing attack. The key functionalities of the
trust-based IDS are 1) placing the optimal number of trust nodes and 2) Based on the node
behavior, dynamic reputation is implemented on node independent and node dependent
IDS approaches to identify and isolate the rushing attacks. Our Simulation results show
that our proposed IDS secure the network performance such as throughput and packet
delivery ratio even in the hostile environment.
Keywords: Trust, IDS, reputation, rushing attack, Wireless Mesh Networks
I. INTRODUCTION
Hybrid Wireless Mesh Network (HWMN) is a special type of wireless mesh

network, where both mesh routers and mesh clients provide routing and data
forwarding functionality. The routing capabilities of mesh clients provide improved
connectivity and coverage inside the client mesh [1][2]. While the backbone mesh
provides seamless integration of heterogeneous wireless networks such as the Wi-
Fi, cellular, ad-hoc and sensor networks. It also provides greater interoperability
among these networks. Wireless mesh networks are more vulnerable especially in
three core layers such as network layer, MAC layer and Physical layer [3–8], due to
the existing inadequate security standards/ protocols. Security vulnerabilities in these
core layers lead to various types of attacks such as control plane, data plane, network
security, information security, channel jamming, and signal jamming attacks, etc.
These attacks can severely degrade network performance by disturbing the network
traffic and topology. Robust security solutions are developed to protect against
49
these attacks. Existing security solutions can be classified into two types namely
i) Intrusion Prevention System and ii) Intrusion Detection System. Intrusion prevention
mechanisms ensure control and data packets authentication, integrity, confidentiality,
and non-repudiation in wireless mesh networks. These mechanisms can effectively
prevent unauthorized nodes from the network and can provide entry-level protection
against compromised nodes (internal attackers).
To identify the internal attackers, IPS should work with Intrusion Detection
Systems (IDSs). The existing IDSs mainly come under two approaches: node
dependent approach and node independent approach to address rushing attack in
WMNs. Node dependent approach works on a group of nodes, where all the nodes
trust each other for isolating malicious nodes from their group [7–10]. If a group node
detects a malicious node then this information broadcasts to all its group members for
isolating malicious node from their group.
In a node independent approach, a node in a network directly monitors the other
nodes’ behavior, which is faster than the node dependent approach. Based on the
behavior of the monitored node, monitoring node takes its own decision whether the
monitored node is malicious or non-malicious [11–14]. Both the node dependant and
node dependent approach have their own advantages and disadvantages.
We consider the advantages of node dependent and independent approach to
develop our proposed trust-based hybrid IDS to detect and isolate the rushing attacks.
In our trust-based hybrid IDS, we deploy the trust nodes in WMN to monitor all
other network behavior. If one trust node detects the rushing attack, it immediately
broadcasts to all other trust nodes. Furthermore, the each trusted node broadcast to its
neighboring nodes to isolate the rushing attacker from the network.
In the rest of the paper, section II explains about rushing attacks and the problem
statement is defined in section III, Section IV explains about trust based hybrid IDS
for rushing attacks in WMN, Section V discusses the results and section VI concludes
this paper and specify some future directions.
II. RUSHING ATTACKS
Rushing attack is a zero delay attack and this attack is more effective when the
attacker is a nearby source or destination node. On-demand routing protocols like
Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector(AODV) and Dynamic Source Routing(DSR)
are more vulnerable to this attack, because whenever source node floods the route
request packet in the network, an adversary node receives the route request packet,
immediately broadcast it without processing [15–18]. Whenever the legitimate nodes
receive the original source request packets, all these packets are dropped because
legitimate nodes, would have already received the same packet from the attacker and
treat the currently received packets as duplicate packets [19, 20]. As a result, the final
route between source and destination is established through rushing attacker. Rushing
50
Trust-Based Hybrid IDS for Rushing Attacks in Wireless Mesh Networks
attack can be taken place nearby source node or destination node or in the middle of
the path.
Once, Rushing attacker in the active path, then attacker performs two types of
attacks 1) Rushing attack followed by jellyfish attack and 2) Rushing attack followed
by byzantine attack to disturb the data forwarding phase.
In rushing attack followed by jellyfish attack, rushing attacker in the active
path performs an attack on data packet forwarding to degrade the network
performance. Here, the attacker intentionally adds more queuing delay on packet
forwarding.
Rushing attack followed by byzantine attack, rushing attacker in the active path
carries out attacks such as creating routing loops, forwarding packets on non-optimal
paths and selectively dropping packets which results in disruption or degradation of
the routing services.
The network would seem to be operating normally in the viewpoint of the nodes,
though it may actually be showing jellyfish and byzantine behaviour. Thus, identifying
the network performance degradation is due to jellyfish and byzantine failures or
network issues are going to be hard.
III. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Packet delay and drop depend on various external network factors like packet
scheduling and congestion. Thus, setting up a minimum packet delay and packet
drop at each node to detect rushing attacks over the heterogeneous wireless routers in
WMN is still a challenging task.
IV. TRUST BASED HYBRID IDS FOR RUSHING ATTACK
In our proposed work, firstly, trust nodes consider the minimum delay parameter to
suspect a node as rushing attack, secondly, trust nodes monitor the suspected node
behavior (number of packets sent/ number of packets received) and maintain the
reputation value.
A. The optimal number of trust nodes deployment
Trust nodes are the additional monitoring nodes in the wireless mesh network topology.
We have to deploy the minimum number of nodes to cover the maximum network area
to reduce the deployment cost. In addition to that, we need to scale up/scale down
the trust nodes as per the network size increases/decreases. We have developed the
formulas to cover the entire network with the minimum number of trust nodes. In
our calculations, we consider the network coverage area as two-dimensional space
(X,Y). All trust nodes use an omnidirectional antenna for monitoring the network node
behaviors and information exchange among trust nodes and their group nodes. Also,
51
trust nodes have uniform coverage area (r). Equation 1,2, and 3 present that optimum
number of trust node required for WMN.
æ æ X - 2r ö ö æ æ Y - 2r ö ö , where 2r<=X and 2r<=Y (1)

Tmin = ç 2 + ç ÷÷ *ç 2 + ç ÷÷
è è r øø è è r øø
æ Y - 2r ö , where 2r>X and 2r<=Y (2)

Tmin = 2 + ç ÷
è r ø
æ X - 2r ö
Tmin = 2 + ç ÷ , where 2r<=X and 2r>Y (3)
è r ø
Tmin value is increases/decreases as per the network size. Trust nodes removed when
none of the network nodes its coverage area, this scenario refers that network size is
reduced, on the other hand trust nodes are added when the network size increases.
B. Methodology
Each trust node calculates the minimum packet delay of in its group of networks
nodes. ith trust node(ti) calculates the minimum packet delay
æ n m
req + rep ö tp
ç å i =1 i å i =1 i ÷ + k
ç ( n + m) * interval _ time ÷ 2
t imin _ delay =
è ø ,
2
where reqi is request packets delays and repi reply packets delays of network nodes
of ti during the specific interval time, tpk is previous t imin _ delay . The minimum packet
delay ( t imin _ delay ) is used to identify the suspected nodes over the routing paths.
Each trust node calculates the maximum data packet delay of in its group of
networks nodes. ith trust node(ti) calculates the maximum packet delay
ææ n ö t ö
çç å i =1Pi ÷+ k ÷
ç ç n * interval _ time ÷ 2 ÷
ti =
èè ø ø
max _ delay 2
where Pi is data packets delays of network nodes of ti during the specific interval time,
tk is previous t imax _ delay . The maximum packet delay ( t imax _ delay ) is used to identify
the jellyfish attack behaviour on network nodes.
Each trust node calculates the maximum packet drops of in its group of networks
nodes. ith trust node(ti) calculates the maximum packet drops
n '
ææ
å i =1Pi
ö t' ö
çç ÷+ k÷
ç ç n * interval _ time ÷ 2 ÷
ti =
èè ø ø
max _ drops 2
52
'
where Pi is number of packet drops of network nodes of ti during the specific interval
time, tk is previous t imax _ drops
'
The maximum packet delay () is used to identify the byzantine attack behaviour
on network nodes.
Trust nodes initially assign the reputation (i.e reputation value 3) to their network
nodes. These network nodes are being monitored and updated their reputation by
corresponding trust nodes. A network node is treated as a malicious node (rushing
attacker) when the node reputation is zero. If a trust node found that any of its network
node/nodes detect as rushing attacker/attackers, this information shares with other
trust nodes and its group nodes. The entire procedure explained in Algorithm1.
Algorithm1: Trust based Hybrid IDS for rushing attacks

// Trust nodes((T)={t1,t2,t3....tn}) calculate the minimum delay, maximum delay //
and maximum packet drops.
// A trust node (ti) sets the initial reputation value(r) to for all its network
nodes //(n=n1,n2,n3....nn),i.e, ith node(ni) reputation value ri. The ‘ri’ value
decreases/increases based on the misbehavior of a node as (ri -1, ri -2, ri +1).
Step 1: ith trust node(ti) node calculates the minimum route request packet and
reply packet delay( t imin _ delay ), maximum data packet delay( t imax _ delay )
and maximum packet drops ti
max _ drops .
Step 2: if (ni route_request or reply_packet delay <= t imin _ delay )
ni is a suspected node
Step 3: if (ni packet drops> t imax _ drops ) //to identify byzantine behaviour
ri = ri -2
Step 4: if (ni packet> t imax _ drops ) //to identify the jellyfish behaviour
ri = ri -1
Step 5: if (ni packet drops <= t imax _ drops ) && ni packet <= t imax _ drops )
//Node has non malicious behavior
ri = ri +0.1
Step 6: if (ri>=0)
6.1 ni suspected node treated as a rushing attack
6.2 ti forward the rushing attacker (ni) information to all other trust nodes
6.3 ti broadcast the rushing attacker (ni) information to its network nodes
6.4 The source or destination node discard the active path if rushing attack
and it finds new path for sending data.
Step 7: In each interval time, ti repeats all above steps to identify and isolate the
rushing attacks.
53
In the algorithm 1, we use trust node (ti) and network node (ni) to explain our proposed
IDS and the same procedure is used by all trust node in WMN to detect and isolate
their rushing attackers’
V. RESULT ANALYSIS
We have taken network simulator (ns2) environment to implement and verify our
proposed idea in a hostile environment. We consider the number of legitimate nodes
is fifty in a network, network nodes communicate with upd traffic, the udp traffic is to
be attacked by three rushing attacker’s. Based on the network dimensions, an optimal
number of trust nodes required is nine to monitor all network nodes. The network
configurations are listed shown in table 1.
Table I. Simulation parameters
Parameter Value
Number of legitimate nodes 50
Routing Protocol AODV
Queue Type Drop Tail
Packet Size 1500 bytes
Transport protocol UDP
Network area 2000m ´ 2000 m
Trust node coverage area 500m ´ 500m
Number of Trust nodes 9
Number of attackers 3
Simulation Time 1000 sec
The following attacks are implemented at each attacker node to create a hostile
environment in wireless mesh networks,
1. Packet dropping
2. Selectively dropping packets
3. Injecting malicious packets
4. Increase the queuing delay of each packet
We consider mainly the Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) protocol
for your test environment. Basic AODV protocol doesn’t provide any security-related
to rushing attack followed by jellyfish and byzantine attacks. Here, the AODV
routing protocol is modified such that it detects the rushing followed by jellyfish and
byzantine attacks in wireless mesh networks. To evaluate the performance of our
proposed solution we used the same scenarios and simulation parameters that are
used for simulating the attack. In the proposed solution, the Sender sends the packets
54
until the attack is detected and after that source node blocks the current route and
chooses another route for data transmission. We have run three types like non-hostile
environment, hostile environment with our proposed IDS, and hostile environment
with proposed IDS for 1000 sec and observe the network performance in the form of
a goodput and packet delivery ratio.
Goodput: It is defined as the number of data packets transmitted per Unit-time.

We have compared our proposed IDS approach goodput with non-attack, byzantine
attack and jellyfish attack scenarios goodput which is shown in figure 1. Based on
our results, our proposed IDS has shown poor network performance from 1 to 3sec
before the detection of rushing attacks. From the 4 sec, our proposed IDS improve the
throughput which equals to non-attack scenario throughput.
Figure 1. Goodput in hostile and non-hostile environments

Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR): The Number packets transmitted by the number of
received packets. We have compared our proposed IDS approach PDR with non-
attack, rushing attacks such as byzantine attack, jellyfish attack scenarios PDR results
which are shown in the figure 2. Our proposed IDS have shown the good PDR results
in a hostile environment which are nearly equal with the non-attack scenario PDR
results.
Figure 2. PDR in hostile and non-hostile environments
55
VI. CONCLUSIONS
In this paper, we have addressed the rushing attacks by developing trust-based hybrid
IDS. In our proposed work, we have formulated to deploy the optimal number of
trust nodes in WMN and developed trust-based hybrid IDS to detection and isolation
of rushing attacks. We have implemented our proposed IDS in the dynamic routing
protocol to analyze the performance. Based on the simulation analysis, we found that
our proposed IDS have detected and isolated the three rushing attacks within 3sec if
the rushing attacks are present, which lead to improving the network performance
which equals to non-attack scenario. In our future work, we plan to apply machine
learning algorithms on our proposed trust-based hybrid IDS to update the node
reputation values.
REFERENCES
1. Hu, Yih-Chun, Adrian Perrig, and David B. Johnson. “Rushing attacks and defense in
wireless ad hoc network routing protocols.” In Proceedings of the 2nd ACM workshop on
Wireless security, pp. 30–40. ACM, 2003.
2. K. Ganesh Reddy, V. Purushothmama raju, P. Santhi Thilagam An Effective Analysis on
Intrusion Detection Systems in Wireless Mesh Network, 2017 International Conference
on Advances in Computing, Communications and Informatics (ICACCI), pp. 2213–2220.
3. Kannhavong, B, Nakayama H, Nemoto Y, Kato N and Jamalipour A (2007), “A survey
of routing attacks in mobile ad hoc networks”,Wireless Communications, IEEE, 14(5),
pp. 85–91.
4. Nandy, Rusha, and Debdutta Barman Roy. “Study of various attacks in MANET and
elaborative discussion of rushing attack on DSR with clustering scheme.” International
Journal of Advanced Networking and Applications 3, no. 1 (2011): 1035.
5. A. Burg (2003), “Ad hoc Network Specific Attacks”, Ad hoc networking: Concepts,
Applications and Security Seminar, Technische Universität München, 2003.
6. Z. Sheng, L. Li, L. Yanbin and Y. Richard (2004), “Privacy-Preserving Location based
Services for Mobile Users in Wireless Networks”, Department of Computer Science, Yale
University, Technical Report ALEU/DCS/TR-1297, 2004.
7. UC Berkeley and USC ISI (1998), “The network simulator ns-2”, Part of the VINTproject,
http://www.isi.edu/nsnam/ns.
8. S. Sharmila, G. Umamaheswari (2012), “Detecion of Sybil attack in mobile wireless sensor
networks“, International Journal engineering science & advanced technology, Vol. 2, no. 2,
pp. 256 – 262, Mar-Apr 2012.
9. Abhay Kumar Rai, Rajiv Ranjan Tewari and Saurabh Kant Upadhyay, “Different Types of
Attacks on Integrated MANET-Internet Communication”, International Conference on the
Network of the future, 2011.
10. Ilyas, M. & R. Dorf (Eds.) (2003),” The handbook of ad hoc wireless networks”, Boca
Raton,FL, USA: CRC Press, Inc.
11. Reddy, K. Ganesh, M. S. Sudheer, P. Kiran Sree, and V. Purushothama Raju. “Simulation
analysis on network layer attacks in wireless mesh networks.” International Journal of
Engineering & Technology 7, no. 3.29 (2018): 301–303.
56
12. K. Ganesh Reddy, Syni M, “Intrusion detection system for Rushing attack in
MANETs” International Journal of Merging Technology and Advanced Research in
Computing (IJMTARC), Vol. 4 and no. 16, pp. 1–7(2016).
13. Kumar, S. Ashok, E. Suresh Babu, C. Nagaraju, and A. Gopi. “An Empirical Critique of
On-Demand Routing Protocols against Rushing Attack in MANET.” International Journal
of Electrical & Computer Engineering (2088–8708) 5, no. 5 (2015).
14. K. Ganesh Reddy, P. Santhi Thilagam(2014), “Reputation based Cross-layer Intrusion 12.
Detection System for Wormhole Related Attacks in Wireless Mesh Networks” Security and
Communication Networks-Journal-Wiley, Vol. 7, pp. 2442–2462, doi: 10.1002/ sec. 955.
15. Ming Yu, Mengchu Zhou and Wei Su, “A Secure Routing Protocol Against Byzantine
Attacks for MANETs in Adversarial Environments”, IEEE transactions on vehicular
technology, Vol. 58, no. 1, January 2009.
16. K. Ganesh Reddy, P. Santhi Thilagam (2012). “Taxonomy of Network Layer Attacks in
Wireless Mesh Network.” Advances in Computer Science, Engineering & Applications.
Springer, Advances in intelligent systems and computing Vol. 167, pp. 927–935.
17. Babu, E. Suresh, S. Naganjaneyulu, PV Srivasa Rao, and GKV Narasimha Reddy. “An
Efficient Cryptographic Mechanism to Defend Collaborative Attack Against DSR
Protocol in Mobile Ad hoc Networks.” In Information and Communication Technology for
Intelligent Systems, pp. 21–30. Springer, Singapore, 2019.
18. Sen, Biswaraj, Moirangthem Goldie Meitei, Kalpana Sharma, Mrinal Kanti Ghose, and
Sanku Sinha. “A Trust-Based Intrusion Detection System for Mitigating Blackhole Attacks
in MANET.” In Advanced Computational and Communication Paradigms, pp. 765–775.
Springer, Singapore, 2018.
19. Malhotra, Sachin, and Munesh C. Trivedi. “Authentication, KDC, and Key Pre-distribution
Techniques-Based Model for Securing AODV Routing Protocol in MANET.” In Smart
Innovations in Communication and Computational Sciences, pp. 175–186. Springer,
Singapore, 2019.
20. Doss, Srinath, Anand Nayyar, G. Suseendran, Sudeep Tanwar, Ashish Khanna, and
Pham Huy Thong. “APD-JFAD: accurate prevention and detection of jelly fish attack in
MANET.” Ieee Access 6 (2018): 56954–56965.
57
6 TEXT MINING FROM INTERNET RESOURCES

USING INFORMATION RETRIEVAL TECHNIQUES
Z. Sunitha Bai1 and Dr. M. Sreelatha2

1
Research Scholar, Acharya Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh
2
Professor & HOD, Department of CSE, RVR & JC College of Engineering, Guntur,
Andhra Pradesh
ABSTRACT: Information Retrieval (IR) frameworks that can utilize the enormous source
of Information available from internet resources would give a progressive step forward as
far as conveying large volumes of data inexpensively and unambiguously, along these lines
empowering an wide variety of new information driven applications and administrations. In
spite of, the existing few IR frameworks, newly suggested IR frameworks have effectively
made the progress from research center to business application in the era of information
mining. The paper concentrates on different essential objectives. Firstly, we demonstrate
that a Information retrieval framework which is utilized for genuine applications and
diverse spaces can be fabricated utilizing some self-ruling, corporate parts (specialists).
Besides, we demonstrate that machine learning and, specifically, learning in various
routes and at various levels, which can be utilized to manufacture functional IR systems.
We demonstrate that choosing the correct machine learning strategy for performing text
mining and particular examining can be utilized to reduce the human exertion required
to clarify cases for building such frameworks. Over the most recent couple of years a
few creators have tended to the issue to change over Internet archives from unstructured
or semi-organized organization into organized and in this way page ranking mechanisms
are introduced. In this paper we quickly study the most encouraging and efficient retrieval
devices which retrieves only accurate Information based on query given by users.
Keywords: Information retrieval, machine learning, information obtaining, internet

applications, named substance recognition, methodology and outline
I. INTRODUCTION
There has been a sensitive development in the measure of Information accessible on

organized PCs around the globe, quite a bit of it as characteristic language reports. An
expanding assortment of internet indexes exist for recovering such archives in view of
coordinating catchphrases [11]. Be that as it may, accuracy of retrieving only useful
text is regularly imperfect—it is very frequently still an agonizing mission for a client
to attempt a few hunt questions and read various archives before a required snippet of
Information is found.
59
A noteworthy piece of Information—e.g., administration data collections,

commercial information, online news, court decisions, legitimate acts, restorative
cautions and records, and internet-based social networking correspondence—
is broadcasted in the course of amorphous, free available archives and is in this
manner difficult to look in. In the process of text mining chain, one of the underlying
connections is Information retrieval [12, 13]. Its significant objective is to change
the information from unstructured shape into organized portrayal. The Information
retrieval (IR) undertaking is communicated as to process the assembling of writings
which have a place with a specific area and get from them a formerly characterized
group of name sorts, associations amongst them and occasions where they take
an interest. Each arrangement of removed elements is included, for example, as
documentation to a collection of a social Information base all together that information
mining methods can be connected to this organized Information set later. There are
two ways to deal with the Information retrieval framework plan, in particular learning
designing and programmed preparing approaches [5]. Them two have their own
particular advantages and disadvantages and are connected relying upon the assets
accessible to the framework’s architect.
Customary information mining expect that the Information to be “mined” is as
of now as a social Information base. undesirably, for some applications, electronic
Information is just accessible as free normal documents relatively with organized
Information bases. Since IR tends to the issue of changing a quantity of printed records
into a additional organized Information base, the Information base developed by an IR
[12] section can be given to the KDD [14] section to additionally mining of learning
as showed in Figure 1. Information retrieval can play an noticeable responsibility in
text extraction as showed.
Figure 1. Outline of IR-based text retrieval structure

In spite of the fact that building an IR framework is one of the troublesome undertaking,
there is noteworthy late advance in utilizing machine learning techniques to help
mechanize the development of IR frameworks. By physically commenting on few
records with the Information to be removed, a sensibly precise IR framework can be
incited from this named quantity for accurate data and after that connected to a huge
60
quantity of text to build an Information base. Be that as it may, the exactness of current
IR frameworks is constrained and subsequently a consequently separated Information
base will definitely contain critical quantities of mistakes. An imperative inquiry is
observed either the learning found from the “noisy” Information base is fundamentally
less solid than information found from a clear Information base. This article presents
tests demonstrating that tenets found from a consequently removed Information base
are shut in precision to that found from a physically developed Information base [12].
A more subtle association is the advantage that KDD can thusly give to IR [13]. The
data available from internet resources contain both useful and unwanted data. IR
mechanisms are used for the structuring of useful data by maintaining a information
cluster and giving ranking to the mined pages with a set of association strategies.
II. RELATED WORK
In previous couple of years, there are many ways to deal with IE frameworks, including
contraption learning and example retrieval methods, had been suggested, with
different rate of mechanization. In this segment we overview the beforehand projected
scientific classifications for IR methods created by the primary specialists. There
are five primary undertakings characterized for text IR, including named substance
acknowledgment, co reference determination [11], layout component development,
format connection development and situation format creation.
Pooja Devi et al. [3] has proposed Vision-based Web Entity Extraction utilizing
VIPS Algorithm (a Vision-based Page Segmentation Algorithm). Label trees will in
general spotlight on the introduction structure rather than the substance structure which
is the fundamental issues with past fills in as they frequently are not right enough to
separate in the site page the semantic segments. Likewise planners have distinctive
style to make a site page which is perplexing and shifted. This paper proposes Vision-
based page division way to deal with dealing these issues.
It does the page division dependent on human discernment and utilizations
different page design highlights like text dimension, distinctive hues utilized in the
areas of a site page to construct a dream tree for a page. It is not concentrating on
external parameters like user inputs or functional scripts.
Kanwalpreet Singh Bajwa et al. [4] has presented a Hierarchical Conditional
Random Field [2] method for understanding a page format. To get proficient and
precise outcomes on data recovery of substances the significance of Page-format
understanding is a flat out need. With Vision-tree, hubs are the resultant yield yet
doling out the marks turns into an errand. It incorporates the long separation conditions
to accomplish promising outcomes.
Recognizable proof of substance is a standout amongst the most critical element data
recovery. To get required data for the predetermined inquiry must be considered if the
elements are very much characterized. William W. Cohen has presented Semi-CRF [3]
in which as per the appointed names the text substance inside the html component
61
is portioned to distinguish the elements substantially more better and precise way.
Additionally the yield is exhaustive depiction about the substances as entire together.
Muawia Abdelmagid et al. [5] have displayed Geographic data Extraction
from web records and text information. They have created GeLo frameworks which
encourage associations and organizations to extricate and addresses from their web
areas. The estimations of Recall measures, Precision and F-measure show promising
outcomes. In this way these empowering results can be considered for the few issues
looked in geological data recovery methods.
A. Gandomi et al. [2] arranged wrappers into 4 unmistakable classes, including
hand-made wrappers utilizing general programming dialects, extraordinarily
composed programming dialects or devices, heuristic-based wrappers, and WI
approaches. Pooja Devi et al. [3] took after this scientific classification and thought
about WI frameworks from the client perspective and segregated IR apparatuses
in view of the level of robotization. They characterized IR apparatuses into four
unmistakable classes, including frameworks that need developers, frameworks
that need explanation illustrations, comment free frameworks and semi supervised
frameworks.
Kanwalpreet Singh Bajwa et al. [4] who keeps up the RISE Internet internet page,
grouped IR apparatuses into 3 unique classes as indicated by the kind of info reports
and the structure/imperatives of the retrieval designs [11]. The top notch incorporates
instruments that procedure IR from free text utilizing retrieval designs that are
primarily in view of syntactic/semantic imperatives.
The main class wrappers, abuses to find record limits and after that concentrate
components of a solitary rundown of identical records from a source page. The next
classification, page-level wrappers, removes components of different sorts of records.
They additionally differentiated the tool boxes by utilizing a few elements, for example,
yield strategies, interface sort, internet slithering capacity and GUI bolster [15].
This review indicates three fundamental measurements for assessing IR
frameworks, the scientific categorization of consistent articulation tenets or Prolog-
like rationale rules, and that of deterministic limited state transducer or probabilistic
concealed Markov replicas, prompt the subsequent measurement which transmits
the fundamental strategies utilized as a part of IR frameworks. At long last, the
arrangements of developer included, learning based or explanation free methodologies
suggest the third measurement which concerns the level of mechanization. These three
measurements are talked about in the following segment.
The retrieval of Information is proficient utilizing basic procedures in view
of syntactic coordinating. semi-organized pages: are in a middle position amongst
unstructured and organized pages, in that they don’t adjust to a depiction for the sorts
of information distributed in that. These archives have in any case a sort of structure,
and retrieval strategies are regularly in view of the nearness of unique examples, as
HTML labels [13]. The Information that might be removed from these records is
somewhat restricted.
62
Other than the HTML page structure, viable wrappers consider additionally the
structure of hyperlink as it might uncover pertinent Information. Contingent upon the
sort of internet index the accompanying sorts of results can be acquired:
• one page contains all the thing depictions;

• a progression of pages connected to each other, all containing the thing
depiction;
• a chain of pages, each containing an abbreviated portrayal of things, each
connecting to a point by point page.
The following are the different techniques proposed by different authors for performing
text mining from internet resources using Information Retrieving techniques.
A. Web directories
J. Saratlija et al. [10] proposed a strategy for finding and arranging the data on Web will
be Web catalogues. Web registries speak to the Web pages in a various levelled shapes.
The progressive portrayal of Web pages gives the data to the end client in the subject
and subtopic frame. This progressive system can grow up to numerous dimensions.
The human editors are in charge of audit, characterization and introduction of points
that are added to a registry. Web registries are like work area indexes, where records
are assembled in a registry. Web registries are expansive accumulations of connections
to destinations, masterminded in various classifications.
The Web is an arrangement of interlinked hypertext records got to through the
Internet. It is a huge asset of hyperlinked and heterogeneous data including text,
picture, sound, video and metadata. It has experienced an exponential development in
the previous couple of years.
As of now, IR [12] frameworks have various issues in keeping up or improving
the quality of their execution. The Web index structure has a few downsides that are
portrayed as underneath:
(i) Time Taking and Repetitive: Submitting the Web page connects to Web indexes is
a tedious and a repetitive activity. On the off chance that an index accommodation
programming is utilized to robotize it to some degree however regardless it
requires investment and is truly exhausting.
(ii) Low rates: Web pages are submitted to Web registries for endorsement by the
specialists. It requires a long investment to favor the Web pages joins. Once in a
while the Web pages are rejected.
(iii) Expensive and hard to keep up: The Web pages in Web registries are kept up by a
gathering of specialists. It turns out to be progressively troublesome undertaking
to keep up every one of the pages accessible on the Web.
(iv) Updating of database is exceptionally uncommon: Every movement of Web
indexes is finished physically. In this way, the Web pages accessible in Web
catalogs are infrequently expelled or reconsidered. Thus, the refreshing of Web
indexes database is exceptionally uncommon.
63
There are some seeking instruments accessible that enable the clients to locate the
applicable data on the Web rapidly and effectively. There are two methodologies -
Web indexes, internet searcher, which are utilized for sorting out and finding the data
on the Web. In the two methodologies, data about Web pages is contained in some
database that is as of now made either physically or by utilizing extraordinary projects
called crawlers.
B. Search engine
Xiangwen Ji et al. [11] proposed a methodology for sorting out and finding the data on
the Web is search engine. Web crawler is a program that looks archives for indicated
watchwords and restores a rundown of the reports where the catchphrases are found.
Web index innovation has answered for the fast development of Web information on
the Internet, to help Web clients to discover wanted data.
Regardless of which type the search engine is, each web search tool for the most
part plays out the accompanying errands:
(i) A UI is utilized for looking through the data on the Web. The client can present his
inquiry on this interface to discover applicable data. The inquiry must comprise
of words or expressions portraying the particular data of client’s advantage.
(ii) The web index at that point looks through its archive relating to the given inquiry.
(iii) The web index restores all URLs, which coordinated the given question.
(iv) This rundown gives better coordinated URL interface on the highest point of the
returned URL list.
These returned URLs may comprise of connections to other Web pages, printed
information, pictures, sound, video and so on.
C. Ranking
J. D. Rose et al. [17] proposed a Ranking module takes the rundown of URLs returned
by the client. In the rundown of these URLs, every one of the connections are not
similarly critical. In this manner, it is a great idea to give some score to the returned
URLs as indicated by clients’ importance. Positioning is a vital part of any web crawler.
Over the previous decades, the Web has become exponentially both in size and
assortment. Because of quick development of the Web, a basic watchword pursuit can
coordinate a huge number of Web pages. A human normally can check just the initial
twenty or some more URLs returned by the search engine. In this way, clients depend
on web search tools not just to recover the Web pages approving to their data require
yet in addition effectively rank those Web pages as indicated by their significance to
the client’s question.
Today, various different factors likewise considered for ascertaining the page
rank.
A portion of the elements considered are:
a. regardless of whether the inquiry catchphrases show up in the title.
b. Count of inquiry catchphrases show up in the web report.
64
c. Count of a Web page opened.

d. Count of inquiry catchphrases show up in Web page.
D. Web crawler
K. Ammulu et al. [19] proposed a program that peruses the Web in a deliberate and
mechanized way so as to give state-of-the-art information as Web pages to search
engine. An internet searcher keeps up its information base of Web pages with the
assistance of Web Crawler. It is otherwise called a Spider, Bots, Worm or Robot. A
Web Crawler consequently keeps running at customary interim and returns the pages
to the web crawler’s neighbourhood archive. The slithering procedure begins with a
rundown of URLs, called the seeds URLs.
A Web crawlers predominantly used to make a duplicate of all the visited pages
for later handling by a web crawler that file the downloaded pages to give quick
pursuits. Once the creeping process finishes, the downloaded records are listed. Web
Crawlers are additionally be utilized for computerizing support errands on a site, for
example, checking joins or approving HTML code.
E. Recommender system
V. L. Praba et al. [20] proposed a Recommender System (RS) which is the

product application and procedure giving data and proposals to online clients.
The proposals rely upon explicit basic leadership purposes. For instance, what
things to purchase, what music to listen and so on. The objective of a RS is to
create significant suggestions to an accumulation of clients for things or items
that may intrigue them.
From the point of view of a specialist co-op, there are different motivations to
utilize the RS which are as per the following:
(i) To expand the transformation rate: The change rate is the quantity of clients who
acknowledge the suggestion and buy the thing when contrasted with the quantity
of guests who simply peruse through the data on the site.
(ii) To demonstrate increasingly assorted things: A RS empowers the client to
choose disliked things from the thing archive by giving an exact proposal. Such
technique encourages the framework to gather cooperations of the things in the
not insignificant rundown.
(iii) To enhance client fulfillment: A refined RS enhances the utilization encountered
by clients. The client finds the proposal significant to his or her inclination
furthermore, appreciates utilizing the framework. This builds the client’s
fulfillment, and aides in enhancing the framework utilization.
(iv) To build client unwavering quality: A RS gathers the data about the client. For
model on which thing he snaps or rating of a thing. Subsequently, the client
display can be enhanced by taking client criticisms, and give more modified
proposal to coordinate the client’s inclination.
65
F. Web text mining
A. Gandomi et al. [2] proposed a Web Mining method that is characterized as use of
information mining systems to extricate learning from the Web information which
incorporates Web reports, hyperlinks between archives, utilization logs of sites, and
so forth. Web mining is utilized to get it client’s conduct, assess the viability of a
specific Website, and help measure the accomplishment of an advertising effort. The
data assembled through Web mining is assessed by utilizing customary information
mining parameters, for example, bunching and grouping, affiliation, and examination
of successive examples.
The uses of Web mining as examined beneath:
(i) Resource discovering: It includes the undertaking of recovering expected Web

reports. It is the procedure by which information is separated either from on the
web or disconnected text assets accessible on Web.
(ii) Information choice and pre-processing: It includes the programmed determination
and pre-processing of explicit data from recovered Web assets. This procedure
changes the first recovered information into data. This progression comprises of
expulsion of stop words, stemming and so forth.
(iii) Generalization: It includes revelation of examples at individual sites or over
various destinations. For this, a few information mining and machine learning
strategies are utilized.
(iv) Analysis: It includes the approval and translation of the mined examples. This
step assumes an imperative job in example mining.
The major testing issue in text mining emerges from the complexity of a characteristic
language itself. The normal language isn’t free from the uncertainty issue. Uncertainty
implies the ability of being comprehended in at least two conceivable facility or
ways. Uncertainty gives a characteristic language its adaptability and ease of use, and
subsequently, in this way it can’t be totally disposed of from the regular language.
Single word may have various implications. One expression or sentence can be
interpreted in different ways, in this manner different implications can be occured. In
spite of the fact that various looks have been led in settling the equivocalness issue.
III. INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Information Retrieval (IR) is a procedure, which takes inconspicuous messages as

information and create, settled configuration, unambiguous information as yield.
This information might be utilized specifically for show to clients, or might be put
away in a Information base [3] or spreadsheet for coordinate mix with a back-office
framework, or might be utilized for ordering purposes in internet crawler/Information
Retrieval (IR) applications. It is enlightening to think about IR; though IR essentially
discovers messages and introduces them to the client (c.f. great internet crawlers), IR
66
investigations messages and introduces just the particular Information extricated from
the text that is important to a client. For instance, a client might need to make a diagram
of offer value organizations in the substance administration part. To begin with they
may need to enter a rundown of important terms (e.g. “text administration, learning
administration, Information administration,”...) and afterward read each returned “hit”
themselves to check whether (I) it identifies with a significant organization and (II)
what the real offer cost is. Conversely, in an admired situation, a client could set up
an IE framework that can (I) all the more precisely arrange organization sites by a
more profound comprehension of their substance and (II) having discovered a right
site, to extricate the organization name and offer value consequently and add it to a
Information base. There are focal points and hindrances of IR [14]. IR frameworks are
more troublesome and information escalated to fabricate. Much manual exertion goes
into fitting IR runs, while IR is regularly construct just in light of factual weightings
of watchword records. This makes IR exceptionally summed up while particular IR
applications may not port effectively to new applications or spaces. Additionally, at
run time, the coordinating methods of IR are all the more computationally costly.
This implies it is hard to incorporate complex IR procedures with the sort of internet
index expected to give general questioning over the entire internet where the volume
of online archives is gigantic and preparing time per report must be insignificant—IR
is, best case scenario suited to particular vertical spaces. Be that as it may, the money
saving advantage of IR concerning IR comes fundamentally through decreasing the
measure of hunt and perusing exertion required by end clients to locate the pertinent
Information from huge record accumulations.
There are five fundamental assignments that can be related with Information
Retrieval (as characterized by the main gathering for this examination, the Message
Understanding Conferences [14])
• Named Entity acknowledgment (NE): Finds and orders things of Information

in text, e.g. names, places and so forth.
• Co-reference Resolution (CO): Identifies personality relations between
things of Information writings.
• Template Element development (TE): Organizes and consolidates different
NE results to make a solitary element portrayal.
• Template Relation development (TR): Finds relations between TE elements.
• Scenario Template generation (ST): Fits TE and TR comes about into
determined occasion situations—i.e. makes a story structure.
For current business prerequisites, the errands of NE and TE are the most fascinating.
For instance, an advertising division may utilize IR to make a market examination
Information base by separating item information from online inventories. Additionally,
a call-focus may utilize IR to break down the substance of approaching messages
keeping in mind the end goal to sort and convey them to dependable individuals or to
make programmed answers.
67
The general procedure to assemble an IR framework could be portrayed as

takes after. Initial, a learning engineer characterizes a vacant layout. A format is an
organized protest made up of an arrangement of openings (characteristic esteem
sets) which speaks to an agenda of the sorts of Information thing that should be
extricated from a specific kind of archive/site. Also, the learning engineer must
make an arrangement of (NE) specialists fit for discovering Information things
to fill each space in the format. Thirdly, the information architect may need to
add tenets to arbitrate when diverse NE operators deliver perhaps questionable
outcomes—i.e. decipher a similar bit of text in two distinctive ways (take note
of, this issue is unavoidable in any genuine IE application!) Finally, the yield
organize, which can be a Information base, XML record, text report, and so
on must be characterized. Specifically for the second (NE specialist definition)
and third assignments (layout filling) machine learning can be connected to
enormously decrease the manual development exertion and thus cost of sending
an IR arrangement.
A. Rule-based approach
Manage based techniques for named element acknowledgment for the most part fill
in as takes after: An arrangement of guidelines is either physically characterized
or naturally learned. Every token in the text is spoken to by an arrangement of
components. The text is then looked at against the tenets and a manage is terminated
if a match is found. An administer comprises of an example and an activity. An
example is typically a general articulation characterized over elements of tokens. At
the point when this example coordinates an arrangement of tokens, the predefined
activity is let go. An activity can be marking an arrangement of tokens as a substance,
embeddings the begin or end name of an element, or recognizing various elements
at the same time. For instance, to name any arrangement of tokens of the frame
“Mr. X” where X is an uppercase word as a man element, the accompanying
guideline can be characterized:
(token = “Mr.” orthography sort = FirstCap) → individual name.
IV. OVERVIEW OF MINING FRAMEWORK
Customary information mining accept that the Information to be “mined” is as of

now as a relational Information base. Shockingly, for some applications, electronic
Information is just available in the type of free normal dialect records instead of
organized Information bases. Since IR addresses the issue of changing a corpus
of printed records into a more organized Information base, the Information base
developed by an IR module can be given to the KDD module to additionally mining of
knowledge as represented in Figure 1. Information retrieval can assume a conspicuous
part in text mining as delineated.
68
Figure 1. Overview of text mining structure

In spite of the fact that developing an IR framework is a troublesome undertaking,
there has been noteworthy late progress in utilizing machine learning strategies to
help computerize the development of IR frameworks. By physically clarifying few
reports with the Information to be removed, a reasonably exact IR framework can
be actuated from this marked corpus and after that connected to a large corpus of
text to build a Information base [3]. Be that as it may, the precision of current IR
frameworks is limited and in this way a consequently separated Information base
will definitely contain huge numbers of errors. An imperative inquiry is whether the
information found from this “boisterous” Information base is significantly less solid
than learning found from a cleaner Information base. This paper presents experiments
demonstrating that guidelines found from a consequently separated Information base
are close error to that found from a physically built Information base.
V. OVERALL PROCEDURE FOR INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Distinctive creators isolate the procedure of Information retrieval in various strides of

various granularity, consolidating them into greater stages and allotting the parts of
the Information retrieval frameworks to fulfill the undertakings involved [5]. This
method can be performed by the parts named as tokenizes, text zoners, segmenters or
splitters. A tokenization [7] is a very direct assignment for the writings in any European
dialect, where the clear space amongst characters and accentuation demonstrate the
limits of a word and a sentence separately. Be that as it may, for instance, for Chinese
or Japanese writings, where the limits are not all that undeniable this operation is not
the basic one and requires significantly more push to satisfy it.
The following assignment inside the underlying preparing stage is typically the
morphological investigation which includes grammatical form labeling and phrasal
units (thing or verb phrases) recognizable proof. Part of-discourse labeling may be
useful to the subsequent stage which is the lexical examination. It handles unknown
words and resolves ambiguities, some of them by recognizing grammatical form
69
of the words which cause those ambiguities. What’s more, the lexical investigation
includes working with the specific word references and gazetteers, which are made
out of various sorts of names: titles, nations, urban communities, organizations and
their additions, positions in an organization, and so forth. There are a few sorts of
coreference, yet the most widely recognized sorts are pronominal and appropriate
names coreference, when a thing is supplanted by a pronoun in the principal case
and by another thing or a thing expression in the second one [9]. Output comes about
era This stage includes changing the structures which were extracted amid the past
operations into the yield layouts as indicated by the format specified by a customer.
It may incorporate diverse standardization operations for dates, time, currencies,
and so forth. Not the majority of the assignments must me essentially expert inside
one Information retrieval project. Along these lines, a specific Information retrieval
framework does not need to have all of those conceivable segments. As per Appelt
and Israel there are a few factors that influence the selection of frameworks’ parts, as:
• Language: As it was said before for preparing writings in Chinese or

Japanese languages with not clear word and sentence limits or messages
in German language with expressions of a troublesome morphological
structure a few modules are definitely necessary contrasted with working
with English reports.
• Text type and properties: In transcripts of casual discourse, for instance,
spelling mistakes may happen notwithstanding certain sentence limits. In
the event that Information mustbe separated from such messages those
issues must be contemplated and addressed while planning a framework by
including comparing modules.
• Retrieval undertaking: For a simple errand like names acknowledgment
the parsing and anaphora resolution modules won’t not be required by any
stretch of the imagination.
VI. CONCLUSION
Information Retrieval is by all accounts the best method for extricating the text utilizing
text mining. The general procedure of Information retrieval in view of text mining
structure is considered. The variables, for example, exactness, Recall, F-measure and
space blunder rate are utilized for assessment in Information retrieval are likewise
examined. In this paper, we have exhibited an approach that uses a naturally adapted
IR framework to separate an organized Information bases from a text corpus, and after
that mines this Information base with existing KDD devices.
The commitment of this paper has been both from a specialized and from a
framework perspective. At a specialized level, and in addition presenting a general
design, various inventive segments have been portrayed with an accentuation
on machine getting the hang of, including: a reconsidered base up calculation to
develop XSL-Patterns, a factual word event investigation to produce catchphrases for
70
separating parts of text, inductive to create complex linguistic use rules and, at last,
and, measurable examination way to deal with manufacture a spatial model for format
filling. The strategies have been assessed and appeared to be powerful with various
archive sorts and different online application situations.
REFERENCES
1. Tak-Lam Wong, Wai Lam, “An unsupervised method for joint information retrieval and
feature mining across different internet sites”, Information & Knowledge Engineering,
Vol. 68, no. 1, January 2009, pp. 107–125.
2. A. Gandomi and M. Haider, “Beyond the hype: Big data concepts, methods, and analytics”,
International Journal of Information Management, Vol. 35, no. 2, pp. 137–144, 2015.
3. Pooja Devi, Ashlesha Gupta, Ashutosh Dixit, “Comparative Study of HITS and PageRank
Link based Ranking Algorithms”, IJARCCE, Vol 3, no. 2, February 2014.
4. Kanwalpreet Singh Bajwa, Amardeep Kaur, “Hybrid Approach for Named Entity
Recognition”, International Journal of Computer Application, Vol 118, no. 1, May 2015.
5. Muawia Abdelmagid, Ali Ahmed and Mubarak Himmat, “Information Extraction Methods
and Extraction Techniques in the Chemical Document’s Texts: Survey”, ARPN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, 2015.
6. R. Upadhyay and A. Fujii, “Semantic Knowledge Extraction from Research Documents”,
Proceedings of the 2016 Federated Conference on Computer Science and Information
Systems, Vol. 8, pp. 439–445, IEEE, 2016.
7. Polpinij, “Ontology-based knowledge discovery from unstructured and semi-structured
text,” University of Wollongong thesis Collection, 2014.
8. Kavitha Jayaram, Sangeetha K, “A Review: Information Extraction Techiniques from
Research papers”, International Conference on Innovative Mechanisms for Industry
Applications (ICIMIA 2017), 978-1-5090-5960-7/17.
9. Slobodan Beliga, “Keyword extraction: a review of methods and approaches”, University
of Rijeka, Department of Informatics, 2014.
10. J. Saratlija, J. Šnajder, B. Dalbelo-Bšić, “Unsupervised topic-oriented keyphrase extraction
and its application to Croatian”, Text, Speech and Dialogue, pp. 340–347, 2011.
11. Xiangwen Ji, Jianping Zeng, Shiyong Zhang, Chengrong Wu, “Tag tree template for
Internet information and schema retrieval”, Expert systems with Applications, Vol. 37,
no. 12, December 2010, pp. 8492–8498.
12. Yewei Xue, Yunhua Hu, Guomao Xin, Ruihua Song, Shuming Shi, Yunbo Cao, Chin-Yew
Lin, and Hang Li, “Internet page title retrieval and its application”, Information Processing
& Management, Vol. 43, no. 5, September 2007, pp. 1332–1347.
13. Manuel Álvarez, Alberto Pan, Juan Raposo, Fernando Bellas and Fidel Cacheda,
“Extracting lists of Information records from semi-structured Internet pages”, Information
& Knowledge Engineering, Vol. 64, no. 2, February 2008, pp. 491–509.
14. Gerd Stumme, Andreas Hotho, Bettina Berendt, “Semantic Internet Mining: State of the
art and future directions”, Internet Semantics: Science, Services and Agents on the World
Wide Internet, Vol. 4, no. 2, June 2006, pp. 124–143.
15. Baumgartner R., Flesca S., Gottlob G. (2001) Visual Internet Information Retrieval with
Lixto. In Proc. of VLDB, 2001.
71
16. Baumgartner R., Flesca S., Gottlob G. (2002) Declarative Information Retrieval, Internet
Crawling and Recursive Wrapping with Lixto. In Proc. of LPNMR, 2002.
17. J. D. Rose, J. Komala, M. Krithiga, “Efficient Webpage Retrieval Using WEGA”, Procedia
Computer Science, Vol. 87, pp. 281–287, 2016.
18. C. S. Naga Manjula Rani, “Importance of Information Retrieval”, Oriental Journal of
Computer Science& Technology, vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 459–462, 2011.
19. K. Ammulu, T. Venugopal “Mining Web Data using PSO Algorithm”, IJIRST –International
Journal for Innovative Research in Science & Technology, Vol. 4, no. 2, pp. 201–207,
July 2017.
20. V. L. Praba and T. Vasantha, “Evaluation of Web Searching”. Method Using a Novel
WPRR Algorithm for Two Different Case Studies”, ICTACT Journal on Soft Computing,
April 2012, Vol. 02, no. 03, pp. 341–347.
72
7 IMAGE BASED CENTROID SELECTION FOR

CLUSTERING
Gagan Kumar Koduru1, Prof. Nageswara Rao Kuda2 and Anupama Namburu3
Department of Computer Science & Systems Engineering, Andhra University,
1,2
Visakhapatnam, India.
School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati,
3
ABSTRACT: Image segmentation is a crucial and primary step in image processing, and
it has numerous applications in recognition and detection. Image segmentation is performed
mainly using classification and clustering. Classification requires prior information and
needs operator intervention in performing segmentation. Clustering is preferred as it is
unsupervised and does not require prior information. However, the clustering algorithms
require initial centroids in order to obtain the clusters. The wrongly chosen clusters results
in local minima producing invalid segmentation regions. In this paper a novel initial
centroid selection algorithm is presented which assists the clustering algorithm to result in
the region close to ground truth in limited iterations.
Keywords: Image segmentation, Clustering, Classification, Centroids
I. INTRODUCTION
Image segmentation is the processes of extracting relevant regions from the image.
The segmentation can be performed using clustering and classification techniques.
The clustering is a unsupervised technique and preferred over classification for
segmenting the regions. Clustering is the grouping of similar data items into same
data set. K-means is the most popular among the clustering techniques. However,
the clustering techniques require initial centroids to segment the image into clusters.
Different initial centroids result in different clusters. Hence, it is essential to identify
the right initial centroids that are consistent with the data distribution.
Every clustering algorithm requires the initial centroids to obtain the clusters.
Initially, the centroids were initialized by assigning the data elements to random clusters
and finding the mean value of the clusters for calculating the initial centroids [1].
However random selection of centroids resulted in different results at every run of
the clustering algorithm. A modified random selection of centroids is presented in [2]
that embeds Euclidean distance to assign the data elements to the clusters. In [3] an
optimized centroid selection for k-means algorithm is proposed. In this algorithm, the
author has spread the initial centroids in feature space so that the distance between
73
them are as afar as possible. This has the advantage of identifying the initial centroids
close to the cluster centroids and are efficient that random initialization.
In [4], a minimum attribute selection by converting the data sets into positive and
negative space is proposed. The algorithm produced best results but computationally
it is very expensive. Improved k-means algorithm is proposed in [5] with better
initial centroids obtained using weighted average technique. The k-means algorithm
based on the improved centroids resulted in less iteration in clustering. However, this
technique requires desired cluster number as input.
Numerous algorithms were proposed in literature [6–10] to find the optimized
centroids for clustering algorithm that improves the clustering efficiency, reduced
iterations by faster convergence and reduced computational cost. However, no specific
algorithm is suitable for all type of data. Hence, the initial centroid selection is still
challenging as it has applications in data clustering, speech and image clustering as
well.
Anupama et al., [10] has proposed optimized centroids based on histogram peaks.
Researchers used means value of a histogram as centroid, maximum peak associated
intensity value as a centroid. However, to compute the histogram peaks the range of
histogram values need to be specified. In order to overcome the problems associated
with these algorithms a novel initial centroid selection is proposed in this method that
computes the centroids close to the distribution of the data.
The organization of the later paper is as follows: The background of the proposed
algorithm for image segmentation is discussed in Section 2. The proposed initial
centroid selection is presented in Section 3. Implementation and experimental results
of the proposed algorithm is presented in section 4. Conclusions and the future scope
of the proposed algorithms are presented in Section 5.
II. BACKGROUND
A. K-Means clustering
K-means clustering [11] is an algorithm used to automatically partition individual of

the given universe into n groups. The general steps in K-means clustering algorithm
applied to image are shown in Algorithm 1.
Algorithm 1 Algorithm to segment image using K-means.
INPUT: Image X, number of clusters k.
OUTPUT: k clusters extracted from brain.
1. Initialize the cluster centroids Cj for j = 1, 2,..., n clusters.

2. Determine the distance dij between every pixel xi in the image X to the cluster
centroids.
d ij = argmin ( x i - C j ) (1)
3. Cluster/group the individuals based on minimum distance.
4. Calculate the new centroid for new clusters.
74
Image Based Centroid Selection for Clustering
1
Cj =
Cj
åx
xi ÎC j
i (2)
5. Iterate steps 2 to 4 until the clusters are stable.

6. Extract the tissues from the stable clusters.
The advantages of K-means include:
1. Simple and fast clustering algorithm.

2. Works effectively to segment the round objects.
3. Simply uses distance measure to group the clusters.
In spite of these advantages, the K-Means algorithm suffers from local minima
problem, initialization of centroids and pixel can belong to single cluster at a time.
III. PROPOSED METHOD
The proposed method is explained in the following steps.
1. Obtain the unique intensity values that are repeated in the Image X. Let there be
Unq(k).
2. Find Euclidean distance Edik between each xi in X to Unq(k).
(x - Unq ( k ) ) (3)
2
Ed ik = i
Where 1 ≤ i ≤ m * n. Where m * n is the size of the image. k is the index of unique

intensity values.
3. For every xi we get k distances for every unique Unq(k). Let the distances be dik.
We get Ed ik = {Ed i1 , Ed i 2 ,........, Ed ik }
for every pixel xi. i.e., Ed1k, Ed2k, ….., Edik
Where for …
x1  Ed1k = {Ed11 , Ed12 ,........, Ed1k }
x2  Ed 2 k = {Ed 21 , Ed 22 ,........, Ed 2 k }
xi Ed ik = {Ed i1 , Ed i 2 ,........, Ed ik } (4)
4. Find the minimum and maximum distances of every k distances of dik. We obtain
x minimum distances and x maximum distances.
Min i = {min ( Ed1k ) , min ( Ed 2 k ) ,...., min ( Ed ik )}
Max i = {max ( Ed1k ) , max ( Ed 2 k ) ,...., max ( Ed ik )} (5)

5. Find the average of minimum distances to find a threshold t1.
1 m *n
t1 = åMin i (6)
m * n i =1
75
6. Find the average of maximum distance to find a threshold t2.

1 m *n
t2 = åMax i (7)
m * n i =1
7. if the pixels xi are less than t1 group all into one cluster, else if pixel is satisfying
t1 <= xi<t2 then group that pixels into one cluster else group them into other.
p = xi if xi < t1
q = xi if t1 ≤ xi < t2
r = xi if xi ≥ t2 (8)
8. compute the average of all the clusters to find the initial centroids. This algorithm
generates three centroids which is suitable to segment the image into three
regions. This is very well suited for extracting three main tissues of brain. If the
algorithms need to generate a greater number of clusters, the step 4 is changed to
obtain minimum, average and maximum distance. With this we obtain t1, t2 and
t3. This will generate four centroids.
C1 = mean(p);
C2 = mean(q);
C3 = mean(r); (9)
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The proposed technique is applied to magnetic resonance brain images. The K-means
algorithm is implemented and compared with random initialization [1], optimized
histogram centroids [10] and the proposed method.
Table I. Comparison of proposed method for phantom image segmentation [12]
Initialization No. of Iterations Execution time in sec

Histogram 10 1.87
Random 43 16.2
proposed 8 1.4
Table I shows the execution of proposed method on phantom image for segmenting
the image into white matter, grey matter and cerebro spinal fluid. Initial three centroids
are calculated as with the proposed method and the K-means is performed iteratively
to obtain the stable clusters. The proposed method of selecting the initial centroids is
efficient when compared to the existing methods.
76
Image Based Centroid Selection for Clustering
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a novel initial centroid selection algorithm is proposed to identify the
centroids close to the distribution of data. The proposed method assists in avoiding
local minima problem and takes less time and iterations to make the clusters stable.
The methods work very well for applications that need three centroids as input. The
more the clusters needed the algorithm need to be modified for intermediate thresholds.
REFERENCES
1. R. O. Duda, P. E. Hart et al., Pattern classification and scene analysis. Wiley New York,
1973, vol. 3.
2. F. Yuan, Z.-H. Meng, H.-X. Zhang, and C.-R. Dong, “A new algorithm to get the initial
centroids,” in Proceedings of 2004 International Conference on Machine Learning and
Cybernetics (IEEE Cat. No. 04EX826), vol. 2. IEEE, 2004, pp. 1191–1193.
3. A. R. Barakbah and A. Helen, “Optimized k-means: an algorithm of initial centroids
optimization for k-means,” in Proc. Seminar on Soft Computing, Intelligent System, and
Information Technology (SIIT), Surabaya, 2005.
4. M. Yedla, S. R. Pathakota, and T. Srinivasa, “Enhancing k-means clustering algorithm
with improved initial center,” International Journal of computer science and information
technologies, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 121–125, 2010.
5. M. S. Mahmud, M. M. Rahman, and M. N. Akhtar, “Improvement of k-means clustering
algorithm with better initial centroids based on weighted average,” in 2012 7th International
Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering. IEEE, 2012, pp. 647–650.
6. M. Erisoglu, N. Calis, and S. Sakallioglu, “A new algorithm for initial cluster centers in
k-means algorithm,” Pattern Recognition Letters, vol. 32, no. 14, pp. 1701–1705, 2011.
7. Y. Ye, J. Z. Huang, X. Chen, S. Zhou, G. Williams, and X. Xu, “Neighborhood density
method for selecting initial cluster centers in k-means clustering,” in Pacific-Asia
Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining. Springer, 2006, pp. 189–198.
8. W. Kwedlo and P. Iwanowicz, “Using genetic algorithm for selection of initial cluster
centers for the k-means method,” in International Conference on Artificial Intelligence
and Soft Computing. Springer, 2010, pp. 165–172.
9. L. Bai, J. Liang, and C. Dang, “An initialization method to simultaneously find initial
cluster centers and the number of clusters for clustering categorical data,” Knowledge-
Based Systems, vol. 24, no. 6, pp. 785–795, 2011.
10. N. Anupama, S. Kumar, and E. Reddy, “Rough set based mri medical image segmentation
using optimized initial centroids.” International Journal of Emerging Technologies in
Computational and Applied Sciences., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 90–98, 2013.
11. J. T. Tou and R. C. Gonzalez, “Pattern recognition principles,” 1974.
12. [Online]. Available: http://www.bic.mni.mcgill.ca/brainweb/.
77
Computer Based Applications
Single Valued Triangular Neutrosophic Fuzzy C-Means for Mr. Brain

Image Segmentation
Anupama Namburu, Sibi chakkaravarthy, Meenalosini Vimal Cruz, Hari Seetha
Real-time 2D Avatar Lip Syncing for the on Demand Interactive Chatbots

Venkata Susmitha Lalam, Abhinav Dayal, Sajid Vali Rehman Sheik and Vinay Kumar
Adabala
DCNN-SVM: A New Approach for Lung Cancer Detection

Bibhuprasad Sahu, Amrutanshu Panigrahi and Dr. Saroj Kumar Rout
Multi-model Medical Image Fusion based on Gradient Domain Guided

Image Filter
K. Vanitha, D. Satyanarayana and M. N. Giri Prasad
A Brief Analysis on the Top Performing Companies across the Globe

Kalluri Lakshmi Prathyusha and Hari Kishan Kondaveeti
Smart Home Security System

Sai Sindhu Reddy Vemireddy, P. V. K. Sai, Anupama Namburu
Brain Tumour Classification using Convolution Neural Networks

Prathibha Goriparthi, Srinu Madhav V. and Narendra M.
Prediction of Crop Yield using Deep Learning Techniques: Concise

Review
Miriyala Geetha Pratyusha and Arun Kumar Sinha
Design of Mems Model to Study the Radiation Effects on Brain Tumour

Shameem Syed, Arunmetha S., Sri Haritha C.H., Chandana Sindhu G., Sambasivarao K.
An Improved Telecommunication Churn Prediction System by PPFCM

Clustering Hybrid Model.
Vijaya J., Srimathi S., Karthikeyan S. and Siddarth S.
Grammar Expert
Vikash Varma Sayyaparaju, Ramya Bhargavi Pichukala, Vidyadhari Tummalapalli,
4
Abhinav Dayal
8 SINGLE VALUED TRIANGULAR NEUTROSOPHIC

FUZZY C-MEANS FOR MR. BRAIN IMAGE
SEGMENTATION
Anupama Namburu1, Sibi chakkaravarthy2, Meenalosini Vimal Cruz3 and

Hari Seetha4
1,2,4
School of Computer Science Engineering, VIT AP Univeristy, Amaravathi, India.
3
School of Computer Science Engineering, Keene State College, Keene, New Hampshire
ABSTRACT: Medical image segmentation places a vital role in early detection and
diagnosing the disease. Recent days, many researchers are working on enhancing the
result of segmentation, which is crucial for treatment planning. Segmenting brain images is
challenging due to the presence of noise and intensity in-homogeneity that creates uncertainty
in segmenting the tissues. Neutrosophic sets are efficient tools to address these uncertainties
present in images. A novel single valued triangular neutrosophic fuzzy c-means algorithm is
proposed to segment the magnetic resonance brain images is shown in this paper. The image
is represented with triangular neutrosophic sets to obtain truth, falsity and indeterminacy
regions which are further used to obtain the centroids and membership function needed for
fuzzy c-means to extract the tissues of the brain. The proposed algorithm has proved to be
more efficient and outperformed algorithms exist in literature.
Keywords: Clustering, Classification, Neutrosophic sets, Fuzzy c-means, Brain image

segmentation
I. INTRODUCTION
Although there is tremendous improvement in medical acquisition devices, still the

acquired medical images are subjected to noise and intensity in homogeneity. These
artifacts are the resultant of improper acquisition device or process or the person
movements during acquisition of image. These artifacts make the segmentation of
medical images more challenging. The magnetic resonance(MR) brain image is often
segmented into white matter(WM), gray matter(GM) and cerebro spinal fluid (CSF)
and is important to study the functioning of brain, treatment arranging and quantitative
examination.
Fuzzy CMean (FCM) is an effective clustering methods to segment MR brain
images. Dunn [1] has designed the method and later was extended by Bezdek [2].
Fuzzy systems could not handle the pixels present in the boundary region called the
indeterminacy set.
Neutrosophic sets (NS) introduce the indeterminacy set to effectively handle the
boundary conditions. NS is a generalized fuzzy set and deals with origin, nature and
81
neutrality. The NS represent the data with true t, false f and indeterminacy i, sets.
Guo et al., [3] proposed NS to process the images with noise and propose a novel NS
approach for image segmentation. In this method, the image is transformed into the
NS and two new operations, α-mean and γ−enhancement, are defined and applied to
reduce the indeterminacy of the image, measured by the entropy of the indeterminate
set. After this process the image becomes more uniform and homogeneous and more
suitable for segmentation. Finally, the image in the NS domain is segmented using
a γ−means clustering method.
In papers [4, 5] proposed automated brain tumor segmentation on MR images
based on neutrosophic set approach. The method uses the averaging methods and
based on it extracted the truth,indeterminacy and false region that involves lots of
computation. Intuisionistic fuzzy sets were also proposed in the literature [6], but the
indeterminacy region is absent in the intuitionistic fuzzy sets.
The neutrosphic sets can effectively segment the image in the presence of noise,
very well suited for brain image segmentation. In this paper a novel single valued
triangular neutrosophic fuzzy C-Means (SVTNFCM) is proposed to extract the GM,
WM and CSF from brain images.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section II present the background of
neutrosophic sets and single valued triangular neutrosohic sets (SVTNS). The propose
method is presented in Section III. The experimentation and discussion of the proposed
method is present in Section IV and finally the conclusion is presented in Section V.
II. BACKGROUND
In the last five years MRI diffusion become important tool for learning the morphology
of brain, the brain tissues unique insights into macro structure as well as micro
structure. Th Consortium Of Neuroimagers for the Non-invasive Exploration of brain
Connectivity and Tracts (CONNECT) is introduced to combine tractography and
measure of the brain to obtain the better accuracy of connectome [7]. The magnetic
resonance (MR) data analysis is introduced for handling very huge datasets with user
friendly tools for paralleziation using R software. Compared to non-parallelized task,
the task executed in parallized task and computation time reduced by 15 percent [8].
Imaging functional MRI is confounded by various factors, notably signal dropouts due
to low signal to noise ratio and in homogeneity of the magnetic are making difficult
to make decision. However, the signal changes are identified based on nearby vessels
mostly notable by BVR(Basel Vein of Rosenthal) [9]. Maximizing the amount to
which knowledge of human brain function extracted from the connectome results in
new neuroimaging analysis algorithms and tools [10].
The fMRI used to check the non-invasively of the brain activity with high spatial
resolution. However the number of problems needs to be addressed. In statistical
analysis needs many preprocessing steps, like slice time correction and compensation
of motion are applied [11]. The modern neuroimaging research signifies a multifactorial
82
Single Valued Triangular Neutrosophic Fuzzy C-Means
and data broad ranging becomes challenging, the growth of the data and logstical and
sociological issues. Multi data type and multi-site becomes infrastructural challenge.
The neuroimaging further advances in genetics, aging, diseases related to age are
required new vision to process the data while organizing of the resources into novel
results [12]. The REsting-state based SCA.
Ling of parameter Estimates (RESCALE) uses the local information to determine
the compute voxel wise scaling factor based on correlation structure of fALFF. The
RESCALE method proposed here and easy to adapt to all tasks based fMRI group studies
in case of the resting state data for the same group is correspondingly acquired [13].
A novel distributed rank one dictionary model is introduced for fMRI big data analysis.
The model with sparsity constraint which loading the coefficient input data in every
learning step. Spark engine with RDD (resilient distributed data set) deployed to
perform the operation in distributed manner. The Human Connectome Project (HCP)
used in this model and proposed D-r1DL model is more scalable and efficient towards
the bigdata analytics [14].
(a) (b)
Figure 1. (a) Phantom image of brain web database with 1mm thickness 20% INU and 3%
noise, (b) Skull stripped image
A. Neutrosophic sets
Neutrosophic set is a branch of neutrosophy which understands how the origin, nature,
and scope of neutralities, as well as their interactions with different ideational spectra.
Neutrosophic set is a powerful general formal framework that has been recently
proposed. However, neutrosophic set needs to be specified from a technical perspective.
To this effect, we define the set-theoretic operators on an instance of neutrosophic set,
we call it Single Valued Neutrosophic Set (SVNS). We provide various properties of
SVNS, which are connected to the operations and relations over SVNS.
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
83
(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
(k) (l) (m) (n) (o)

Figure 2. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Truth, indeterminacy, false regions ground truth, SVTNSFCM
result of WM. (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) Truth, indeterminacy, false regions ground truth, SVTNSFCM
result of GM. (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) Truth, indeterminacy, false regions ground truth, SVTNSFCM
result of CSF
Neutrosophic Sets (NS) are proposed by Florentin Smarandache [15] with a new
idea for dealing with the origin, nature and scope of neutralities. In neutrosophic set
theory, every element is corresponding with a degree of truth, degree of false and
an indeterminacy degree uniquely. Thus, a data, event, concept, element or entity
A is considered as truth with its opposite Anti-A and the neutrality Neutral-A.
Neutral-A is element not in A nor Anti-A. The Neutral-A and Anti-A are referred
to as Not-A. As per the neutrosophic theory, every element A is neutralized and
stabilized by Anti-A and Not-A. NS provides a powerful tool to deal with the
indeterminacy [15].
Consider U as a universe and NS(A) is specified over U. An element xi in set A is
denoted as (t, i, f), where, t varies in T(truth), i varies in I(indeterminacy) and f varies
in F(false). Here, T, I and F are neutrosophic components varying in [0−, 1+].
The element xi(t, i, f) belongs to A with t% true, i% indeterminacy and f% false.
Statically, T, I and F are membership sets, but dynamically T, I and F are functions/
operators depending on known and/or unknown parameters [15]. There are no
constraints on the sum of T, I and F, so 0 ≤ sup T(X) + sup I(X) + sup F(X) 3+
B. Single valued neutrosophic sets

A single valued neutrosophic set N over X is defined as N = {xi, T(xi), I(xi), F(xi) | x
∈ X} where T(xi): X → [0, 1], I(xi): X → [0, 1] and F(xi): X → [0, 1] with 0 ≤ T(xi) +
I(xi) + F(xi) ≤ 3 for all xi ∈ X
2.2.1 Single valued triangular neutrosophic sets
The SVTNS is defined as where
84
(1)
(2)
(3)
where n1, n2 and n3 are neutrosophic numbers and α, β and θ determine the upper
degree of truth, lower degrees of indeterminacy and falsity respectively.
III. PROPOSED METHOD
This section describes the flow of complete algorithm for segmentation of brain MR
images using triangular neutrosophic fuzzy set.
A. Representation of image in triangular neutrosophic set
The observed image with size M ´ N be denoted as X = {xi/xi is the value of the ith
pixel in the image} where 1 ≤ i ≤ M ´ N. The image X is represented in triangular
neutrosophic fuzzy set
(4)
where T(xi) is the membership value indicating truth, F(xi) is the non-membership
value indicating the falsity and Ī(xi) indicates the indeterminacy value of xi pixel.
B. Region determination using triangular neutrosophic fuzzy set
In order to decide the regions for brain, the neutrosophic numbers need to be defined.
The numbers n1, n2 and n3 are obtained on experimentation on BrainWeb database.
Different tissues WM, GM and CSF need to be extracted for improved analysis.
Hence, we consider three clusters to determine these tissues. Every cluster indeed is
represented with triangular neutrosophic fuzzy set. In order to extract the WM, the
values of n1 = 0.7, n2 = 0.8, n3 = 1, to extract CSF n1 = 0.2, n2 = 0.3, n3 = 0.4, and to
85
extract GM n1 = 0.5, n2 = 0.6, n3 = 0.7 are used on empirical experimentation. The

α = 0.8 to increase the truth intensity and β = 0.2, θ = 0.2 are used for lowering the
indeterminacy and falsity. Figure 1 (a) shows the Phantom image from BrainWeb
with 20% INU and 3% noise and (b) skull stripped image. Figure 2 shows the regions
extracted with the SVTNS.
These extracted regions act as input for clustering.
Table I. Data sets used for simulation
Dimension Dataset Number of Images Image Size
2D Brain Web 20 181*217
2D IBSR 20 256*128
C. Single valued triangular neutrosophic fuzzy C-Means clustering (SVTNFCM)
The fuzzy C-mean partitions the data set X in to n clusters by minimizing the below
objective function J [16].
(5)
Where uij is the membership value with ith pixel and jth centroid. Cj is the mean
value of the cluster j, m is the fuzzifier value defined by the user. If the fuzzy value
m is close to 1 then the membership function becomes crisper and more binary.
If m increases the membership function becomes increasingly fuzzy and blurred
[17]. The m value between 1.5 and 3 (1.5 < m < 3) gives good results for most of
data and generally 2 is taken [16, 18–20]. The objective function is modified from
neutrosophic sets as
(6)
The SVTNSFCM is performed by calculating the cluster centroids and partition

matrix using the below equation.
(7)
(8)
Like other clustering algorithms the neutrosophic fuzzy C-means is also iterative and
stops when the clusters are stable.
86
IV. EXPERIMENTATION AND DISCUSSION
A. Experimental setup
NFCM algorithm is highly effective. To check how effective the algorithm is we need
to perform on real time databases. So, we used 2 brain databases namely (i) Simulated
BrainWeb database [21] (ii) IBSR database [22]. The databases that we are using
are not in desirable format. The images of first database Brain Web database are in
MINC format. And images of second database IBSR is in. hrd or. bit8 format. And 3rd
database viz BRATS database is in. mha format. The information about databases and
its image sizes are indicated in Table 1. So, for our implementation purpose, first step
we do is to convert above databases into readable format for our MATLAB software.
For achieving this purpose, we use the software (medical image processing, analysis
and visualization) MIPAV [23]. Also, another step we need here is to separate non
brain MRI from brain images. So, we apply pre-processing steps before segmentation
using same MIPAV software. We implement proposed algorithm in MATLAB 10.1 on
1.8 GHZ Intel core i3 processor.
In our experimental setup, we apply proposed segmentation GRIFCM algorithm,
where we take cluster count as n = 4 (pertaining to GM, WM, CSF and background).
The initial µNS(xi) is initialized with zeros, fuzzifier constant is set as m = 2 and the
exit criteria is set as 0.01.
V. CONCLUSION
An automatic segmentation novel approach has been proposed. SVTNFCM is

a generalized version of FCM that represents image using SVTNS and applies
the modified neutrosophic fuzzy C-Means for clustering. Also, the method we
proposed handles efficiently the uncertainty in the boundary region of image with
indeterminacy region.
REFERENCES
1. J. C. Dunn, “A fuzzy relative of the isodata process and its use in detecting compact well-
separated clusters,” Journal of cybernetics, 1973.
2. J. C. Bezdek, Pattern recognition with fuzzy objective function algorithms. Springer
Science & Business Media, 2013.
3. Y. Guo and H. D. Cheng, “New neutrosophic approach to image segmentation,” Pattern
Recognition, vol. 42, no. 5, pp. 587–595, May 2009.
4. J. Mohan, V. Krishnaveni, and Y. Huo, “Automated brain tumor segmentation on mr im-
ages based on neutrosophic set approach,” in 2015 2nd International Conference on Elec-
tronics and Communication Systems (ICECS). IEEE, 2015, pp. 1078–1083.
5. Y. Guo, H. Cheng, W. Zhao, and Y. Zhang, “A novel image segmentation algorithm based
on fuzzy c-means algorithm and neutrosophic set,” in 11th Joint International Conference
on Information Sciences. Atlantis Press, 2008.
87
6. A. Namburu, S. K. Samayamantula, and S. R. Edara, “Generalised rough intuitionistic

fuzzy c-means for magnetic resonance brain image segmentation,” IET Image Processing,
vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 777–785, 2017.
7. Y. Assaf, D. C. Alexander, D. K. Jones, A. Bizzi, T. E. J. Behrens, C. A. Clark, Y. Cohen,
T. B. Dyrby, P. S. Huppi, T. R. Knoesche, D. Lebihan, G. J. M. Parker, and C. Poupon,
“Neuroimage the connect project: Combining macro- and micro-structure,” NeuroImage,
vol. 80, pp. 273–282, 2013.
8. R. N. Boubela, W. Huf, K. Kalcher, R. Sladky, P. Filzmoser, L. Pezawas, S. Kasper, C.
Windischberger, and E. Moser, “RESEARCH ARTICLE A highly parallelized framework
for computationally intensive MR data analysis,” Magn. Reson. Mater. Phy., pp. 313– 320,
2012.
9. R. N. Boubela, K. Kalcher, W. Huf, and E.-m. Seidel, “fMRI measurements of amyg-
dala activation are confounded by stimulus correlated signal fluctuation in nearby veins
draining distant brain regions,” Nature Publishing Group, May, pp. 1–15, 2015.
10. R. C. Craddock, R. L. Tungaraza, and M. P. Milham, “Connectomics and new approaches for
analyzing human brain functional connectivity,” Gigascience, no. February, pp. 1–12, 2018.
11. A. Eklund, M. Andersson, and H. Knutsson, “fMRI analysis on the GPU Possibilities
and challenges,” Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, vol. 105, no. 2,
pp. 145–161, 2011.
12. J. D. V. Horn and A. W. Toga, “Human neuroimaging as a big data science,” Brain imaging
and behavior, pp. 323–331, 2014.
13. K. Kalcher, R. N. Boubela, W. Huf, and C. Na sˇel, “Identification of Voxels Confounded
by Venous Signals Using Resting-State fMRI Functional Connectivity Graph Community
Identification,” Frontiers in neuroscience, vol. 9, no. December, pp. 1–9, 2015.
14. X. Li, M. Makkie, B. Lin, M. Sedigh Fazli, I. Davidson, J. Ye, T. Liu, and S. Quinn,
“Scalable fast rank-1 dictionary learning for fmri big data analysis,” in Proceedings of the
22nd ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge Discovery and Data Mining.
ACM, 2016, pp. 511–519.
15. F. Smarandache, A Unifying Field in Logics: Neutrosophic Logic. Neutrosophy, Neutro-
sophic Set, Neutrosophic Probability: Neutrsophic Logic. Neutrosophy, Neutrosophic Set,
Neutrosophic Probability. Infinite Study, 2005.
16. J. C. Bezdek, R. Ehrlich, and W. Full, “Fcm: The fuzzy c-means clustering algorithm,”
Comput. Geosci., vol. 10, no. 2–3, pp. 191–203, 1984.
17. D. L. Pham, “Spatial models for fuzzy clustering,” Comput. Vis. Image Underst., vol. 84,
no. 2, pp. 285–297, 2001.
18. S. Mitra, W. Pedrycz, and B. Barman, “Shadowed¡ i¿ c¡/i¿-means: Integrating fuzzy and
rough clustering,” Pattern Recognit., vol. 43, no. 4, pp. 1282–1291, 2010.
19. T. Chaira, “A novel intuitionistic fuzzy c means clustering algorithm and its application to
medical images,” Appl. Soft Comput., vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 1711–1717, 2011.
20. W. Pedrycz and P. Rai, “Collaborative clustering with the use of fuzzy c-means and its
quantification,” Fuzzy set. Syst, vol. 159, no. 18, pp. 2399–2427, 2008.
21. B. Web, “Simulated brain database,” McConnell Brain Imaging Centre, Montreal Neuro-
logical Institute, McGill, http://brainweb. bic. mni. mcgill. ca/brainweb, 2004. “Ibsr, the
internet brain segmentation repository,” http://www.cma.mgh.harvard.edu/ibsr/.
22. M. McAuliffe, “Medical image processing, analysis, and visualization (mipav),” National
Institutes of Health, vol. 4, no. 0, 2009.
88
9 REAL-TIME 2D AVATAR LIP SYNCING FOR THE

ON DEMAND INTERACTIVE CHATBOTS
Venkata Susmitha Lalam1, Abhinav Dayal2, Sajid Vali Rehman Sheik3,

Vinay Kumar Adabala4
Computer science and Engineering, Vishnu Institute of Technology West Godavari,
1,2

Electronics and Communication Engineering Vishnu Institute of Technology
3,4
West Godavari, India
ABSTRACT: Avatar lip syncing plays a vital role in making a speech animation realistic.
There have been a number of studies in this domain due to its various applications in fields
like animation, gaming and the recent use in the education and the business domains for
interactive chat-bots. In this paper, the authors present a method to achieve avatar lip sync
in real-time where, when a text is entered, the avatar utters it out with pauses corresponding
to the punctuation. This thereby creates a feeling that the avatar is actually speaking. Most
of the previous works involve the usage of 3D avatars and a facial mesh, and locating the
positions of motion as the speech is generated. This involves key-frame positioning during
the time lapse of the speech. This may involve some skilled animators and may make some
naïve developers anxious about the idea of usage of lip syncing in their possibly basic
projects. The goal of this work is to provide a similar experience of lip sync with a 2D
image of the 3D model. In this work, the authors identify words in the text entered, extract
phonemes and do a standard mapping of the phoneme to viseme. Thus, they overlay the
images of the avatar, corresponding to the visemes to create an illusion of lip sync with
the speech.
Keywords: Lip-sync, Phoneme, Viseme, Corpus, NLTK
I. INTRODUCTION
Interacting with a mobile or an online application via a virtual agent aka Avatar has
shown increased interest beyond role-playing games in recent times [1][2]. Applications
are being developed with interactive Avatars having facial expressions along with the
eye movement and lip sync [3]. They prove to be more attractive and get more attention
when compared to textual and audio-based contents in the applications. Virtual Reality
and Augmented Reality have proven to grab huge attention from students. Having
this said, a lot of research work is being done intensely in this domain to integrate
creativity with knowledge and make it a great learning aid [4]. Other than the use cases
mentioned in the literature, there are other promising uses in the field of education.
89
The authors intend to use the Avatar driven communication with the user to enhance
their spoken English skills. Such a method can also prove useful for pre-screening
candidates before actually interviewing them for any company placement or college
admission. 3D Avatars employed in VR applications [4] are computation intensive
and may not be always needed. 3D applications usually require pre-training the lip
syncing with designated text content to be spoken [4][5]. Real-time lip syncing in 3D
Avatar requires sophisticated systems with better computational power and are more
memory consuming [5]. 2D Avatar instead, has significantly lower computational
requirements and proves as effective if not more as 3D avatars in interactive chat-
based applications [6]. Lip syncing is major challenge in making the Avatar appear to
be speaking. Pre-training an avatar results in perfect alignment [7], however, prevents
the use in interactive real- time applications [8]. Modern mobile platforms offer inbuilt
text to speech engines, which are highly effective. In this paper, the authors present a
method to lip sync a 2D avatar to the speech generated by such inbuilt speech engines.
This can be achieved by mapping the set of phonemes extracted from the words in
the text with their corresponding viseme. This combined with a timed sequence of
2D viseme images, when overlaid one after the other, give an experience of the avatar
talking realistically. Any mismatch between the audio and the visible speech may
be distracting to the observer, which as a result effects the overall perception of the
context. In this work, the authors provide an experimental basis to choose the timing
sequence of overlaying the visemes, based on the speech rate used by the speech
engine. Results indicate 100 percent accuracy for short sentences (< 100 words). The
accuracy for the larger sentences is nearly close.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Extraction of phonemes
A phoneme is a distinguishable unit of sound in a language, which can be perceived.

It uniquely identifies one word from another. English language has 44 such unique
phonemes despite having only 26 characters in the alphabet [9]. The authors use
Python’s Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) [http://www.nltk.org/] that has unique
representation of 39 phonemes as shown in Figure 1. NLTK is a collection of libraries
and functions implementing the English natural language processing (NLP). The
package comes handy for research purposes in linguistics, information retrieval and
other domains where large chunks of data are involved. NLTK is the most effective and
extensively used platform to deal with data involving human language. It also contains
various tools for lexical analysis and reasoning, lemmatization and sentiment analysis.
It also provides more than 50 corpus and other lexical resources like WordNet. To
determine phonemes, the first step is tokenization, which is the process of identifying
and extracting the words from the given text. The next step is to find the sequence
of phonemes to pronounce each word. The authors use word_tokenize(), a method
90
Real-Time 2D Avatar Lip Syncing for the on Demand Interactive Chatbots
in NLTK library, which is one among the lexical tools to break the sentences in the
text into a list of meaningful words and punctuation marks. Corpora are a set of large
and structured collection of written or spoken sentences. In NLTK, corpora are a set
of written texts. NTLK provides the users with huge number of corpus, like abc for
plain-text corpora, brown for annotated corpora, treebank for parsed corpora, etc. In
this work, cmudict, which is a CMU Pronunciation Dictionary corpus, containing the
phonetic transcription of more than 100,000 words is used as a standard method to
extract the phonemes.
Figure 1. A figure enlisting the phonemes. Reference from [https://github.com/nltk/nltk/

blob/develop/nltk/corpus/reader/cmudict. py]
There has been a lot of research done on various approaches to extracting the in-
tended phonemes of a speaker from the uttered speech [10] and also a considerable
work on extracting phonemes from the databases and corpora [9]. One such resource
is available in cmudict corpus, which is used in this work. The method word_
tokenize() in the class punkt in NLTK extracts words from the entered text. Each
punctuation mark is also considered a word. These words are stored in a list. It is now
checked if each of the words among the tokens is present in the cmudict corpus, and
if present, nltk.corpus.cmudict.dict() method is called on the word. The cmudict.dict()
91
method returns a list of phonemes along with a number which indicates the typical
pronunciation of the phoneme for each word. This list of phonemes constituting the
word is called the Arpabet transcript.
B. Mapping the phonemes to the visemes
Each phoneme is associated with a distinct sound and mouth positioning; this generic
visual seen of a phoneme is its corresponding viseme. Since few phonemes are
visually similar to each other, there are only 13 visemes for 39 phonemes as shown
in Figure 2. The viseme number is to be further mapped to actual image representing
that state. The authors use two dictionaries (key value pairs), a standard mapping of
each phoneme to its viseme number, and a mapping of each viseme number to its
corresponding viseme image.
Figure 2. A figure depicting the viseme (mouth positions) associated with the phonemes.
Reference from [https://wolfpaulus.com/wpcontent/uploads/2013/08/visemes.jpg]
92
Algorithm 1
C. Timing the visemes
The python code recognises the tokens as 2 different types., the words (set of
phonemes) and punctuation marks. Whenever a punctuation mark is encountered,
the code appends the viseme index of the still image a constant number of times
to the list of images that play simultaneously with the speech engine. The authors
mention the step by step approach to extracting the tokens from the text. The
algorithm 1 also involves the methods used to generate a list of visemes that
correspond to the set of phonemes extracted from each word.
III. APPLICATION DESIGN
A. Technologies used
To develop the idea, the authors have used the Django framework for the back-end
development, and embedded python code in it. The NLTK library is imported in the
python program to do the Natural Language Processing of the submitted text to extract
93
the viseme indices at the end. For the front-end of the application, basic HTML, CSS
and JavaScript is used.
B. Creation of the sprite image
To overlay visemes corresponding to the phoneme uttered, the naive approach would
be to place all the images in the project folder and call them each time. This may
reduce the performance of the application because each time, the images have to be
loaded and then be overlaid Alternatively, a sprite image of all the visemes can be
created, as shown in the Figure 3, in the order of the viseme indices, and respectively
locate the viseme position. This method proves to be faster because loading one single
image is enough for the lip sync to load. Figure. 3. The sprite image of the Avatar’s
mouth positions corresponding to the viseme indices.
C. Overlaying images
Initially, the Avatar is displayed as a still image. Later, as the phonemes are produced, in
synchronization with the speech engine, images of the mouth positions corresponding
to the phoneme are overlaid on the still image. This overlaying is done by changing
the positions in the horizontal sprite of all the visemes, rather than of replacing the
images individually.
D. Result
This method achieves nearly 100% accuracy for the lip syncing of short and medium
text (approx. 100 words). But for long and very long sentences, there is a considerable
lapse between the speech engine and the lip-sync model. To sort this, the text is
tokenized into sentences first, and the speech engine is made to speak sentence by
sentence to achieve maximum accuracy. Figure 4 represents depicting the viseme
associated with the phonemes.
Figure 4. A figure depicting the viseme (mouth positions) associated with the phonemes in
the entered text in the application
IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was conducted as part of research grant from Sinha Research, Switzerland.
The authors are grateful to Dr. Ranbir Sinha, for providing us this opportunity. The
authors are also grateful to Verbot-5 team for giving well-designed avatar images of
Julia for usage in their work.
94
REFERENCES
1. Furukawa, S., Fukusato, T., Yamaguchi, S., Morishima, S.: Voice Animator: Automatic
Lip-Synching in Limited Animation by Audio. Advances in Computer Entertainment
Technology. 153–171 (2018).
2. Xu, Y., Feng, A., Marsella, S., Shapiro, A. Practical and Configurable Lip Sync Method for
Games. Proceedings of Motion on Games - MIG ‘13. (2013).
3. Queiroz, R., Cohen, M., Musse, S. An extensible framework for interactive facial animation
with facial expressions, lip synchronization and eye behavior. Computers in Entertainment.
7, 1 (2009).
4. Dass, S., Dabbagh, N. Faculty Adoption of 3D Avatar-Based Virtual World Learning En-
vironments. Advances in GameBased Learning. 262–296.
5. Feng, A., Casas, D., Shapiro, A. Avatar reshaping and automatic rigging using a deformable
model. Proceedings of the 8th ACM SIGGRAPH Conference on Motion in Games - SA ‘15.
(2015).
6. Visinescu, L., Sidorova, A., Jones, M., Prybutok, V. The influence of website dimension-
ality on customer experiences, perceptions and behavioral intentions: An exploration of 2D
vs. 3D web design. Information & Management. 52, 1–17 (2015).
7. Waters, K., Levergood, T. An automatic lip-synchronization algorithm for synthetic faces.
Proceedings of the second ACM international conference on Multimedia - MULTIMEDIA
‘94. (1994).
8. Suwajanakorn, S., Seitz, S., Kemelmacher-Shlizerman, I. Synthesizing Obama. ACM
Transactions on Graphics. 36, 1–13 (2017).
9. Cole, J., Hasegawa-Johnson, M., Loehr, D., Van Guilder, L., Reetz, H., Frisch, S. Corpora,
Databases, and Internet Resources. Oxford Handbooks Online. (2011).
10. Stahlberg, F., Schlippe, T., Vogel, S., Schultz, T. Word segmentation and pronunciation
extraction from phoneme sequences through cross-lingual word-to-phoneme alignment.
Computer Speech & Language. 35, 234–261 (2016).
95
10 DCNN-SVM: A NEW APPROACH FOR LUNG

CANCER DETECTION
Bibhuprasad Sahu1, Amrutanshu Panigrahi2, Dr. Saroj Kumar Rout3

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Gandhi Institute For Technology,
1
Gramadhia, Bhubaneswar, India

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Gandhi Institute for Technology,
2

Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Gandhi Institute for Technology,
3
ABSTRACT: In the present scenario lung cancer is considered as a common disease

which improves the death ratio. So detection of cause of the cancer in early stage may
improve the survival chances of patients by identify the level and position (or) status of
the tumor. Computed technology (CT) scan is considered as a new tool for classification
of lung cancer implementing deep convolutional neural network (DCNN) with support
vector machine (SVM). To indentify lung nodules which are cancerous and non cancerous
in nature, extraction of deep features plays a vital role similarly reduction of dimensionality
is important. Here we have used linear discriminate analysis (LDR). CT images are
considered as an input to DCNN then it is classify by support vector machine classifier to
achieve better accuracy. Comparative result shows the DCNN-SVM approach provides a
sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of 97.27%, 93.66% and 98.67% respectively.
Keywords: Lung cancer, Support vector machine, Linear discriminate analysis,

Neural network.
I. INTRODUCTION
Especially in noninvasive treatment and clinical assessment, medical image

investigation has played matchless quality in the field of health division [1]. For
easy and accurate diagnosis of disease doctors normally takes the help of different
methods such as X-rays, CT images and MRI images [2]. Lung cancer is one of the
main sources of death. It causes 61 million deaths per year. Lancet report claims
the death ratio increases by 112% during the year (1990-2016). Discovery of lung
cancer isn’t a simple task because 80% of the patient is truly diagnosed at impelled
stage [3]. Globally lung cancer position is seventh and tenth in case of male and
females respectively. It seems to be the third most dangerous disease after breast
cancer seems to be with females in India [4-5]. In image processing feature
selection and dimension reduction used for proper identification of disease [6-7].
The extraction of relevant information is provided to support vector machines
97
for training and testing. In the article neural network modules with binarization
of image preprocessing are used for image classification. Technology like SVM,
KNN, and ANN are expansive and survival rate of patient is very low as it detects
at only advanced stage [0-10].
The manuscript introduces an innovative CAD scheme for classification of benign
and malignant characteristics from CT images using deep learning-based SVM. Here
the DCNN has been introduced as a feature selection tool and is linked SVM to
achieve better outcomes in the classification. Proposed method outperformed better
and improvement is quite good. Section 2 of the remainder of the document includes
literature study and discussion of various classifiers in section 3.Section 4 addressed
the proposed methodology and section 5 included the work execution followed by
conclusion of future work.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
For the classification of breast cancer, Hiba chougard et al. presented a CAD model
based on CNN. To prepare deep learning needs expansive datasets while a limited
quantity of medical image information used in the transfer leaning method. CNN
delivers 98.94 percent accuracy with highest results. Heba Mohsen et al. [12] has
implemented DNN classifier for brain tumor classification by combining wavelet
transformation and principal component analysis (PCA).An algorithm for lung
nodule classification that circuits full-ISD (Texture, shape and deep model-learned
data) at the level of choice. GLCM based description is used in this algorithm
[13]. Sharkes, AI-Sharkavy & Ragab (2011) implemented discrete wavelet
transformation (DWT) with PCA for the extraction of features. This approach
enables the system to detect and classify cancer and non-cancer disease. The
accuracy achieved was almost 98% [14]. Siziki et al. (2016) implemented a deep
convolutional neural network (DCNN) for cancer / non-cancer mass detection. The
sensitivity accuracy achieved by the above approach was 89.9% [15].Wichakam
el al (2016) used the DCNN-SVM with a sensitivity accuracy of 98.44% in the
prostate dataset [16]. Levy used Alexnet to identify benign and malignant masses
in the DCNN dataset.
III. PRESENT CLASSIFICATION ISSUES
A neural network contains many hidden layers with having capability of modeling
complex structures. As the neural network black box and also having restriction
towards the ability to identify the conceivable causal relationship [18, 19].Present
techniques, after the CT image are captured and segmentation applied then it is
provided as input to the SVM classifier and accuracy determined.
98
IV. PROPOSED ARCHITECTURE OF CDNN_SVM METHODOLOGY
The suggested CAD comprises of the following steps:

(1) Enhancement of the Image (2) Feature Extraction (3) Feature Reduction (4)
Classification Feature (CDNN-SVM). The CAD scheme suggested is introduced in
flow of the DCNN_SVM system is represented in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Flow of the DCNN-SVM system
A. Image Enhancement Phase

Some kind of noise has affected the medical database. If the image is noisy and the
value of the target pixels with adjacent pixels differs between 0 and 255, then the
pixel will be replaced with regard to the achieved middle value. We have considered
adaptive histogram equalization for image enhancement.
B. Feature extraction and Reduction Phase
Using the extraction techniques of features, an image can be represented from the
matrix-vector as compact and unique. Before classification, we conduct extraction of
features to provide or determine a reduction in dimensions that will provide greater
accuracy during classification. Extraction of the feature achieves the positive features
of the CT images. In this study different feature techniques like histogram features,
texture features and wavelet features are used for extraction of important features.
After evaluating the geometrical features for individual nodules or CT images,
the featured vales are input to linear Discriminate Analysis (LDA) classifier.
To differentiate between nodule and the normal anatomy structures features are
99
merged with LDA. Minimizing the first informational index by calculating specific
important characteristics influences the difference between two data designs. Using
LDA dimension reduction of features vector can perform without any data loss. The
following graph represents the feature reduction time of LDA is better than other
reduction methods like PCA/ICA.
Figure 2. Feature reduction time comparisons (PCA/LDA/ICA)
C. Feature classification using CDNN-SVM
The Deep learning structure normally extends the usual neural network by
incorporating higher number of hidden layers in between the input and output layer
to represent the unpredictable and nonlinear type of connections. After completion of
the feature selection, the combinatory step on resulting component vector is conducted
with CDNN. CDNN operates with two deep methods like Deep Belief Network and
Boltzmann Machine. The gravitational search algorithm is introduced to enhance
the classification efficiency of the said model. The flow of deep learning model is
mentioned in the Fig3.
Support Vector Machine (SVM) is used in this study as it produces high rate
for classification in the lung cancer diagnosis. SVM is a kind of ML algorithm that
analyzes the data which can be further used for classification. It is also a well-
known supervised method which sorts data based on categories. The goal of SVM
is to separate hyper planes in a high-dimensional feature space to demonstrate a
computationally effective method. There are multiple hyper-planes available in
capable of classifying two data sets. The one with the maximum margin is the
optimum hyper-plane to be selected. The margin is represented as the width by
which, before hitting a data point, the boundary could increase. Support vectors
are the information points pushed up by the margin. Therefore, the objective of the
SVM is to locate the optimal hyper plane that distinguishes clusters of target vectors
on the opposing sides of the plane [14-17].
100
Figure 3. Block diagram of DPNN-SVM
V. SIMULATION AND RESULTS DISCUSSION
In this work, we have considered a database consists of 50 lung cancer Ct images

for cancer detection purposes. The thickness of the CT image is 1.25mm attained by
a single breath. The location of the nodules is acknowledged by the radiologist and
dataset also provided. Ct Images are taken from UCI repository. Testing CT images
are shown the below Figure 4.
Figure 4. Sample images for experiment
A. Performance evaluation
The classification model’s performance can be evaluated using performance matrices

in the proposed work. There are several evaluation techniques, including the Confusion
Matrix (CM), the receiver-operating curve (ROC), the region under the ROC curve
(AUC), the accuracy, and the F1 score, to evaluate a classifier.
101
The CM is a particular table that presents the output of the classifier. The CM
is usually referred to the error matrix in machine learning area. An image region,
depending on the type of data, is said to be positive or negative. In addition, a decision
can be either correct (real) or incorrect (false) for the detected outcome. Therefore, one
of four possible categories will be the classification: True Positive (TP), True Negative
(TN), False Positive (FP), and False-Negative (FN).
1. Accuracy
Accuracy is defined as the measure of the classifier’s correct prediction. It provides the
enormous classifier’s performance ability.
TP + TN
Accuracy = (1)
TN + FP + FN + TP
2. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC)
The ROC analysis is a well-defined evaluation criteria which is being used for detecting
the tasks. Initially the ROC was there for medical decision making but gradually it was
also used in medical imaging. The ROC curve contains the operating points which
represent the plot of True Positive Rate (TPR) as a function of False Positive Rate
(FPR). The TPR and FPR are defined as sensitivity and specificity respectively. They
can be evaluated by using Eqs. (3) and (4).
TP
Sensitivity = (2)
TP + FN
TN
Specificity = (3)
TN + FP
3. Area under the ROC curve (AUC)
This parameter is being used in the medical diagnostic system, which provides a model
by considering the average of the points on the curve for evaluation of the model. The
score of AUC should lay between 0 and 1 for the classifier performance, the model
having higher score provides more adequate classifier performance.
4. Precision
Precision is defined as the proportion of the total predicted positive observations

properly predicted. High precision pertains to low FPR. The following equation
calculates the precision,
TP
Pr ecision = (4)
TP + FP
102
5. F1 score
This parameter is the precision and recall weighted average. It is used to evaluate
the classifier’s performance as a statistical measure. This score therefore takes into
consideration both false positives and negatives. This can be formulated as,
2 ´ Re call ´ Pr ecision
F1score = (5)
Re call + Pr ecision
VI. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP
The suggested SVM classifier based on DCNN was implemented to mammographic

images which offered the chance of each image being either benign or malignant in one
of the two classes. The most commonly used lung cancer has been chosen in this task
to demonstrate the techniques recommended using R. 70 images are considered for
training for the lung image analysis and another 30 images are used for testing.
Table I. DCNN-SVM image classification
Phase Objective images DCNN-SVM

Normal Cancerous Non cancerous Total Count
Normal 22 1 4 27
Training
cancerous 2 18 2 22
image
Non cancerous 0 20 1 21
Total Count 25 20 7 52
Normal 6 0 2 8
cancerous 2 8 1 11
Test images
Non cancerous 1 10 0 11
Total Count 7 20 3 30
Figure 5. Comparative analysis of different classifiers
103
Table II. Classification comparision
DCNN-SVM ODNN MLP RBF Linear ANN KNN DNN

Accuracy 98.67 97.16 80.03 81.19 76.34 81.29 94.78 90.11
Sensitivity 97.26 97.41 78.66 95.89 96.34 94.22 95.53 82.18
Specificity 93.66 66.59 43.11 29.79 78.64 82.29 87.34 96.39
VII. CONCLUSION
Compared to other classification methods, the suggested CDNN-SVM with feature

section LDA offers excellent classification for Lung CT images. The primary
objective of this study is to identify the mass and classify the genes that are benign
and malignant. The developed CAD approach reduces the labeling time without any
interventions of human error. Many researchers developed different CAD approaches
to achieve good better accuracy and precision to detect normal and abnormal CT lung
image. The experimental outcome explains the classification performance in term of
sensitivity, accuracy, specificity and its value are 97.26, 98.27 and 93.66 respectively.
These outcomes suggested that the proposed CAD method is efficient to indentify
the cancerous parts of a CT images. In future work we will prefer to work with high
dosage CT lung cancer data for high accuracy output to classify the benign and
malignant genes.
REFERENCE
1. Rattan, S., Kaur, S., Kansal, N., & Kaur, J. (2017, December). An optimized lung cancer
classification system for computed tomography images. In 2017 Fourth International
Conference on Image Information Processing (ICIIP) (pp. 1-6). IEEE.
2. Naresh, Prashant, and Rajashree Shettar. “Image processing and classification techniques
for early detection of lung cancer for preventive health care: A survey.” International
Journal on Recent Trends in Engineering & Technology 11.1 (2014): 595.
3. Li, Juntao, et al. “Adaptive multinomial regression with overlapping groups for multi-class
classification of lung cancer.” Computers in biology and medicine 100 (2018): 1-9.
4. Sharma, Disha, and Gagandeep Jindal. “Computer aided diagnosis system for detection
of lungcancer in CT scan images.” International Journal of Computer and Electrical
Engineering 3.5 (2011): 714.
5. Bhatnagar, Divyesh, et al. “Classification of normal and abnormal images of lung cancer.”
Materials Science and Engineering Conference Series. Vol. 263. No. 4. 2017.
6. Sui, Xizhao, et al. “Validation of the stage groupings in the eighth edition of the TNM
classification for lung cancer.” Journal of Thoracic Oncology 12.11 (2017): 1679-1686.
7. El-Sherbiny, Bassma, et al. “Blb (brain/lung cancer detection and segmentation and breast
dense calculation).” 2018 First International Workshop on Deep and Representation
Learning (IWDRL). IEEE, 2018.
104
8. Xie, Yutong, et al. “Fusing texture, shape and deep model-learned information at decision
level for automated classification of lung nodules on chest CT.” Information Fusion
42 (2018): 102-110.
9. Sharma, Disha, and Gagandeep Jindal. “Computer aided diagnosis system for detection
of lungcancer in CT scan images.” International Journal of Computer and Electrical
Engineering 3.5 (2011): 714.
10. Shankar, K., et al. “Optimal feature-based multi-kernel SVM approach for thyroid disease
classification.” The Journal of Supercomputing (2018): 1-16.
11. Sahu, Bibhuprasad. “A combo feature selection method (filter+ wrapper) for microarray
gene classification.” International Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics 118.16 (2018):
389-401.
12. Mohsen, Heba, et al. “Classification using deep learning neural networks for brain tumors.”
Future Computing and Informatics Journal 3.1 (2018): 68-71.
13. Xie, Yutong, et al. “Fusing texture, shape and deep model-learned information at decision
level for automated classification of lung nodules on chest CT.” Information Fusion 42
(2018): 102-110.
14. Sahu, Bibhuprasad. “Multi-Tier Hybrid Feature Selection by Combining Filter and
Wrapper for Subset Feature Selection in Cancer Classification.” Indian Journal of Science
and Technology [Online], 12.3 (2019): n. pag. Web. 24 Sep. 2019
15. Sahu, B., Mohanty, S. N., & Rout, S. K. (2019). A Hybrid Approach for Breast Cancer
Classification and Diagnosis. EAI Endorsed Trans. Scalable Information Systems,
6(20), e2.
16. Sahu, Bibhuprasad, Sujata Dash, Sachi Nandan Mohanty, & Saroj Kumar Rout. “Ensemble
Comparative Study for Diagnosis of Breast Cancer Datasets.” International Journal of
Engineering & Technology [Online], 7.4.15 (2018): 281-285. Web. 24 Sep. 2019.
17. Sahu, Bibhuprasad. “Multi filter ensemble method for cancer prognosis and Diagnosis.”
International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences and Technology [Online], 4.2
(2019): n. pag(105-109). Web. June. 2019
105
11 MULTI-MODAL MEDICAL IMAGE FUSION BASED

ON GRADIENT DOMAIN GUIDED IMAGE FILTER
K. Vanitha1, D. Satyanarayana2 and M. N. Giri Prasad3

1
Research Scholar, Department of ECE, JNTUA College of Engineering,
Ananthapuramu, India
2
Professor, Department of ECE, RGMCET, Nandyal, India
3
Professor, Department of ECE, JNTUA College of Engineering, Ananthapuramu, India
ABSTRACT: In this paper, a new fusion algorithm for combining MRI and CT images
of a brain based on gradient domain guided image filter and the improved sum-modified
laplacian is presented. Gradient domain guided filter smoothens the source images to
provide base images and subtraction of base images from source images gives detail
images. Next, the obtained detail and base layers of two source images are fused with the
help of fusion rules such as maximum and improved sum-modified laplacian. Finally the
fused image is obtained by taking the linear combination of final base and detail images.
Our method not only preserves the source information along edges but also reduces halo
artifacts, pixel distortion. An experimental result reveals our method gives the better results
compared with existing methods both qualitatively and visually.
Keywords: Multimodal medical image fusion, Gradient domain guided filter, Improved
sum-modified laplacian, Edge preserving
I. INTRODUCTION
In medical imaging, the complementary information provided by different modalities

is used by radiologists. For better treatment and diagnosis, they need information
from CT and MRI to be present in one image. Hence, the information which is
useful from CT and MRI has to be combined as a single image [1]. This fused
image is helpful in radio surgery and clinical applications. Based on the stage at
which the integration mechanism takes place, the fusion methods are categorized
into three levels such as pixel level, feature level and decision level. In this article,
pixel-level medical image fusion methods are focused. Pixel-level image fusions
are categorized and some of them are morphological operations [2], multi resolution
decomposition, optimization, and edge preserving-based methods. Because of
multiple iterations used in optimization-based approaches [3], over smoothened
fused image is obtained.
Multi resolution schemes such as wavelet and pyramidal decomposition methods
[4–5] have been played a vital role in medical image fusion. Wavelet fused image
has blocking effects less than fused image obtained from pyramidal decomposition
107
method. As the human visual perception is directly affected by edges, it is important

to preserve the edges from source images in the fusion process. Edge preserving
methods which come under final category used for image fusion are more consistent
in extracting details information from the images. The most recently proposed edge
preserving fusion techniques are L0-gradient minimization, weighted least square
filter [6], anisotropic diffusion (ADF), fourth-order partial differential equations
(FPDE), guided image filters (GIF). Anisotropic diffusion takes less execution
time and produce blocky effects in comparison with MSD methods [7]. Unlike
anisotropic diffusion, FPDEs observed images are approximated with piecewise
planar images to reduce artifacts [8]. Guided image filter is preferred for extraction
of salient information from detail layers. This filter provides more edge information
and offers a good compromise between blurring and edge preservation [9]. However,
the above methods have a definite grade of edge protection, but don’t have obvious
edge-aware constraints. In the filtering of source images, edges are preserved well.
To overcome this, a new local filter named as gradient domain guided image filter
(GDGIF) is designed to treat edges by considering explicit constraints which brings
the similarity between the gradients of input image and output image and was
proposed by Fei Kou [12].
This paper is structured into five sections. Section II briefs the related works,section
III & IV gives the proposed method, results and quantitative analysis and section V
gives the conclusion of this article.
A. Preliminaries
In this section, the gradient domain guided filtering (GDGIF) and an improved sum
modified laplacian (ISML) are described which are used in the proposed fusion
framework.
Gradient Domain Guided Image Filtering (GDGIF)
Guided image filter (GIF) [10] which is derived from a local linear model was
proposed. It avoids the gradient reversal artifacts and gives the resultant image by
in view of the guidance image structure. As the model used in this filter cannot able
to represent the image edges, halos appear in the filtered image. The visual quality
of the filtered image is reduced and thus it becomes the main drawback of GIF. To
overcome this, a constraint term of the GIF was introduced with an edge aware factor
that reduces the halo artifacts of the GIF and the filter is named as weighted guided
image filter WGIF [11]. This factor preserves the edges and gives the better resultant
image. However, in GIF AND WGIF, zero order constraints and first-order constraints
are stated to get preferred pixel values, to smoothen pixel values respectively. In some
case, these filters do not perform well with respect to edge preservation as it does not
consider explicit constraints in treating the edges. A new local filter named as GDGIF
is designed to treat the edges by considering explicit constraints which brings the
similarity between the gradients of input image and output image and was proposed
by Fei Kou [12].
108
Multi-modal Medical Image Fusion Based on Gradient Domain Guided Image Filter
GDGIF cost function is defined as:

(Em l , n l ) = å i Î Wr (l)[(m l Ii + n l - Pi )2 + l / G j,l (ml - al)2 ] (1)
where ml and nl are two constants in the window Wr (l); and these values are obtained
by minimizing the above cost function.
Ii is the guided image; Pi is an image to be filtered;
l = regularization parameter; G j,l = Edge aware filtering factor;
g1 = Edge-aware weighting filtering factor.
The final output image qi is given as follows:
q i = ¼m(i) I + ¼n(i) (2)

i
Where Im(i) and In(i) are the mean values of ml and nl in the window.
Improved Sum Modified Laplacian (ISML)
In image fusion, selection of coefficients based on region energy fused rules gives good
outcomes based on a human visual system (HVS) which is more sensitive to texture
information, direction, edges, but not a single pixel. Classification of algorithms based
on the region energy measure results in four categories such as intuition, statistics,
histogram and derivative. The performance of 18 focus measures which are defined
based on pixel intensity variations such as energy of laplacian (EOL), energy of
gradient (EOG),sum modified laplacian (SML) are evaluated by Liu et al. [13]. In
medical image fusion,SML gives better results than other focus measures. Qu.et al.
proposed the improved definition of SML which achieves better performance for
multi-focus images [14]. In spatial domain fusion, the optimal fusion selection regions
are obtained by a large value of SML. But the separation of two all-optimal fusion
selection regions is difficult due to bound of blocking artifacts. It can be separated
perfectly by using an average and median filters. For a medical image F at position x,
the SML defined by Qu et al. is given as follows [14]:
å [ML(x )]
2
SML( x ) = (3)
kÎw x
where wx represents a rectangular window centered at the pixel x; let l = (a, b)

then:
ML(x) = ML (a,b) = |2F(a,b)–F(a–step,b)–F(a+step,b)|

+ |2F(a,b)–F(a,b–step)–F(a,b+step)| (4)
where step=1 and it denotes the variable spacing between pixels.

Improved sum modified laplacian (ISML) is defined using an average in addition
with median filter and given as follows [15]:
ISML(x) = Median [SMLavg(x), M2](5)
SMLavg(x) = Average [SML(x), M1] (6)
109
where median (.) and average (.) denotes the median and average filter functions. M1
and M2 are the size of a window of the average, median filters respectively and are
chosen as M1 = 3 and M2 = 5.
B. Proposed Method
The multimodal medical images are fused using the procedure as follows and its
schematic is shown in Figure. 1.
1. Read the two source registered multimodal medical images of size M x N such
as I1 (a, b) and I2 (a, b).
2. Gradient domain guided image filtering (GDGIF) is used to extract base and
detail layers from the source images.
3. First, I1 (a, b) is taken as input image and I2 (a, b) is taken as guidance image.
4. By applying the above two images for GDGIF, base layer B1 (a, b) is obtained.
B1(a, b) = GDGIFr,e (I1, I2) (7)
5. Subtraction of B1 (a, b) from I1 (a, b) gives its corresponding detail layer DL1(a, b).
DL1 (a, b) = I1 (a, b) - B1 (a, b) (8)
6. In this manner, the base and detail layers of I1 (a, b) are obtained.
7. Next, I2 (a, b) is taken as input and I1(a, b) is considered as guidance image.
8. By applying the above two images for GDGIF, base layer B2 (a, b) is obtained.
B2 (a, b) = GDGIFr, e (I2, I1) (9)
9. Subtraction of B2 (a, b) from I2 (a, b) the gives its corresponding detail layer DL2
(a, b).
DL 2 (a, b) = I 2 (a, b) - B2 (a, b) (10)
10. After obtaining the detail and base layers of two source images, fusion process
is started.
11. The final base image FB (a, b) is obtained by using the maximum fusion rule.
ìB1 (a,b), B1 (a,b) > B2 (a,b);
FB (a,b) = í (11)
î B2 (a,b), otherwise
12. The final detail image FD (m, n) is obtained by using the improved sum-modified
laplacian (ISML) fusion rule.
ìD1(a,b), ISML D1( x) > ISML D2( x);
FD (a,b) = í
(12)
îD2(a,b), otherwise
13. The final fused image F(a, b) is obtained by the linear combination of final base
and detail images.
F (a, b) = FD (a, b) + FB (a, b) (13)
110
Input image Input image

I1(a, b) I2(a, b)
Guidance image Guidance image
I2(a, b) I1(a, b)
Gradient Domain Guided Filter (GDGIF)
Base image Detail image

B1(a, b) DL1(a, b)
& &
B2(a, b) DL2(a, b)
Maximum Improved
fusion rule sum-modified
laplacian fusion
rule
Final base Final Detail

image image
FB (a, b) FD (a, b)
Final fused image

F(a, b) = FB (a, b)+ FD (a, b)
Figure 1. Schematic diagram of the proposed method
To assess the performance of our fusion method, experiments are conducted on two
image datasets which are downloaded from http://www.med.harvard.edu. The CT
image show the data of bones and MRI image presenting the soft tissue, respectively
are shown in figure. 2a and 2b. Fused images of ADF [7], FPDE [8], GFS [9] and the
proposed method are showed in Figure 2c–f, respectively.
111
The fusion quality metrics such as entropy (EN), mean (µ), standard deviation
(STD), mutual information (MI), spatial frequency (SF), feature-mutual information
(FMI), structure similarity based metric (Qs), average gradient (AG) and edge
preservation strength (QG) [16–18] are used to evaluate the performance of our
method. Our method is compared with various fusion schemes and qualitative analysis
is shown below.
Contrast of fused image is measured by µ and STD. Clarity and overall activity
level is measured by AG and SF. The overall information of an output image can
be measured by EN, MI and NFMI. Qs gives the structural similarity of the output
image with respect to source images. Finally, QG measures the total quantity of edge
information transferred to a fused image from the original images.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 2. (a) CT image (b) MRI image (c) ADF (d) FPDE (e) GFS (f) proposed method
As smoothing operation is performed on source images using GDGIF, edges are
preserved and the pixel distortion is suppressed by using improved sum-modified
112
laplacian (ISML) and preserving the edges. Therefore, our method has been produces
qualitative image visually by suppressing halo artifacts that appear near edges.
Performance of proposed and different fusion methods for a CT and MRI image pair is
evaluated and shown in the Table 1. From the table.1,it is perceived that the proposed
method has the highest values for mean 57.83335,STD 58.4957,MI 5.5521,Qs 0.9286
and QG of 0.8538.
From the table 2, it is observed that the quality metrics except SF, AG are
highest for proposed method and high accuracy is attained. The metrics of fused
image are mean 61.1879, STD 74.6708, EN 5.722, MI 5.7713, NFMI 0.8783, Qs
0.9570 and QG 0.8302. The fused image gives complete information about the
disease present, which is better diagnosed by doctors and which is not detectable in
other fused images.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure 3. (a) CT image (b) MRI image (c) ADF (d) FPDE (e) GFS (f) proposed method
113
Table I. Quantative analysis of fusion techniques for CT and MRI image dataset
Fusion Methods
Metrics
ADF [7] FPDE [8] GFS [9] Proposed
Mean 31.512 31.705 52.96 57.83
Standard deviation 34.541 33.783 54.53 58.49
Entropy 6.358 6.1328 6.729 6.43
Mutual Information 2.559 3.8184 4.068 5.55
Spatial Frequency 11.915 9.5727 20.11 17.49
NFMI 0.863 0.9019 0.881 0.89
Similarity metric 0.799 0.7916 0.866 0.92
Average gradient 7.035 5.7799 11.47 9.63
Edge preservation 0.653 0.58 0.64 0.85
Table II. Quantative analysis of fusion techniques
Fusion Methods
Metrics
ADF FPDE GFS Proposed
Mean 39.46 39.77 43.69 61.18
Standard deviation 47.74 47.38 53.75 74.67
Entropy 5.159 5.177 5.290 5.722
Mutual Information 2.977 3.158 3.460 5.771
Spatial frequency 14.98 13.13 26.33 21.51
NFMI 0.817 0.840 0.811 0.878
Similarity metric 0.914 0.881 0.872 0.957
Average gradient 8.902 7.715 14.55 11.65
Edge preservation 0.326 0.611 0.693 0.830
V. CONCLUSION
A new fusion algorithm for combining MRI and CT images of a brain based on
gradient domain guided image filter and the improved sum-modified laplacian is
presented. Gradient domain guided filter smoothens the source images to provide
base images and subtraction of base images from source images gives detail images.
Next, the obtained detail and base layers of two source images are fused with the
help of fusion rules such as maximum and improved SML. Finally the fused image is
obtained by taking the linear combination of final base and detail images. The fused
image performance has been calculated using evaluation metrics and its visual quality.
Our method has been presented better results in comparison with the existing fusion
methods.
114
REFERENCES
1. A. P. James and B. V. Dasarathy, “Medical Image Fusion: A Survey of the State of the Art”,
Inform. Fusion, vol. 19, pp. 4–19, 2014.
2. Yang B, Li S: Multi-focus image fusion based on spatial frequency and morphological
operators. Chinese Opt Lett. 2007, Vol. 5, pp. 452–453.
3. Mascarenhas NDA, Banon GJF, Candeias ALB. Multispectral image data fusion under a
Bayesian approach. Int. J. Remote Sens. Vol. 17, pp. 1457–1471, year 1996.
4. Burt PJ. The pyramid as a structure for efficient computation. In: Multiresolution Image
Processing and Analysis. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer; 1984: 6–35.
5. Pajares G, Cruz JMDL. A wavelet-based image fusion tutorial. Pattern Recognit. 2004;37:
1855–1872.
6. Jiang Y, Wang M. Image fusion using multiscale edge preserving decomposition based on
weighted least squares filter. IET Image Process. 2014;8:183–190.no.
7. D. P. Bavirisetti and R. Dhuli,: Fusion of Infrared and Visible Sensor Images Based on
Anisotropic Diffusion and Karhunen -Loeve Transform, in IEEE Sensors Journal, vol. 16,
no. 1, pp. 203–209, Jan. 1, 2016.
8. D. P. Bavirisetti, G. Xiao and G. Liu,: Multi-sensor image fusion based on fourth order
partial differential equations, International Conference on Information Fusion, Xi’an,
2017, pp. 1–9.
9. D. P. Bavirisetti and R. Dhuli,: Fusion of MRI and CT images using guided image filter and
image statistics, International journal of Imaging systems and Technology, Vol.27, no.3,
227–237, Sept. 2017.
10. Li S, Kang X, Hu J. Image fusion with guided filtering. IEEE Trans Image Process.
2013;22:2864–2875.
11. Li, Zhengguo, Jinghong Zheng, Zijian Zhu, Wei Yao, and Shiqian Wu. “Weighted guided
image filtering.” IEEE Transactions on Image Processing 24, no. 1 (2015): 120–129.
12. Kou, F., Chen, W., Wen, C., & Li, Z. (2015). Gradient domain guided image filtering. IEEE
Transactions on Image Processing, 24(11), 4528–4539.
13. X. Y. Liu, W. H. Wang, and Y. Sun, Dynamic evaluation of autofocusing for automated
microscopic analysis of blood smear and pap smear, J Microsc 227 (2007), 15–23.
14. X. B. Qu, J. W. Yan, and G. D. Yang, Sum-modified-Laplacian-based multifocus image
fusion method in sharp frequency localized Contourlet transform domain, Opt Process Eng
17 (2009), 1203–1212.
15. Liu, S., Zhao, J., & Shi, M. (2015). Medical image fusion based on improved sum modified
Laplacian. International Journal of Imaging Systems and Technology, 25(3), 206–212.
16. Xydeas CS, Petrovic V. Objective image fusion performance measure. Electron Lett.
2000;36:308–309.
17. Jagalingam, P., and Arkal Vittal Hegde.: A review of quality metrics for fused image,
Aquatic Procedia 4, 2015, 133–142.
18. Qu G, Zhang D, Yan P. Information measure for performance of image fusion. Electron
Lett. 2002;38:1.
115
12. A BRIEF ANALYSIS ON THE TOP PERFORMING

COMPANIES ACROSS THE GLOBE
Kalluri Lakshmi Prathyush1 and Hari Kishan Kondaveeti2

School of Computer Science & Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati,
1,2
ABSTRACT: Everyone wants to know how a company or firm has become one of the
top-performing companies. Various researchers tried to answer this question from various
perspectives and ended up with different results based on the factors chosen for the analysis.
In this paper, we compared some of such analyses and factors that affect the position of a
company. This paper gives an overall idea of the top-performing companies in the world
based on their revenue, market capitalization, profit and the number of employees. We also
conducted a sample survey to analyse the factors influencing the position of a company
from the perspective of customers and the analysis results are discussed. It is found that
most of the customers are preferring a brand or a company based on the trend, quality and
popularity. Most of the customers preferring quality over the price while buying a product.
Keywords: Companies, Analytics, Performance, Revenue, Market Capital, Profits,

Records, Network, Risk
I. INTRODUCTION
A company is a group of people with different skills which are established for a
commercial or an industrial purpose. It serves the needs of the people directly or
indirectly and it works based on different goals in order to meet the several needs of
the society.
A. Types of companies
Voluntary associations (Non-Profitable Organizations): A voluntary association

is a group of individuals who enter usually as volunteers, to form an organization
that serves a purpose. Some of the examples of this type of organizations are Trade
associations, Learned societies and environmental groups.
Business organizations (Based on Profit): A Business organization is a collective
organization of manufacturers, retailers, employers, and employees. It is based on the
profit and loss of the company and the employee’s performance.
Financial Organizations (Banks): A bank is a financial institution that accepts
deposits from the public and creates credit. Banks are helpful for the financial stability
of a country. They are very important for people for their financial comforts as they
provide loans and virtual cash options for easy money transfer.
117
B. Factors influencing the position of a company
1. Trust: Keeping the words and living up to the values are the two basics that can
help a company in its development. Losing a customer’s trust might give negative
results because “10 old customers = 1 new customer”. Losing employees’ trust
also gives negative results as they are the building blocks in the development of
a company.
2. Spontaneity: Making decisions spontaneously without waiting till the last minute
for every piece of data is always better than rushing at the very last moment. The
imperfect decision that can be corrected later is better the perfect late decisions.
The employees must complete their part of the work that can complete without
relying on other employee’s data so that at the last moment they can combine and
manipulate the things in the correct way.
3. Competition: Building a competitive advantage is always the best thing as it will
be a unique feature that a company can have. Knowing about the competitors can
help a company to make decisions according to the competitive world.
4. Records: Documenting all the activities thoroughly can help in preserving ideas,
proving the actual point when the facts are not clear. Financial records, Employees
records, Idea records and everything related to the company will be very helpful
at any point of time.
5. Network: Building connections with other people or any other company is one of
the most important things that a company should follow as it can be a source of
ideas, employees, and suggestions. Mutual helping and a strong network can help
a company reach great heights.
6. Patience: It takes time for the growth of a company. Nothing can happen
overnight. Slow and steady growth makes a company strong because all the
drawbacks and mistakes can get solved when there is sufficient time. Cultivating
a habit of continuous progress and consistency can build everyone’s confidence
and it can minimize the risks.
7. Risk: Taking a risk when all the factors are perfectly established is a good
thing. There should be some point where any company should move forward
irrespective of the results.
8. Optimism: Maintaining positive atmosphere among the employees always helps
with the company’s growth. Hoping for the best future and working towards the
growth always helps a company to grow in a very constructive manner.
9. Predicting future: Analyzing the actual trends and predicting future accordingly
might help a company to be successful because all the inventions made till now
are possible because Scientists have the ability to predict the future.
10. Location: A company’s success also depends on the PLACE where it is
established. The Mercedes company established in a village can’t be a success
as the sales will be very low because the people in the village may not be able to
buy a Mercedes car.
118
A Brief Analysis on the Top Performing Companies Across the Globe
C. Objectives of the analysis
Everyone does some analysis before they start something important. In the same way,
many people investigate many resources while selecting a company or a brand. So, if
an analysis is provided, we can easily select the product based on that data.
This analysis is useful for many jobs seekers as well because they can select their
dream company or any other company based on their requirements.
An analysis is required for the company’s growth also. Based on the graphs and
the results a company can improve its weaknesses and can build its success accordingly
in a structured manner.
A company can conduct many surveys for finding out the reasons for customer’s
satisfaction and can proceed in that way such that they can provide their services based
on the present requirements.
Any company should maintain records so that it can compare their growth with
their company’s previous reports and also with other company’s growth also so that it
can develop in a flawless method.
II. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
This analysis is based on different factors like revenue, market capitalization, profit
and number of employees.
A. Based on revenue [3]
Revenue is the income generated from the sale of goods or services [2]. The following
table consists of data is published by Forbes as Forbes Global 2000* during early
April 2019.
The data in [3] comprises of the rankings of the companies based on their
performance in generating a good revenue. Among all the companies, Royal Dutch
Shell, Apple, ICBC, ‘Ping An’ Insurance Company, China Construction Company,
Agricultural Bank of China, JPMorgan Chase, Bank of China, Bank of America,
Wells Fargo are in the top 10 positions. Most of the companies are from Banking and
Financial sectors. Most of the companies from the top 10 places are China Companies.
Royal Dutch Shell, an Oil and Gas Company, The Netherlands tops the list with a
revenue of $Bil.383 for the year 2019.
Table I. Rankings based on revenue [3]
S. Revenue
Company Industry Country
No (in Billion Dollars)
1. Royal Dutch Shell Oil and Gas Netherlands 383
2. Apple Electronics, Information U. S. 262
Technology
3. ICBC Banking China 176
119
4. Ping An Insurance Banking China 152

Company
5. China Banking China 150
Construction Bank
6. Agricultural Bank Banking China 138

of China
7. JPMorgan Chase Banking U. S. 133
8. Bank of China Banking China 127
9. Bank of America Banking U. S. 112
10. Wells Fargo Banking U. S. 102
B. Based on market capitalization [3]
Market Capitalization is the total market value of the total shares of the company. It
is calculated by multiplying the total company shares and the present market price of
one share [4]. The following table consists of data is published by Forbes as Forbes
Global 2000* during early April 2019
Table II. Rankings based on market capitalization, 2019
S. Market Capital
1. Microsoft Software Development U. S. 1058
2. Apple Electronics, Information U. S. 959
Technology
3. Amazon Consumer Services U. S. 959
4. Alphabet Technology U. S. 839
5. Facebook Technology U. S. 550
6. Berkshire Hathaway Financial U. S. 496
7. Tencent Financial China 436
8. Alibaba Consumer Services China 431
9. Visa Financial U. S. 389
10. JPMorgan Chase Financial U. S. 366
The data of many companies has been analyzed to know the rankings based on Market
Capital. Among all the companies, Microsoft, Apple, Amazon, Alphabet, Facebook,
Berkshire Hathaway, Tencent, Alibaba, Visa, JPMorgan Chase are in the top 10
places. Most of the companies are from Technology and Financial Sector. Most of the
companies from the top 10 places are U. S. based Companies. Microsoft, a Software
Development company, U. S. tops the list with a Market Capital of $ Bil.1058 for the
year 2019.
120
C. Based on profit [3]
Profit is the value obtained when total costs are deducted from total revenue [2].
The following table consists of data is published by Forbes as Forbes Global 2000*
during early April 2019
Table III. Rankings based on profit, 2019
S. Profit
1. Apple Electronics, IT U. S. 59
2. ICBC Banking China 45
3. China Construction Bank Banking China 39
4. JPMorgan Chase Banking U. S. 33
5. Agricultural Bank of Banking China 31
China
6. Bank of America Banking U. S. 29
7. Bank of China Banking China 28
8. Royal Dutch Shell Oil and Gas Netherlands 23
9. Wells Fargo Banking U. S. 23
10. Ping An - Insurance Banking China 16
Company
The data of many companies has been analyzed to know the rankings based on Profit.
Among all the companies, Apple, ICBC, China Construction Company, JPMorgan
Chase, Agricultural Bank of China, Bank of America, Bank of China, Royal Dutch
Shell, Wells Fargo, Ping An Insurance Company are on the top 10 places. Most of the
companies are from the Banking and Financial Sector. Most of the companies from
the top 10 places are China Companies. Apple, an Electronics and IT based company,
U. S. tops the list with a Profit of $Bil.59 for the year 2019.
D. Based on employee satisfaction [5]
Over 430,000 recommendations have been analyzed according to data published by

Forbes. The ranking is based on the feedback given by an employee recommending
his/her employer to a friend or family member [6]. The following table consists of data
is published by Forbes as Forbes Global 2000* during early October,2018 .
The data of many companies has been analyzed to know the rankings based on
Best Employer. Among all the companies, Alphabet, Microsoft, Apple, Walt Disney,
Amazon, CNOOC, Daimler, Cavicorn Bank, Celgene, BMW Group are on the top
10 places. Most of the companies from the top 10 places are U. S. based Companies.
Alphabet, the Computer Services based company from the United States is the best
employer for the year 2018.
121
Table IV. Rankings based on employee satisfaction, 2018
S. No Company Industry Country

1. Alphabet Computer Services U. S.
2. Microsoft Software and Programming U. S.
3. Apple Computer Hardware U. S.
4. Walt Disney Broadcasting and Cable U. S.
5. Amazon Consumer Services U. S.
6. CNOOC Oil and Gas Hongkong
7. Daimler Auto and Truck Manufacturers Germany
8. KasikornBank Regional Banks Thailand
9. Celgene Biotech U. S.
10. BMW Group Auto and Truck Manufacturers Germany
III. SURVEY ANALYSIS
A survey is conducted using google forms to analyze the factors affecting the
company’s position. The results produced here are according to the responses given
by the responses given by 56 participants. The participants are from Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Haryana and some other Northern States of India and are of different
age groups like some of them are teenagers and a few are adults. The results are
formulated into graphs and some legible data by the google forms itself. Fig-1 depicts
the sample google form used for collecting the information.
122
3.1 Survey results [1]

Analysis Result-1: The data has been analyzed to know the factors that people
generally think while buying a product then, the results are as follows,
Figure 2. The factors that people think of while buying a product

Fig-2 depicts the responses given by the participants on the factors that they consider
while buying a new product. Among the factors like “Brand”, “Price”, “Quality
irrespective of the price”, “Appearance”, “Trendy”, 55.4% of the people select the
products based on the “Brand”.
Analysis Result-2: The data has been analyzed to know the reasons how a
particular brand is selected then, the results are as follows,
Figure 3. Reasons for selecting a brand or company

Fig-3 depicts the reasons for selecting a specific brand or a company while buying
a new product. According to the responses, Most of the people generally select a
particular brand or a company based on the trend, quality and popularity.
Analysis Result-3: The data has been analyzed to figure out the actual reasons for
job satisfaction then, the results are as follows,
123
Figure 4. The things that affect an employee’s job satisfaction

Fig-4 depicts the factors influencing the job satisfaction of an employee. According to
the responses, 85.7% of the people get job satisfaction through Money and Reasonable
work timings and 21.4% of the people get job satisfaction based on the loan services
that are provided by the company and the rest of the people get job satisfaction based
on the Health Insurance.
IV. CONCLUSION
Some of the conclusions made from the analysis are:
• A company should regularly conduct surveys so that it can get an overall

review in the present conditions.
• A company should concentrate more on employee satisfaction because if
every employee works perfectly then the company can have major chances
for being developed
• Employing many employees might not help every time as we can analyze
that when a company has many employees for reasonable packages then
someday it might be in a situation where it may not be able to pay its
employees on time and maybe in great debt.
• A company shouldn’t lose its old customers it all happens only if the
customers have complete faith on the company for which the company needs
to upgrade its performances and also the technology that is being used, on a
regular basis.
• It is always suggestible for a job seeker to work in a developer company.
Many of the developer companies are U. S. based. So, a job seeker should
continuously follow all the analysis of the developer companies and should
learn all the requirements so that they can easily get a job.
• No matter what the topic is, the classification is based on, but the analysis
is very important for everyone either it can be job seekers or the company
itself.
124
REFERENCES
1. Google Survey. URL: https://urlzs.com/Da3TL.

2. http://www.businessdictionary.com.
3. https://www.gfmag.com.
4. https://www.investopedia.com.
5. https://www.forbes.com.
6. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/company/corporate-trends/lt-ranks-22-in-
forbes-best-global-employer-list/articleshow/66247798.cms.
125
13 SMART HOME SECURITY SYSTEM
Vemireddy Sai Sindhu Reddy1, P. V. K. Sai2 and Anupama Namburu3

School of Computer Science & Engineering, VIT-AP University, Amaravati,
1,2,3
ABSTRACT: In recent days, there has been huge demand for intelligent system in
home automation. These systems allow the users at ease of use of home appliances from
anywhere in no time. In this paper, we are presenting an internet of things based smart
home security systems. The security is provided to the home by using a smart locking
mechanism. Whenever the user/guest enters the password with digital lock the face of the
user/guest is captured and sent as a message to the owner of the house. If three continuous
wrong attempts were made then user is intimated as intruder detected. The owner will
allow or not allow the user/guest to access the home based on the data received.
Keywords: Intelligent systems, Home automation, Smart locking
I. INTRODUCTION
Humans find their home to be the most refreshing and relaxing place after tiresome
work and feel that at the end of the day that it is only the place to spend their time and
money. Hence, it became necessary for the people to protect their house against the
intruders.
With the increasing need for the home security, many applications were designed
based on Internet of things to secure their homes. These systems work on the sensors
which will collect the information and triggers the communication to the owner.
Pătru et al., [1] proposed a smart home by connecting all appliances of the home
through internet of things. Jeong analyzed presented a study of IOT based door locking
system [2]. Wei et al., [3] proposed smart electronic locking system based on Z-Wave
and internet However these system were limited to LAN and WAN connection
oriented networks.
In [4] an RFID based door locking mechanism is presented. The system fails if
the intruder gets the RFID tag. In [5–7] security systems based on augmented lock and
blockchain were present. Building these systems is complex.
In this paper, a wireless home security system is designed which functions
through raspberry pi, which is a credit card size micro controller shown in figure 1.
It is a tiny computer board that comes with CPU, GPU, USB ports, I/O pins, WiFi,
Bluetooth, USB pins and network boot with a capability of doing some functions like
a regular computer.
127
The proposed system uses a digital keypad often called MATRIX KEYPAD. It
offers more input to the raspberry pi with less number of I/O pins when compared
to buttons. It is made up of Ultra-thin design & adhesive backing provides easy
integration to any project. It maintains easy communication with any microcontroller.
Figure 2 shows the keypad.
The system also uses a biometric as well to unlock the home. User can store the
fingerprint data in the module and can configure it for identifying the person. It can
store up to 1000 fingerprints. Figure 3 show the picture of finger print biometric.
Figure 1. Raspberry PI board
Figure 2. Digital key pad

The Raspberry Pi camera module can be used to take high-definition video, as well as
stills photographs. The module has a five megapixel fixed-focus camera that supports
1080p30, 720p60 and VGA90 video modes, as well as stills capture.
Figure 3. C. R305 fingerprint sensor
128
It is attached via a 15cm ribbon cable to the CSI port on the Raspberry Pi. It can
be accessed through the MMAL and V4L APIs, and there are numerous third-party
libraries built for it, including the Pi camera Python library. Figure 4 shows the
raspberry pi camera module.
Figure 4. Rasberry PI camera module

The home lock should work based on the input given with the digital key pad or
the finger print sensor. To mimic the functionality of door lock SG90 Servo Motors
shown in figure 5 is used. The Servo Motor Micro SG90 work well for basic servo
experimentation and can be used in applications where small size is a virtue and that
don’t require a huge amount of torque, but they are still pretty strong. Gears are nylon
which is the case with lower cost Servos.
Servo motors can be commanded to go to a specific position and so usually go-to
motor when accurate positioning is needed, such as for turning the front wheels on an
RC model for steering or pivoting a sensor to look around on a robotic vehicle or for
locking doors.
Figure 5. Servo motor
II. PROPOSED SYSTEM
The users want to access their home security system from any where inside the home
or in office. They want their applications to be handy with cost and usage. Hence, there
is a necessity to build a home security system which works with wifi. A wifi module is
129
used to connect the raspberry pi board to the telegram app. In our application telegram
app is used by the owner with a mobile device to receive the photo graph and the status
of door locking when a person tries to give the digital password or the figure print.
Figure 5 shows the connection between various modules used for the application.
Figure 6. Connections of various components

The steps in the authentication system used by the proposed home security system:
• A keypad is used for taking digital password from users entering the home
or a fingerprint scanner.
• The Pi Camera is used to take pictures of user or guest.
• On successful password, the user can enter the house.
• On three successful failures the captured picture and text named “INTRUDER
DETECTED” will be sent to the owner via message through a telegram app.
• If intruder is our relative or friend, the owner unlocks the door remotely.
• A servo motor is fixed to the latch of door. Thus, allowing locking or
unlocking door remotely.
130
Figure 7. Interconnections of components

Figure 7 shows the practical implementation of the project and its component
connection.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The Fingerprint sensor and keypad are attached to pi camera. And the Telegram
services are made available as long as Raspberry pi is connected to internet. This is
achieved with the wifi module. The telegram app allows users to control the system
remotely like unlocking or locking the door. It initially takes the input from user
via keypad or fingerprint sensor. If password matches, then servo motor rotates and
thus door unlocks. If password is entered incorrectly thrice or fingerprint failed to
identify the correct biometric information thrice, then photo will be captured though
Pi Camera. Below is a experimentation done once the setup is made.
Once the system turns ‘ON’, telegram services will be running in the background
to receive the signals form user.
As soon as user enters the input via keypad or places the finger on fingerprint
sensor, system checked for the correct match of fingerprint or password. Initially,
correct password is entered which unlocked the door and even tried with correct
fingerprint which yielded the same output. Later, an
Unenrolled finger is placed on finger print sensor, intruder detected message is
sent to the owner and owner didn’t unlock the door. The same is the case if wrong
digital password is pressed. Figure 7 show shows the examples when door unlocked
and when intruder detected.
There can be cases when an enrolled user typed wrong password, or due to figure
print crack can happen and the user can not be correctly identified. Also, it can be a
friend or relative who is not registered want to access the house. In that case, a photo
with intruder detection is sent to the owner. Owner by check the telegram app can
unlock the door automatically from remote.
131
IV. CONCLUSION
The proposed system worked efficiently by providing the successful result at every
usage. The system is very simple to design and involves less cost to build. The
telegram app is freely available and can be easily incorporated to proposed system
and can effectively make use of the system.
The proposed method provides an efficient way of home security by detecting the
valid user and intruder. The system also allowed the owner to remotely give access
to their house which is very much needed in current scenario. The future work could
be designing an own app to unlock or lock the door and receive the photograph of the
user for verification.
Figure 8. Execution of the proposed system.
REFERENCES
1. Pătru, Irina-Ioana, et al. “Smart home IoT system.” 2016 15th RoEduNet Conference:
Networking in Education and Research. IEEE, 2016.
2. Jeong, Jeong-ile. “A study on the IoT based smart door lock system.” Information Science
and Applications (ICISA) 2016. Springer, Singapore, 2016. 1307–1318.
3. Wei, Ching-Chuan, et al. “The Implementation of smart electronic locking system based
on Z-Wave and internet.” 2015 IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and
Cybernetics. IEEE, 2015.
132
4. Jaykumar, Jebah, and Abishline Blessy. “Secure smart environment using IOT based on
RFID.” International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies 5.2
(2014): 2493–2496.
5. Thukral, Dhruv, Viviane Soraya Ghaderi, and Shervin Moloudi. “Electronically augmented
smart lock for trash containers.” U. S. Patent No. 8,810,361. 19 Aug. 2014.
6. Han, Donhee, Hongjin Kim, and Juwook Jang. “Blockchain based smart door lock
system.” 2017 International Conference on Information and Communication Technology
Convergence (ICTC). IEEE, 2017.
7. Shah, Chirag M., Vamil B. Sangoi, and Raj M. Visharia. “Smart security solutions based on
internet of things (iot).” Int J Current Eng Technol 4.5 (2014): 3401–340.
133
14 BRAIN TUMOUR CLASSIFICATION USING

CONVOLUTION NEURAL NETWORKS
Prathibha Goriparthi1, Srinu Madhav V.2 and Narendra M.3

1,2,3
Department of ECE, ANUCET, ANU Guntur, A. P
ABSTRACT: Abnormal Cells in the Brain lead to tumor in the brain. Misdiagnosis of
brain tumors will discourage efficient medical intervention and reduce patient survival
chances. The life span of the patient can be increased with the early detection of
tumors which is possible with CAD systems. Three class classification of Brain tumors
Meningioma, Glioma, and Pituitary available from Brain database using Convolution
Neural Network(CNN) is done in this paper. The images obtained from the Brain database
are given as input to the convolution neural network for the classification of tumours. The
CNN architecture used is simple that consists of two layers of convolution, max-pooling
followed by flattening layers. The training accuracy is 98% with testing accuracy of 96%
respectively with three class tumour classification.
Keywords: Convolution Neural Networks, Training Accuracy, Testing Accuracy
I. INTRODUCTION
Brain tumors are benign or malignant. Primary tumors occur in brain whereas secondary
tumors occur in other parts of the body and spread to the brain [1]. The size, growth
rate and location indicate the signs and symptoms. Some of the primary tumors are
Gliomas, Meningiomas, Accoustic neuromas, Pituitary adenomas, Medulloblastomas,
Germ cell tumors and Craniopharyngiomas. The Gliomas originate in the brain or
spinal cord. Meningiomas and Pituitary adenomas are benign tumors in which the
former originate in the membrane that surround brain and the spinal cord whereas
the latter evolve in the pituitary gland at the base of the brain that effect the pituitary
hormones.
The incidence and mortality rate of brain cancer in the world is 3.4 and 2.5
per 100,000 people in the world [2]. A major role is played by the early diagnosis
in treatment and recovery of the patient. Diagnosing a cerebrum tumor and its
evaluation normally experiences a muddled and tedious procedure. The diagnosis
of the tumour can be done by biopsy after locating the tumor using MR scan. But
diagnosis of the tumor through biopsy is a tedious process. So, a large number of
automatic computer aided diagnosis methods are developed for early detection of
tumors.
135
Paul, Justin S., et al., (2017) [3] has applied deep learning on publicly available
database of Jun Cheng. Fully connected and convolution neural networks are the two
different neural networks used in the classification achieving an accuracy of 91.43%.
S Tandel, Gopal, et al., (2019) [4] summarized different types of brain cancer, the
pathophysiology and classification of brain cancer using automatic computer aided
mechanism using deep learning and machine learning methods. Sajjad, Muhammad,
et al., (2019) [5] have proposed classification of multi-grade tumors using a deep
CNN. Features extraction and classification is done using VGG-19 CNN architecture
achieving an accuracy of 94.58%.
Abiwinanda, Nyoman, et al., (2019) [6] have used CNN to classify the brain
tumors Gliomas, Meningiomas, and Pituitary automatically without requiring region
based pre-processing steps. An accuracy of 98.51% and 84.19% was obtained for
training and validation using an optimal CNN.
Anaraki Amin Kabir et al., (2019) [7] proposed a method using CNN and Genetic
Algorithm (GA) to analyze various grades of Glioma using MRI. The architecture of
CNN is evolved using Genetic Algorithm. An accuracy of 90.9% for classifying three
Glioma grades and 94.2% for classifying the different tumors Gliomas, Meningiomas,
and Pituitary was obtained.
Hence in this paper, work is done on classification of three classes of brain
tumors using convolution neural network. Section 2 gives a brief introduction about
Convolution Neural Network. Section 3 gives a description about the subset of Brain
tumour database and explains about the application of CNN to the dataset. Section 4
presents the results for classification of brain tumors. Section 5 contains conclusions
and future work.
II. CONVOLUTION NEURAL NETWORKS
Convolution Neural Networks popularized by LeCunn et al., [8] has evolved to

eliminate the drawbacks of conventional machine learning which fail to work on raw
data. CNN architecture is a structured series of stages in which the first stages are
composed of convolution and pooling layers as shown in Figure 1. An image has
numerous features to be detected that can be learned by the different layers present in
the CNN. The training image at different resolutions are applied with filters and the
output of convolving the image with the filter or kernel serves as an input to the next
layer.
The size of the image may change during convolving the training image with a
filter or kernel. To avoid this, valid padding or same padding is used. Valid padding
refers to dropping the part of the image where the filter did not fit whereas same
padding refers to adding zeros to the image before convolving with the filter. The
result of convolving the training image with a kernel and adding the sum to bias is
given by
136
æ N ö
O j = Av ç åI * K l , j + vl , j ÷ (1)
è l =1 ø
The resultant output consists of both positive and negative values. An activation
function should be used to remove the negative values. Different types of Activation
functions are Sigmoid, Exponential, Hyperbolic, Rectified Linear Unit(ReLU),
Exponential Linear Unit and Scaled Exponential Linear Unit. The activation functions
also increase the speed of the network.
A pooling layer is introduced between the convolution layer to retain the
important features and reduce the dimensionality of the feature maps. The different
pooling operations are Sum pooling, Max Pooling and Average Pooling. Max
pooling is widely used and it selects the maximum value from the given set of
values also suppressing the noise. Convolution and Pooling layers are often fed
in to fully connected or dense layers. Regularization algorithms are developed to
introduce dropout which removes some of the layers in the fully connected layers
to avoid overfitting.
In a fully connected layer, the connected neurons are applied a set of weights and
bias from the past layer in order to sum them together. Considering a neuron n in a
fully connected layer l receiving input is given by
n
Sil = åWijl x j + bi (2)
j =1
l
The Activation function ReLU is applied to layer l’s neuron n to yield a new value U i
U il = max(0, Sil ) (3)
Equation (2) and (3) are adapted to each neuron in the fully connected layer. The
softmax function is applied in the last layer instead of the ReLU to assign the
probabilities of the class of the image
l
l e Si
U =
i (4)
åe k
S kl
The sum of all the output neurons is given by the denominator which gives the
predictions for an image by selecting the best probability. Loss of the predictions is
calculated by the categorical cross-entropy loss function given by
L = åg j log p j (5)
j
The average categorical cross-entropy is obtained by dividing with the entire number
of training images m. The Loss function can be minimized by optimization algorithms
such as Adam, Adagrad, Adadelta, Adamax and Nadam.
137
Figure 1. Block diagram depicting the architecture of CNN

Regularization is used to avoid overfitting given by
g
R = å| w |
m w
The overall cost function is obtained by summing the average categorical loss function
and the regularization given by
138
1 g
C= å g j logPj + m åw | w |
m j
(6)
In the fully connected layers, back propagation is used to update weights and bias by
propagating the calculated error backwards until the input is reached.
The backpropagation needs to reach all the weights W and biases b during which
they are renovated and the overall cost function is minimized by taking the partial
derivatives with respect to weights and bias
¶C ¶C
, (7)
¶W l ¶bl
The neural network which consists of one forward and one backward iteration has
completed one epoch with this new set of weights and biases. CNNs train through
multiple epochs and in this work 25 epochs are used. The advantage of CNNs is
its ability to capture the spatial and temporal dependencies in an image using the
corresponding kernel or filter. The edges of an image are captured efficiently using
CNNs.
II. METHODOLOGY
A. Proposed method
The different patterns from the image data can be directly identified by natural intended
procedures encouraged by feed forward artificial neural networks called Convolution
Neural Networks. Inspired by the achievements in various vindicate works, brain tumor
classification is done using CNN in the present work. The proposed system consists
of data augmentation, feature extraction and classification. Data augmentation is done
using different transformation of the input images. In the next step the augmented
input data is passed through a fine tuned CNN architecture that is priorly trained on
brain MR images. The metrics of classification is measured in terms of training and
testing accuracy.
B. Dataset
The brain images for the present work are obtained from the Jun Cheng database
[9] which consists 3064 T-1 weighted CE-MRI of brain tumor images. The dataset
contains 1426 images with Meningiomas, 930 images with Pituitary and 708 images
with Gliomas. The dataset is given in the . mat file form which consists of struct
file comprising a label that enumerate the type of tumor, patient ID, image data in
512 ´ 512 int16 format, binary mask image indicating tumor images with 1’s and
vector amassing the coordinates of discrete points on the border. The image extracted
from the . mat file are low intensity gray images which need to be enhanced for further
processing.
Figure 2 shows the different tumor images from the dataset. The characteristics of
brain tumor are iso-intensity, hypointensity, hyperintensity (areas with more intensity),
139
tumor heterogeneity and homogeneity. The intensities and shapes of the tumor differ
from one patient to another and same gray scales may be found in different tumor
types.
C. Implementation
The basic architecture of CNN with two convolution layers and two pooling layers
followed by flattening layer which connects to the fully connected layer is used in this
work. The size of the input mages which are given as input to the CNN are of size
128X128. The reduction in the size is done to increase the speed of the network. The
input data is augmented by rotating, flipping ad zooming the images which are given for
training the CNN. The architecture of CNN is compiled on a GPU using Google Colab.
All convolution layer use 256 filters of size 3 ´ 3 with stride of 1. The activation function
ReLU is used to remove the negative values. The kernel of the pooling layer is of size
2 ´ 2 with stride 2. The fully connected layer called dense in Keras use 64 neurons.
There are three neurons in the output layer to classify an image with the three
brain tumors(Gliomas, Meningiomas, and Pituitary). A total of 3064 images from the
dataset are used in this work in which 90% of the images are used for training and the
remaining 10% are used for testing or validation. A total of 2758 are used for training
the CNN and 306 images are used for testing. Sigmoid layer is the activation function
that is used in the output layer so that all the three output neurons are summed upto
one. The hyperparameters used in this work are learning rate of 0.001(alpha), Beta_1
is 0.9, Beta_2=0.99, number of epochs are 25 with a batch size of 32. The two layer
feed forward neural network consists of 16384 input neurons in the hidden layer and
three neurons in the output layer. In this work, Adam optimizer is used. The SPARSE
categorical cross entropy is used for updating the weights by backpropagating the
error backwards.
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
140
(g) (h) (i)

Figure 2: Brain Images with Tumors a), b), c) Tumors of Meningioma d), e), f) Tumors of
Glioma g), h), i) Tumors of Pituitary
In this work, Adam optimizer is used. The SPARSE categorical cross entropy is used
for updating the weights by backpropagating the error backwards.
The main objective is to classify the brain tumors in to Gliomas, Meningiomas, and
Pituitary. Feature extraction and classification has been done using basic architecture
of Convolution Neural Network. The metrics of the Classification has been obtained
in terms of training accuracy, testing accuracy and validation loss. The training and
testing accuracy for classifying the three tumors of the brain resulted in 98% and 96%
respectively for 25 epochs shown in Figure 3 and 4. The feasible error that gives the
cost of inaccuracy of predictions in classification is given by Loss which is shown in
Figure 5.
Figure 3. Testing accuracy obtained for classifying brain tumors
141
Figure 4. Training accuracy obtained for classifying brain tumors

The classifier model is set to be a good fit since accuracy is increasing for every
epoch. Overfitting occurs when the testing accuracy decrease for increase in the
training accuracy. The problem of overfitting is eliminated by regularization
through drop out, data augmentation and sharing of parameters by rotations and
transformation of images. The superiority of the present work in comparison
with the previous work is attaining good accuracy for three class classification
of tumor.
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, brain tumor classification is done using basic architecture of

Convolution Neural Network which can be done with different architecture like
GoogLeNet, AlexNet, ResNet, VGGNet in the future work. The training and
validation accuracy may be improved using external data for cross validation.
The best structure of CNN model can be evaluated using optimization algorithms
to find out the best parameters of the network. Extensive data augmentation
needs to be done to the input data to cross validate the accuracy of the result.
The present work can be extended in the future for fine-grained classification of
each grade with exploration of light weight architectures of CNN to have better
accuracy.
142
Figure 5. Validation loss for classifying brain tumors
REFERENCES
1. https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/brain-tumor/symptoms-causes/syc-
20350084.
2. Farmanfarma, K. H. kalan, et al. “Brain Cancer in the World: AN Epidemiological
Review.”
3. Paul, Justin S., et al. “Deep learning for brain tumor classification.” Medical
Imaging 2017: Biomedical Applications in Molecular, Structural, and Functional
Imaging. Vol. 10137. International Society for Optics and Photonics, 2017.
4. S. Tandel, Gopal, et al. “A review on a deep learning perspective in brain cancer
classification.” Cancers. Vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 111, year 2019.
5. Sajjad, Muhammad, et al. “Multi-grade brain tumor classification using deep
CNN with extensive data augmentation.” Journal of computational science 30
(2019): 174–182.
6. Abiwinanda, Nyoman, et al. “Brain tumor classification using convolutional
neural network.” World Congress on Medical Physics and Biomedical Engineering
2018. Springer, Singapore, 2019.
7. Anaraki, Amin Kabir, Moosa Ayati, and Foad Kazemi. “Magnetic resonance
imaging-based brain tumor grades classification and grading via convolutional
neural networks and genetic algorithms.” Biocybernetics and Biomedical
Engineering Vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 63–74, year 2019.
8. LeCun, Yann, Yoshua Bengio, and Geoffrey Hinton. “Deep learning.” nature
521.7553 (2015): 436.
9. Cheng, Jun (2017), Brain tumor dataset. figshare. Dataset.
143
15 PREDICTION OF CROP YIELD USING DEEP

LEARNING TECHNIQUES: A CONCISE REVIEW
Geetha Pratyusha Miriyala1 and Arun Kumar Sinha2

School of Electronics Engineering, Vellore Institute of Technology, Amaravathi, India.
1,2
ABSTRACT: Accurate estimation of crop yield is a challenging field of work. The

hardware and software platform to predict the crop yield depends upon various factors
like environment, soil fertility, genotype, and various interacting dependents. The task
is complex owing to the data that needs to be collected in volumes to understand crop
yield through wireless sensor networks and remote sensing. This paper reviews the past
15 years of research work in the development of estimating crop yield using deep learning
algorithms. The significance of discussing advancements using deep learning techniques
will help in decision making for predicting the crop yield. The hybrid combination of
deep learning with remote sensing and wireless sensor networks can provide precision
agriculture in the future.
Keywords: Decision Making, Feature Extraction, Deep Learning, Remote Sensing,

Wireless Sensor Networks
I. INTRODUCTION
The agricultural production mainly aims to generate high yield for the crops [1].
Prediction of the crop on a global scale and regional scale is highly important for the
agriculture management sector, crop farmers, food trade policies and carbon cycle
research [2], [3]. To maintain the high demand and secured level of food chain supply
to the people, the prediction of crop yield is a national priority for the government. For
example, India has major crop production of rice and wheat, the Ministry of Statistics
and Program Implementation (MOSPI) conducted three surveys on the Improvement
of crop statistics related to crop yield as observed from 2011–18, to improve the
technical guidance to the state for obtaining reliable and timely crop yield estimation,
[4]. Also, low populated countries consider the crop yield as an important area to
attain economic stability though agro-trade.
145
Figure 1. Various factors affecting yield prediction of crop

The dynamic monitoring of crop is a hybrid system, where major factors affecting
crop yield is shown in the Figure. 1. In general, crop yield is predicted by observing
many factors such as water usage, plantation area, soil quality, weather conditions,
disease occurrences and so on [5–7]. Considering the top factors in the Figure. 1.,
weather monitoring, soil parameters and crop area are considered for the study. The
factor related to process the data can be gathered by using engineering technologies
such as wireless sensor networks, remote sensing, etc. Generally, the environmental
weather and soil quality data can be obtained from wireless sensor networks. The data
related to soil quality and weather monitoring are collected from the sensors and the
obtained data acts as an input are to be trained with deep learning algorithms [8].
In addition to the sensor data, the recent trends in smart farming is remote sensing
which tends to extract the information from the satellite or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
(UAV) images. The information from ESA’s Sentinal-2A satellite image can be used
for remote sensing. As most of the data from the satellite images have a predefined
wavelength from the regions of both near-infrared (NIR) spectral and visible spectrum
[9]. Here the limitation observed from the satellite image is cloud cover, which reduces
the chances of obtaining useful data. Hence, the image resolution of satellite data with
spatial-temporal reasoning should be improved in the future.
In the past few years, the remote sensing industry related to monitoring the crop
using UAV has grown from a niche market to a top availability domain. The biggest
growth in the industry of UAV raised, due to cost efficiency and timely capturing
method through remote sensing data was useful for many industrial applications
[10–13]. On-demand data acquisition of images is observed in UAV applications.
In recent years, precision agriculture was integrally adopting UAV aerial image
data. Several studies are proposed to monitor the data continuously on the factors
146
Prediction of Crop Yield using Deep Learning Techniques: A Concise Review
of aerial data, crop condition workflow, weed monitoring, and yield production are
monitored continuously. The data acquired from wireless sensor networks and remote
sensing images are categorized independently to each other for decision making or
data-driven analysis. Deploying machine learning algorithms to process information
either in imagery data or sensor data is vague. However, the non-linear problems
with empirical or dynamical techniques requires huge volume of data that need for
processing, enables the researcher to adopt deep learning for decision making in the
agriculture domain.
Deep learning techniques results to outstand the performance for training
large data and provide various convolution techniques are used to obtain maximum
accuracy [14]. The main advantage of using deep learning techniques in agriculture
applications is, data gets trained with high-level features in a hierarchical incremented
manner, eliminates the need for domain expertise to generalize the obtained output.
Deep learning techniques solve the complex image classification problems fast and
flexibly [15].
In the next sections, this paper review some state of the art related to the
prediction of crop yield by observing various parameters like soil fertility, weather
monitoring, remote sensing using satellites, and using UAV imagery data processed
by deep learning techniques. The aim of this review is to show different capabilities
of using the techniques of deep learning to predict the crop yield is observed in the
below Section II. Although the techniques in deep learning applied to the parametric
factors are not compromising, Deep learning limitations and challenges are discussed
in the Section III.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
This section is divided into two subsections, Subsection 2.1 discusses development
in deep learning techniques, and Subsection 2.2 discusses crop yield prediction
by monitoring various factors along with deep learning algorithms to process the
volumetric data.
A. Deep Learning: A Background
The Revolution of Deep learning started when AlexNet won the ImageNet
large scale visual recognition challenge in 2012 (ILSVRC), with the 85%
accuracy by the large margin upon the 74% runner-up algorithm Support
Vector Machine (SVM) model [16]. Due to the use of adding more layers, the
accuracy has improved in model depth. Increasing the layers of the network
gradually raises the memory size. GoogLeNet has introduced deeper 22
layers of inception model, balancing effective computational [17]. ResNet is
a residual learning framework forming a network of 152 layers to achieve
efficient training in Deep Learning.
147
Figure 2. General structure of neural network for prediction the prediction of crop yield [31]
While training the datasets, the deep learning algorithms aim to learn the features of
data in a hierarchy, where the features uses low layers and ignore high layers [18].
In 2006, Hinton proposed an unidirected model where the higher layers ignored
and those are assumed as complementary prior for tied weights which looks as true
posterior. After every layers get training, the layers are untied. The fast and accurate
results with slower fine tuned algorithm is obtained in the study, [19], [20].
In crop monitoring, traditional machine learning techniques can be used for
prediction. However, the ability to learn the optimal features in the data are limited.
In 1990, Hepner compared machine learning algorithms with neural network
classifications to find useful neural nets for minimalistic training dataset [21].
With the latest advancements in technology, the training, and deployment of image
classification using Deep Learning techniques became more feasible. The Convolution
Networks (ConvNets), with deep learning related to non linear operations composes
with multiple levels, such as many hidden layers of neural networks with CNN and
the optimal features were observed during the training with convolutional layers of the
network [22]. The Artificial Neural Network (ANN) architecture is another algorithm
in deep learning trying to deploy networks with good design for better generalization
capability. The main advantage of using ANN is, its ability to adapt to a changing
environment, its robustness, ability to escape local Optimum [23].
B. Yield Prediction of Crop
Nowadays precision agriculture with wireless sensor network is advancing [24],

and a review on the applications with various aspects of agriculture using WSN is
proposed by the Rehman [25]. Whelan observed that precision agriculture aims to
gather information for providing better decision making, related to time and space
[26]. The soil fertility prediction with artificial neural networks is proposed by Song
[27]. Using ANN, the neural networks can cope with the complex mapping using
input variable set.
148
Along with soil fertility, the weather plays a crucial role for producing better
crop yield. The weather prediction is proposed by Baboo, observing the inputs of
atmospheric pressure, atmospheric temperature, relative humidity, wind direction,
and wind velocity. The input data is applied with the algorithm of fully connected,
three-layer feed-forward Multilayer perceptron (MLP) network with Back-
propagation [28]. The author sanjay has proposed that maximum and minimum
temperature forecasting and humidity prediction using time series analysis and
the network is trained with the multilayer feedforward ANN with backpropagation
learning [29]. The best performance of the output yield prediction is observed by
Abhishek [30], where the temperature forecasting system is developed by ANN
network with 5 hidden layers and 5 inputs, and the hidden layer is designed with
sigmoid transfer function. The basic structure of neural network for predicting crop
yield is shown in the Figure. 2.
Figure 3. General model proposed for predicting crop yield
149
The use of convolutional neural networks with the combination of genetic

algorithms for various applications is trained by author Abiodun and these trained
data sets are deployed with backpropagation for obtaining best results [31]. The
input parameters used are: daily precipitation, max and min temperature, max
and min soil temperature, solar radiation, max and min relative humidity. The
accuracy observed in the training is 79.4%. The author Kaur proposed the hourly
prediction of temperature, wind speed, and relative humidity. The other used
multilayer perceptron networks, Elman recurrent neural network (ERNN), Radial
Basis Function Network (RBFN) and the Hopfield Model (HFM). The author
suggested using one hidden layer and 72 neurons for Multi Layer perceptron
(MLP), two hidden layers with 180 neurons for RBFN. MLP technique is
trained with backpropagation to which results in the highest accuracy [32–33].
The backpropagation is very slow for multilayer neural networks, hence authors
Le Cun et al., has identified few tricks to increase the chance of finding a good
solution [34]. The three tricks are: 1. Using stochastic learning rather than branch
learning. Since the entire branch for the data set is considered before the weights
are updated. Hence stochastic learning is much faster on large redundant data
sets. 2. The shifting and scaling of the inputs where the data is shuffled to form
successive training. And, 3. The training of the average input variable should
be close to zero. These tricks have effective benefit which can be used at the
implementing stage in backpropagation.
The author Reid proposed that spectral features deployed on remote sensing
on wheat crop data are classified using two techniques. First, the obtained data are
trained with convolutional and long-short term memory networks. Second, the data is
aggregated into larger geo-spectral regions [35]. Through, this technique the potential
growth of crop disease is monitored efficiently. A new approach for rice grain yield
estimation at the stage of ripening based on the high-resolution UAV images is proposed
by Yang [36]. Investigation of the yield is done by spatial-spectral information and
CNN technique is used for best results. The author used data argumented techniques
to overcome the problem of overfitting.
Deep learning algorithms has high enhanced performance for feature extraction.
Using feature learning algorithms in many fields such as semantic recognition
and images are proposed by Long [37]. Among all deep learning methods, the
convolution neural network has the highest impact on the performance of image
classification and regression tasks observed by Krichevsky and Liu [38–39]. With
the convolution and pooling techniques, the abstract features can be extracted with
the series of operations received from the size of input images (width × height
× depth). Kuwata proposed two inner layer neural networks for estimating crop
yield [40]. The objective is that to extract key features from the data using deep
learning techniques, and it is expected that the input has less dependency on data.
150
Even though the data is limited, the deep learning can be expected for good quality
estimation related to the crop field.
Other techniques of deep learning such as the Bayesian Network and Gaussian
technique are explained in [41] and [42]. The prediction of crop disease is very
uncertain for decision making. Hence, the author Bi proposed Bayesian Network (BN)
to find crop diseases. The BN often calculates the conditional probability inputs and
mostly deal with uncertain factors. In this model, the self-learning function desires to
produce the output for crop disease is observed [41]. The crop yield prediction with
dimensionality reduction approach based on histograms is proposed by J. You; author
also presented the Gaussian process framework to remove spatially correlated errors
in remote Sensing applications [42]. The general proposed model for predicting crop
yield is shown in the Figure. 3.
III. CONCLUSION
The demand for agriculture food production is increasing rapidly, and without using
modern technologies;chances are less to meet the agro demand of the population.
Over the past decade, the various industrial applications using deep learning has
gained positive accuracy factor. The present paper reviews deep learning algorithms
in predicting crop yield using the parameters like: weather, soil fertility, and remote
sensing and UAV imagery. This review has outlined the major promising deep learning
techniques such as Artificial Neural Network, Convolutional Neural Network,
Multi-layer perceptron, Gaussian network, Bayesian Network, and Long Short-term
Memory. All are concisely discussed in the Table I.
151
Table I. Comparison of deep learning techniques used in crops yield estimation
Paper Applied Techniques Summary Benefits Discussion/ Limitations

Varman, et al., Wireless sensor Network, The wireless sensor network The fog architecture is developed to LSTM takes more time to get
(2017) [43] Long-Short Term is used to monitor the soil improve the response time for processing trained, hence the large datasets will
Memory (LSTM) parameters and later the data is the data. Ideal time is observed through provide poor results.
applied with the LSTM algorithm neural networks for predicting the sowing
for optimising the best-suited time. For training data, LSTM is choosen
crop. and its validation loss: 2.1354 and
training time 57.62s better compared to
Gated Recurrent unit (GRU), and Deep
Forward Feed Networks.
Pantezi, et al., Self-organizing map For the yield prediction, the Using SKN, the prediction of wheat The limitation concerns are,
152
(2016) [44] models (SOMs), Counter fusion vectors are determined yield for correct classification reached to inability for non linear modelling
propagation ANN, as an input. Through this, the 91.3%. approaches related to provide
XY- Fused Network, weight parameters are collected continuous output relations.
Supervised Kohen from the sensors and the satellite
Network (SKN) imagery data are calculated.
Jia, et al., Bayesian Network (BN) The algorithm proposed the The BN has the ability to train in the The datasets used in the model are
(2010) [45] similarity of learning tasks and probability semantics. The small dataset very less, hence the uncertainty of
the geographical position of is trained with the network improve average in the findings are satisfied.
land squares to calculate the soil performance. Further increase in the datasets,
grading. increase the cost of the training and
varies the uncertainty. In this model,
the missed data is ignored.
Li, et al., Neural Network The model propose to predict In RBF network, the non linear function While using the datasets, the
(2012) the yield of the crop by the soil can approximately measure the group of following limitations are observed
[46] fertility and the crop yield is weight proposed which can provide the in PCA; orthogonality, linearity and
observed under various fertilizer accuracy. The RBF neural network is large variance. The final nutrient
models. By using the combined supported by the mathematical principles data is applied for RBF where the
methods of principal components which can provide high certainity. training of the data is faster but the
analysis (PCA) and Radial basis classification for every node in the
function (RBF) neural networks. hidden layer applied with the input
vector becomes slower.
Sharma, et al., Artificial Neural Network The disease of the crop is In the complex environment, ANN can In the results, when the data
(2018) [47] (ANN) predicted with the weather learn to provide non-linear solutions. set reduces from 58 to 30, the
monitoring by the artificial neural Accuracy of the result using the ANN accuracy drop to 68.966% causing
153
network (ANN) with forward network is 90.909% for 58 testing dataset. underfitting problem. Large datasets
feed by back-propagation. The should be used for more accuracy in
weather parameters are min. and the results avoiding underfitting.
max. temperature, rainfall, max
and min humidity.
Lavreniuk, Neural network The deep learning approach In this method, the overall result for crop Large unlabelled insitu data is
et al., (2018) is developed for the crop maps is 85.9%. The technique is feasible trained by sparse autoencoders.
[48] classification on the maps of and the autoencoders are used to learn The observed limitations are less
in-situ data based on the Neural the data without labels and fine tuning, training data and similarity of crop
network. finally neural network is applied to the vegetations i.e, soya beans have the
in-situ data. same vegetation as maize.
Zhou, et al., Convolutional neural The spatial distribution of the The accuracy is 95.6% for CNN which The SVM is a linear classifier
(2018) [49] Network, Support Vector crops from sentinel-2A extracted is superior to SVM. As proposed and widely used in the classifier
Machine with the comparison of CNN observations are nonlinear, mostly CNN problem. The SVM does not have
and SVM using remote sensing works due to the weight sharing capability the capability to gain more accuracy
images. and automatic feature extraction. compared to CNN.
Zhaung, et al., Convolutional Neural The CNN is used for the The obtained accuracy is 96.24%, where The spectral correlation is not
(2017) Network (CNN) planting area from Landsat-8 CNN uses 2 convolutional layers, 2 max. considered, even though the datasets
[50] Multispectral remote sensing pooling layers and 2 fully connected used are less. The dropout method
images layers. CNN has a superior capability is used to reduce the overfitting
to extracting the subtle visual features problem
superior to human vision
154
Li, et al., Partial Least Square To provide timely and accurate The RF has highest accuracy compared to Compared to other regression
(2016) regression, ANN, predictions of the crop land. other proposed methods. Random forest methods, RF method can provide
[51] Random fForest, Several regression models and can be trained with large datasets. better performance to the overfitting
Regression Kriging, hybrid geometrical methods are problem and also for the noisy data.
Random Forest (RF) used. The experimental result
Residual Kriging Method shows that the RF has the most
accurate predictions
Liang, et al., Artificial Neural Network The hybrid inversion method is RFR has the high modelling regression The model used in this paper is
(2015) [52] (ANN), Random Forest used for estimating the leaf area for crop estimations. In the generic and observed with low input parameters,
Regression (RFR) index value of the crops. In this specific datasets, the resultant values are hence the low inversion accuracy
paper, ANN and RFR are used observed with higher Square of Roots is also observed. Even though, the
where RFR has a better method (R2) and lower Root mean square error RFR has good performance with
of modelling compared to the (RMSE). single or multi-parameters.
ANN.
Bu, et al., Deep Reinforcement Deep Reinforcement learning Deep reinforcement learning isdesigned Deep reinforcement learning could
(2019) Learning is used for smart agriculture with the incremental model to increase not work in dynamic environment.
[53] IoT system for increasing crop the performance. Algorithms such as The memory units need to be added
growth LSTM, Neural turing machine are used such as LSTM for improving the
with Deep reinforcement learning. accuracy.
155
Based on the current dynamics, following future trends can be expected from the deep
learning technologies:
(a) The spatial and spectral data from the sensors with different characterisation and
resolutions are required.
(b) Dropout techniques are to be used for normalization of the data from overfitting
problem which can increase the efficiency.
(c) Optimal data collection required to satisfy deep learning algorithms increases the
rate of best possibility in the output vector for precision agriculture tasks.
Due to the non linearity of the crop factors, the ANN and CNN acts as generic
algorithms for decision making. The flowchart proposed for the study to predict the
crop yield is shown in the Figure. 3, and Figure. 4. The study found that weather
monitoring and soil fertility has the highest accuracy of performance using ANN and
imagery analysis for crop area using UAV/Remote sensing has reliable precision with
CNN. Since, crop prediction is based on parameters; collection of data to be trained
with ANN and CNN has major issues to be considered:
Figure 3. CNN Algorithm for Remote Sensing/UAV imagery for crop area
Figure 4. ANN Algorithm with backpropagation flowchart for weather monitoring & soil
fertility [54]
156
(a) The training period should not be complex which raises internal coveriate shift.
As statistical distribution of input varies with training, the efficiency in the output
of training datasets reduces. Here, Dropout and Batch normalization techniques
can be used for Regularization of the neural network.
(b) The another major issue consider while training the ANN and CNN is the
volume of data used for training. Observing the bias and variance; Overfitting
characterstics need to be balanced for efficiency in output.
This review comprehensively discuss about the current issues and challenges of
various studies in crop prediction. The paper also advocates the benefits of using deep
learning algorithms for predicting crop yield to improvise precision agriculture in
populated countries like India.
IV. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to acknowledge the support provided by the staff working in
VIT-AP, University.
REFERENCES
1. H. J. Vandendriessche, and M. K. V. Ittersum, “Crop Models and Decision Support Systems

for Yield Forecasting and Management of the Sugar Beet Crop,” European journal of
Agronomy, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 269–279, 1995.
2. Yun Ji, “Predicting regional rice production in South Korea using spatial data and crop-
growth modelling,” Agricultural systems, vol. 77, no. 1, pp. 23–38, July 2003.
3. F. Tao, et al., “Remote sensing of crop production in China by production efficiency
models: Models comparisons, estimates and uncertainties,” Ecological Modelling, vol.
183, no. 4, pp. 385–396, May 2005.
4. Government of India, Ministry of statistics and programme Implementation (MOSPI);
Available Online: www.mospi.nic.in /agriculture-surveys.
5. G. Hoogenboom, “Contribution of agrometeorology to the simulation of crop production
and its applications,” Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, vol. 103, no. 1, pp. 137–157,
June 2000.
6. Yong He, et al. “Application of artificial neural network on relationship analysis between
wheat yield and soil nutrients,”. Presented at the IEEE 27th annual conference on
Engineering in medicine and biology, Shanghai, China, 2007.
7. T. R. Green, et al., “Relating crop yield to topographic attributes using spatial analysis
neural networks and regression,” Geoderma, vol. 139, no. 1–2, pp. 23–37, April 2007.
8. S. Wolfert, et al., “Big data in smart farming – a review,” Agricultural Systems, vol. 153,
no. 1, pp. 69–80, May 2017.
9. G. T. Miyoshi et al., “Time series of images to improve tree species classification” Int.
Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, vol.
44, pp. 123–128, 2017.
10. Z. Khan, et al., “Estimation of vegetation indices for high-throughput phenotyping of
wheat using aerial imaging,” Plant methods, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 1–11, 2018.
157
11. G. Lindner, et al., “UAV monitoring and documentation of a large landslide,” Applied
Geomatics, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 1–11, March 2016.
12. H. Huang, et al., “A fully convolutional network for weed mapping of unmanned aerial
vehicle (UAV) imagery,” PLoS ONE, vol. 13, no. 4, 2018.
13. V. Argyriou, and T. Vlachos, “Quad-tree motion estimation in the frequency domain using
gradient correlation,” IEEE Transactions on Multimedia, vol. 9, no. 6, pp. 1147–1154, Oct
2007.
14. A. Kamilaris, and F. X. Prenafeta-Boldú, “Deep learning in agriculture: A survey,”
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, vol. 147, no. 1, pp. 70–90, July 2018.
15. Y. LeCun, Y. Bengio, and G. Hinton, “Deep learning,” Nature, vol. 521, no. 7553, pp. 436,
2015.
16. A. Krizhevsky, et al., “ImageNet classification with deep convolutional neural networks,”
Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems, vol. 60, no. 6, pp. 84–90, June 2017.
17. C. Szegedy, et al., “Going deeper with convolutions,” presented at the 2015 IEEE
Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR), Boston, MA, USA.
18. J. Dean, et al., “Large scale distributed deep networks,” Advances in Neural Information
Processing Systems, vol. 1, pp. 1232–1240, 2012.
19. Y. Bengio, et al., “Greedy layer-wise training of deep networks,” Proceedings of the
19th Int. Conf. on Neural Information Processing Systems, MIT Press, Cambridge,
pp. 153–160, 2006.
20. G. E. Hinton, et al., “A fast learning algorithm for deep belief nets,” Neural Computation,
vol. 18, no. 7, pp. 1527–1554, July 2006.
21. G. F. Hepner, et al., “Artificial neural network classification using a minimal training set:
comparison to conventional supervised classification,” Photogrammetric Engineering and
Remote Sensing, vol. 56, no. 4, pp. 469–473, April 1990.
22. R. Yamashita, et al., “Convolutional neural networks: an overview and application in
radiology,” Insights into Imaging, vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 611–629, June 2018.
23. R. M. Palnitkar, J. Cannady, “A Review of Adaptive Neural Networks,” in Proc. at IEEE
SoutheastCon, 2004.
24. Y. Zhou, et al., “Wireless sensor network data fusion algorithm based on neural network
in the area of agriculture,” Sensors & Transducers Journal, vol. 16, no. 1, pp. 128–136,
Nov. 2012.
25. A. U. Rehman, et al., “A review of wireless sensors and networks applications in
agriculture,” Computer Standards & Interfaces, vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 263–270, February 2014.
26. B. M. Whelan, and J. A. Taylor, “Precision agriculture for grain production systems,”
Technology & Engineering, pp. 1–208, 2013.
27. H. Song, and Y. He, “Crop nutrition diagnosis expert system based on artificial neural
networks,” Presented at the 3rd International Conference on Information Technology and
Applications,” Information Technology and Applications, pp. 357–362, Sydney, NSW,
Australia, 2005.
28. S. S. Baboo, and I. K. Shereef. “An efficient weather forecasting system using artificial
neural network,” International Journal of Environmental Science and Development, vol.
1, no. 4, pp. 321–326, 2010.
29. M. Sanjay, et al., “A feature based neural network model for weather forecasting,”
International Journal of Computational Intelligence, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 209–216, 2008.
158
30. K. Abhishek, et al., “Weather forecasting model using Artificial Neural Network,” Procedia
Technology, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 311–318, 2012.
31. O. Isaac Abiodun, et al., “State-of-the-art in artificial neural network applications: A
survey,” Heliyon, vol. 4, no. 11,pp. 1–41, Nov 2018.
32. M. Imran et al., “An ensemble of neural networks for weather forecasting,” Neural
Computer & Application, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 112–122, June 2004.
33. A. Kaur, et al., “Artificial neural networks in forecasting maximum and minimum relative
humidity,” International Journal of Computer Science and Network Security, vol. 11, no.
5, pp. 197–199, May 2011.
34. Y. A. LeCun, et al., Efficient BackProp. In: Montavon G., Orr G. B., Müller KR. (eds)
Neural Networks: Tricks of the Trade. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol 7700.
Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 9–48, 2012.
35. R. Pryzant, S. Ermon, and D. Lobell, “Monitoring Ethiopian Wheat Fungus with Satellite
Imagery and Deep Feature Learning,” presented at the IEEE Conference on Computer
Vision and Pattern Recognition Workshops (CVPRW), pp. 1524–1532, Honolulu, HI,
USA, 2017.
36. Q. Yang, et al., “Deep convolutional neural networks for rice grain yield estimation at the
ripening stage using UAV-based remotely sensed images,” Field Crops Research, vol. 235,
no. 1, pp. 142–153, April 2019.
37. J. Long, et al., “Fully convolutional networks for semantic segmentation,” Presented at the
IEEE Conf. on Computer Vision Pattern Recognition, pp.3431–3440, Boston, MA, USA,
2015.
38. A. Krizhevsky, I. Sulskever, and G. E. Hinton, “ImageNet classification with deep
convolutional neural networks,” Proc. of the 25th International Conference on Neural
Information Processing Systems, vol. 1, pp. 1097 – 1105, 2012.
39. X. Liu, et al., “AgeNet: deeply learned regressor and classifier for robust apparent age
estimation,” Presented at the Proc. of IEEE Int. Conf. on Computer Vision, pp. 258–266,
Santiago, Chile, 2015.
40. K. Kuwata, and R. Shibasaki, “Estimating crop yields with deep learning and remotely
sensed data,” Presented at the IEEE Int. Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symp. (IGARSS),
pp. 858–861, Milan, Italy, 2015.
41. C. Bi, and G. Chen, “Bayesian networks modelling for Crop Diseases,” Computer and
Computing Technologies in Agriculture IV, Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 312–320,
2010.
42. J. You, et al., “Deep Gaussian process for crop yield prediction based on remote sensing
data.,” Proc. of 31st Conf. on Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence,
pp. 4559–4565, San Francisco, California, USA, 2017.
43. S. A. M Varman, et al., “Deep Learning and IoT for Smart Agriculture Using WSN,”
IEEE Int. Conference on Computational Intelligence and Computing Research (ICCIC),
Coimbatore, India, pp. 4812–4815, 2017.
44. X. E. Pantazi, D. Moshou, et al., “Wheat yield prediction using machine learning and
advanced sensing techniques” Computers and Electronics in Agriculture,121, pp. 57–65,
2016.
45. H. Y. Jia, et al., “Soil fertility grading with Bayesian network transfer learning,” Proc. of
the IEEE at Ninth International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics, pp.
1159–1163, Qingdao, July 2010.
159
46. L. Hongyi, Y. Zhang, et al.., “A PCA and neural networks-based method for soil fertility
evaluation and production forecasting,” IEEE Int. Conference on Computer Science and
Automation Engineering (CSAE), pp. 35–38, Zhangjiajie, China, July 2012.
47. P. Sharma, et al., “Prediction of Potato Late Blight Disease based upon weather parameters
using Artificial Neural Network Approach”, Presented in the 2018 9th International
Conference on Computing, Communication and Networking Technologies (ICCCNT),
pp. 1–13, Bangalore, India.
48. M. Lavreniuk, N. Kussul, et al., “Deep learning crop classification approach based on
sparse coding of time series of satellite data,” Presented at the 2018 IEEE Int. Geoscience
and Remote Sensing Symposium, pp. 4812–4815, Valencia, Spain.
49. Z. Zhou, et al., “Crops Classification from Sentinel-2A Multi-spectral Remote Sensing
Images Based on Convolutional Neural Networks,” Presented at the 2018 IEEE Int.
Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium, pp. 5300–5303, Valencia, Spain.
50. Z. Zhou, et al., “Peanut planting area change monitoring from remote sensing images based
on deep learning,” Presented at the 2017 IEEE Int. Conference on Systems and Informatics
(ICSAI), pp. 4812–4815, Hangzhou, China.
51. Z. Li., et al., “Predicting grassland leaf area index in the meadow steppes of northern china:
a comparative study of regression approaches and hybrid geostatistical methods,” Remote
Sensing, vol. 8, no. 8,632, pp. 1–18, 2016.
52. L. Liang, et al., “Estimation of crop LAI using hyperspectral vegetation indices and a
hybrid inversion method,” Remote Sensing Environ., vol.165, pp. 123–134, 2015.
53. F. Bu, and X. Wang, “A smart agriculture IoT system based on deep reinforcement
learning,” Future Generation Computer Systems, vol. 99, pp. 500–507, 2019.
54. V. J. Ojha, et al., “Convergence Analysis of Backpropagation Algorithm for Designing an
Intelligent System for Sensing Manhole Gases,” Studies in Computational Intelligence,
vol.611, pp. 215–236, 2016.
160
16 DESIGN OF MEMS MODEL TO STUDY THE

RADIATION EFFECTS ON BRAIN TUMOUR
Shameem Syed1, Arunmetha S.2, Sri Haritha C.H.3, Chandana Sindhu G.4,
and Sambasivarao K.5
1,2,3,4,5
Department of E.C.E., KLEF, KL university, Guntur, India
ABSTRACT: As the technology is advancing, humans are being exposed to devices

that emit radiation. Cell phone is one such device that people use almost every day.
Because of this radiation, we observe various health issues like severe headache, tumors
etc. The human tissues undergo changes due to this radiation. These changes have to
be monitored to avoid such diseases. In this paper, we have done a comparative study
between brain and brain tumor based on the variations in Specific Absorption Rate
(SAR) and temperature rise at a frequency of 835 MHz due to radiation. A multiphysics
model has been designed and subjected to radiation using a patch antenna as RF source,
the effects have been studied.
Keywords: Tumor, Radiation, SAR, Pennes bio heat, Cellular DNA, Microstrip antenna
I. INTRODUCTION
From the invention of cell phones which give us all the benefits of computer, it has
become a part of life for people. The cell phones radiate RF waves which cause
headache and sometimes may develop a tumor in the brain [1]. So, it is important
for us to study the changes in Specific Absorption rate (SAR) and temperature rise
distribution in both healthy brain and tumor brain.
Cell phones generate a modulated radio frequency electromagnetic field (RF-
EMF) that is a type of non-ionizing radiation. Cell phone radiation cannot cause
atomic or molecular ionization. However, it is unknown whether other mechanisms
could affect cell phone radiation cellular and physiological functions.
Depending on its frequency, a strong electrical field may warm tissues or disturb
neuronal functions. Thermal effects are based on tissue-to-field energy absorption,
which causes molecules to oscillate [2]. The quantity of cell phone generated RF
generally depends on the count of base stations around the region, cell phone network
traffic, and how far the cell phone is from base station [3].
The radiation effects have been observes at 835 MHz. This band is used in
various fields like the Cellular Radiotelephone Service, and the Specialized Mobile
Radio (SMR) Service, the Public Safety Radio Service, Business/Industrial Land
Transportation Service. AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) allocates cellular
telephone frequency ranges between 800 and 900 MHz. Each service provider can use
161
half of the 824–849MHz spectrum to transmit cell phone signals. The energy levels
of cell phone are insufficient to damage or disrupt cellular DNA. But according to the
studies, in the long run there might be a problem. So it is necessary to continue study
on this topic [4].
People generally talk on phone by placing it at one side of the head. So an antenna
is placed at close proximity to the head and studied. It is said that a Pennes’ bio heat
equation is used to calculate the Specific Absorption rate SAR at multiple frequencies
within a simulation [5]. The EM(electro-mechanical) parameters show us the changes
because of the radiation. The brain’s EM parameters are frequency dependent and the
results are observed at 835 MHz.
SAR (Specific Absorption Rate) is a term which is used to measure the amount of
RF power absorbed in the human head or human body whenever a cell phone or some
other wireless radio device transmits. The SAR measured during SAR compliance
testing is the maximum SAR value (in units of Watts/kilogram SAR value has a limit
of 1.6 W/kg [6].
After exposure to radiations, if the power absorbed in the tissues is high, then
tissue heating is caused. Measuring temperature rise in human tissues is another
safety standard for checking heating in biological tissue [7]. The temperature rise is
calculated using the Pennes’ bio heat equation.
Rectangular Patch Antenna
A rectangular patch antenna has been used which follows the feeding technique
of microstrip line. In this technique the patch will be directly connected with the
conducting strip. The patch is larger in size than the feedline. The patch and feed
dimensions have been considered measured using information in [8].
Figure 1. Patch antenna
II. DISPERSIVE HUMAN HEAD MODEL AND METHODOLOGY
The head geometry used was provided by IEEE according to their standard Specific
Absorption rate (SAR) value measurement specifications. This model samples the
material parameters to estimate the tissue type variations in the head with a volumetric
interpolation function. This function contains data derived from MRI images.
162
SAR calculation in the head is generally calculated by:
SAR =
sE2 (1)
r
Where
E: In the tissue it is the RMS value of the electric field(EF) strength in V/m
σ: Body tissue conductivity in S/m
ρ: Body tissue density in kg/m3
Temperature rise in head:

With the help of Pennes’ Bioheat Equation the temperature rise within the head is
being calculated in only two steps. The temperature rise distributions within the head
is estimated by the differences between the final temperature and initial temperature.
Bioheat Equation is
¶T
r×C× = K × D 2 T + r × SAR - wb rb Cb × (T - Tb ) (2)
¶t
Where
Cb : Heat capacity of blood[J/(kg °C)],
C : Heat capacity [J/(kg °C)],
K : Thermal conductivity [W/(m °C)],
wb : Blood perfusion rate [1/s],
ρ : Mass density [kg/m3],
T : Temperature [°C] at any time t
rb : Blood’s Mass Density[kg/m3],
Tb : Temperature of Blood (37 °C).
A rectangular patch antenna is used as an RF source.
TableI. Dimensions of rectangular patch antenna
Patch 5mm x 10mm

Feedline 4mm x 5mm
TableII. The parameters that are related to radiation and temperature rise are as follows
Sampling parameter 2e-4

Brain tissue’s density 1.046e3[kg/m^3]
Sampling parameter 4e-4
Brain tissue’s conductivity 5.23
Sampling parameter 1.23[S/m]
Brain tissue’s permittivity 49.90
Sampling parameter -50
Blood’s Heat Capacity 3617[J/(kg*K)]
163
Sampling parameter -1.0[S/m]

Sampling parameter 7.8e-4[1/s]
frequency 835[MHz]
Sampling parameter 1.08e-6[1/s]
Blood’s density 1050[kg/m^3]
The parameter values for brain tissues have been studied from [1] and [2] and
assumed as
Table3. Electrical parameters of the brain tissue
Relative permittivity 51.37
Relative permeability 1
Electrical conductivity 1.2669
Thermal conductivity 0.565
Density 1035.5
Heat capacity at constant pressure 3700
The relative permittivity and electrical conductivity have been referred from [1] and
approximated to increase at 3%. The thermal conductivity and density have been
referred from [2].
The tumor size has been taken as 15 mm radius.
III. RESULTS
Multiphysics model has been designed using Comsol. The head geometry considered
from IEEE is shown in figure. 2
Figure 2. Head geometry referred from IEEE
164
A patch antenna has been attached to one side of head where we usually keep our cell
phone while talking.
Figure 3. Attachment of patch antenna near head

To absorb the scattered radiation, a PML boundary is designed.
Figure 4. Complete geometry with PML boundary

The SAR value at logarithmic scale and temperature rise distribution are observed. A
brain tumor of size 15 mm has been developed inside the head and then again they
have been computed.
Figure 5. Radiation pattern of human head affected by RF signal
165
Figure 6. Temperature rise shown due to exposure to RF signal

The tumor of varying size 15mm and 30mm has been created and combined with the
brain head geometry.
Figure 7. The Geometry of head after insertion of tumor

There is a gradual increase in the effect as the size of tumor is increasing. The tumor
area is heated to a great extinct compared to a normal head.
Figure 8. Radiation pattern of human head with a tumor of size 15mm
166
Figure 9. Radiation pattern of human head with a tumor size of 30mm
IV. CONCLUSION
The effect of brain tumor on the SAR and temperature rise distributions in a human
head has been investigated at a frequency of 835MHz with the use of Multiphysics
mode using COMSOL. In the Multiphysics model it is observed that the temperature
rise is nearly equal to 0.1 K (Kelvin) from normal brain to the tumor brain. Depending
on the size of the tumor the temperature rise is gradually increasing 0.015 K (Kelvin).
The calculated values of the temperature rise distribution and SAR for the head which
has tumor is much higher than the normal healthy head. Furthermore, it has been
noticed that these SAR and temperature were also dependent on the RF Source and
frequency.
V. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank NPMASS scheme for establishing national MEMS
Design center in AP which is supported by IISC, Bangalore for providing the necessary
design facilities.
REFERENCES
1. Cardis, E., Deltour, I., Mann, S., Moissonnier, M., et al. (2008). Distribution of RF energy
emitted by mobile phones in anatomical structures of the brain. Phys. Med. Biol. 53: 2771–
2783. doi: 10.1088/0031–9155/53/11/001.
2. Research Review on the Biological Effect of Cell Phone Radiation on HumanAshraf A.
Aly1, Safaai Bin Deris2, Nazar Zaki3.
3. C. K. Smitha,Energy Changes in Brain Under Mobile Phone Radiation, SAI Computing
Conference 2016 July 13–15, 2016 | London, UK.
4. Brain Tumors: Incidence, Survival, and Aetiology P A MC Kinney J Neurol Neurosurg
Psychiatry 2004;75(Suppl II): ii12–ii17. doi: 10.1136/jnnp.2004.
167
5. Kaburcuk, F., Elsherbeni, A. Z. (Nov 2018b). Efficient computation of SAR and

temperature rise distributions in a human head at wide range of frequencies due to 5G RF
field exposure. Aces. J. 33: 1236–1242.
6. A Study of Factors Affecting Awareness of SAR Value of Mobile Phone Monika Dubey
Advance in Electronic and Electric Engineering. ISSN 2231–1297, Volume 3, Number 3
(2013), pp. 355–364.
7. Tooba Hamed* and Moazam Maqsood SAR Calculation & Temperature Response of
Human Body Exposure to Electromagnetic Radiations at 28, 40 and 60GHz mmWave
Frequencies Progress In Electromagnetics Research M, Vol. 73, 47–59, 2018.
8. Design of Rectangular Microstrip Patch Antenna Houda Werfelli, Khaoula Tayari, Mondher
Chaoui, Mongi Lahiani, Hamadi Ghariani 2nd International Conference on Advanced
Technologies for Signal and Image Processing - ATSIP’2016.
168
17 AN IMPROVED TELECOMMUNICATION CHURN

PREDICTION SYSTEM BY PPFCM CLUSTERING
HYBRID MODEL
Vijaya J.1, Srimathi S.2, Karthikeyan S.3 and Siddarth S.4

School of Computer Science and Engineering, VIT- AP University, Amaravati,
1,2,3,4
ABSTRACT: The term Churn describes number of people or valued customers

collectively moving out of the subscribed services running under a business organization.
The Churn Management mainly aims to diminish the number of potential or valuable
customer losses so that the organization highly becomes profitable. In this paper, to
propose and design a system which can involve in probable prediction of customer churn
using Hybrid Possibilistic and Probabilistic Fuzzy C-Means Clustering Methodology
(PPFCM) in combination with enhanced classification. This system effectively improves
the prediction accuracy when compared with existing PPFCM-ANN model. This proposed
work has two modules: Clustering algorithm are used to reduce the training dataset to
any size and the enhanced classification. In the designed clustering module, the input
data set is designed into clusters utilizing the benefits of PPFCM clustering algorithm.
The obtained clustered information is deployed using enhanced Classifier and the hybrid
model is deployed further. During the testing phase, based on the similarity measures or
based on the minimum distance the clustered data signifies the most relevant and proficient
enhanced Classifier that highlights the nearby cluster of the test data. At last, the output
score is used to predict the customer churn.
Keywords: Customer churn, Telecommunication, Clustering, Classification, PPFCM

clustering, Ensemble classification, Hybrid model, Bagging, Boosting, Random subspace
I. INTRODUCTION
Bose outlines that when people or customer quits a subscribed service and comes out
of an organization such a situation highly indicates customer churn [1]. Many sectors
like banking industry, newspaper publishing, marketing, credit card subscription,
insurance company and many mobile social games, and social media etc. are facing
serious threats due to customer rapidly churn [5,6,10,11]. Communication plays a
key role in connecting people and sharing ideas. World has become a global village
because of emerging telecommunication sector. Every sector is interconnected
because of telecommunication technology. Rapid growth is achieved in every sector
because of ever growing telecommunication industry. Flexibility of customer mobility
in telecommunication sector results in customer churn which is the main factor in
169
causing customer loss to the organization. Hence this customer portability causes
tremendous loss of customers subscribed under a single organization. The main reason
for customers churning out of a service or product or organization is due to customer
dissatisfaction and due to customers’ financial constraints. Major churn is identified
in telecommunication sector with a customer loss of 27% a year [3,4]. Hence it is
much important to design a customer’s churn prediction methodology combined with
a decision-making system. There are number of machine learning methods available
to predict the customer churn which include regression analysis, rule learning and
naive bayes, fuzzy system, neural network, support vector machine and decision tree
[3,9,14]. The main objective of the designed system is to build a quantitative customer
churn prediction system for ever growing telecommunication industry. The proposed
prediction model enhances the prediction accuracy, customer churning truly, and
it reduces the miss-classification error. As an important parameter the future churn
customer are identified at the earliest possible.
II. LITERATURE SURVEY
Customer Churn Prediction (CCP) is performed using various soft computing

and data mining techniques [3–5]. Different data mining approaches [6–8] can
access and bring out many hidden information like customer behavior, customer
interest, customer buying patterns etc. Also, data mining techniques are utilized at
various steps of data mining process to remove the noise, to identify and eradicate
the outliers. Also, the entire sample space can be reduced to a minimal significant
feature by selecting the most useful and appropriate features and sampling
techniques [7, 15]. There are many single classification techniques available to
predict the customer churn and they include regression analysis, rule learning and
naive bayes, fuzzy system, neural network, support vector machine and decision
tree [3,9,14]. It is stated from the literature that ensemble-based (CCP) model
and hybrid customer churn prediction models composed of weighted combination
of multiple classification models perform better than a single churn prediction
classifier [4–8, 12–15]. Vijaya and Sivasankar (2017) came out with a methodology
consisting of two phases clustering and classification performed based on similar
group of customers. Phase one has PPFCM clustering which clusters the similar
customers together and it reduces the misclassification error. In phase two LM
(Levenberg–Marquardt) algorithm classifies every cluster obtained in the previous
phase [12]. Huang et al. (2012) enumerated new attribute set for customers using
landline. It is found that extracted new features gave increased accuracy than that
of existing features. The proposed system performance is measured using true and
false positive rates [3]. Bose et al. (2009) selected and used only 14 attributes from
271 attributes which were relevant to understand the revenue details and customer
usage details. The system involved five clustering techniques like Fuzzy C-Means,
170
K-Means, K-Medoid, Birch and Self-Organizing map so that the entire customer
group can be sliced into smaller segments and each segment depicting customers
of similar characteristics. The results of customer segmentation were taken into the
decision tree and the working performance were computed [1]. This paper proposes
a system to probable prediction of customer churn utilizing hybrid Possibilistic and
Probabilistic Fuzzy C-Means Clustering Methodology (PPFCM) in combination
with enhanced classification algorithm.
III. PROPOSED MODEL
The first process in this model is data collection, which is obtained from KDD cup 2009
[2] is illustrated in Figure. 1. Then the data is pre-processed which involves noise and
redundant information removal from the data set. Now the cleaned and pre-processed
data is given to PPFCM clustering (The process of grouping the data set is based on
similarities) process. Once the clusters are formed then allocate 2/3 of each clustered
data for training and 1/3 of the data for testing purpose and then enhance classification
algorithm for classification. In phase three, Ada boosting uses the training data to build
the classifier model. The prediction of test data is done by enhanced classifier majority
voting. Finally, the efficiency of the designed system is evaluated.
K1
Each cluster is modeled by
Clustering using PPFCM
Performance evaluations
K2
Data set collection
enhanced classifier
Data cleaning
Kn
Figure 1. Enhance churn prediction method
A. Data collection and cleaning
The method was tested by French telecommunication CCP dataset that were taken
from the repository of KDD Cup [2]. The data set totally consists of nearly 50,000
samples [46328 are major samples and 3673 are minor samples] and 230 attributes
171
in combination with the class labels. In the considered data set out of 230 attributes,
there are about 190 numerical attributes and 40 nominal attributes. The training part
of the KDD cup 2009 data set is chosen for experimentation. Often the KDD cup
2009 data is raw and incomplete in its format. Data pre-processing is an important
step in any data mining techniques to transform the raw data into a obtain relevant
and most appropriate attributes for classification. Hence the data is cleaned and pre-
processed using misleading attribute removal (both numerical and string attributes),
filling the missing values, converting string attribute into numeric form and min-max
normalization. The steps of the cleaning process are clearly explained in the earlier
paper [13]. After the cleaning process the attribute set is reduced to a smaller data set
consisting of 50 attributes (including class label) of 50000 samples [46328 are major
samples and 3673 are minor samples].
B. PPFCM clustering algorithm
In this paper, to propose and design a system which can involve in probable prediction
of customer churn using Hybrid Possibilistic and Probabilistic Fuzzy C-Means
Clustering Methodology (PPFCM) in combination with enhanced classification. This
system effectively improves the prediction accuracy when compared with existing
PPFCM-ANN model [12].
PPFCM algorithm is extended version of PFCM algorithm. In PPFCM clustering
algorithm to generate a new membership function which is the multiplication of
proposed newly generated probability values with membership function of existing
PFCM clustering algorithm [12]. The proposed probability value is calculated based
on the Eq.1.
pa ¹ b d a ( x c )
(1)
å
a
p d (x c )
t =1 b ¹ t a
IV. EXPERIMENTS AND RESULT ANALYSIS
Three different experiments are performed in which the primary experiment evaluates
the standard classification results are compared to standard ensemble classifiers.
In second experiment evaluates the existing fuzzy based clustering with ensemble
classification hybrid models. In second experiment evaluates the proposed fuzzy
based clustering (PPFCM) with ensemble classification hybrid models.
A. Performance of single classifiers Vs ensemble classifiers
The primary experiment evaluates the standard classification results such as DT, KNN,
SVM, NB, and LDA is compared to standard ensemble classification results such
as bagging, boosting and random subspace. The accuracy obtained from the above
methods are figured in Fig2 which is illustrated in the earlier paper [15]. To allocate
2/3 of data for training and 1/3 of the data for testing purpose. It can be inferred from
the figure that ensemble classifier improves the accuracy considerably.
172
B. Performance of Fuzzy clustering with ensemble classifier
The second experiment evaluates the hybrid classification results such as FCM-
bagging, FCM-boosting, FCM-RS, PCM-bagging, PCM-boosting, PCM-RS, FPCM-
bagging, FPCM-boosting, FPCM-RS. The accuracy obtained from the above methods
are figured in Fig3 which is illustrated in the earlier paper [13]. To allocate 2/3 of each
clustered data for training and 1/3 of the data for testing purpose. It can be inferred
from the figure that hybrid classifier improves the accuracy considerably.
Accuracy
92.55 92.33 94.19 93.32
95 90.91 91.39 89.52
87.61
Accuracy
90
85
80
Classifier
Figure 2. The accuracy variation of single classifier Vs ensemble classifier
C. Performance of proposed PPFCM- enhanced classifier
Final experiment substantiates the hybrid proposed model. The proposed Hybrid
PPFCM clustering algorithm with enhanced classifier affords maximum accuracy in
comparison with any solitary models. The sum of square error (SSE) obtained from
PPFCM clustering is better than the partition based clustering and fuzzy cluster which
is proved in the earlier paper [12]. Figure 4 result shows the performance comparison
between the proposed churn prediction model by setting the number of clusters
is equal to 2. Table 1 result shows the performance comparison of the proposed
churn prediction model is compared to standard classification algorithm, ensemble
classification, existing fuzzy based ensemble classification algorithms. It shows that
the Possibility Fuzzy C-Means (PFCM) hybrid with enhanced classifier produce
maximum accuracy of 98.67 % for all k values.
Accuracy
99 97.86
98 97.03 96.68
97 96.5
96 95.2
Accuracy
94.54 94.2
95 93.52
94 93.27
93
92
91
90
Classifier
Figure 3. The accuracy variation of hybrid classifier
173
Accuracy
98.8 98.67
98.56
98.6
98.4
Accuracy
98.2
98 97.899
97.8
97.6
97.4
PPFCM-Bagging PPFCM-Boosting PPFCM-RS
Classifier
Figure 4. The accuracy variation of proposed hybrid classifier
Table I. The accuracy variation of proposed hybrid classifier Vs existing algorithm
S.no Algorithms Accuracy

1 DT 87.61
2 RS 93.32
3 FCM-RS 94.54
4 Proposed PPFCM-Boosting 98.67
V. CONCLUSION
In growing and ever challenging telecommunication sector churn prediction has

become a vital process for the continuous growth of the organization. In this paper
hybrid PPFCM with enhanced hybrid model is deployed for churn prediction in
telecommunication sector. Three different
experiments are performed in which the primary experiment consists of the
classification result, the secondary experiment evaluates the ensemble classification
result with fuzzy clustering, and the tertiary experiment evaluates the ensemble
classification result hybrid with proposed PPFCM clustering. Such that the proposed
Hybrid PPFCM with enhanced classifier affords maximum accuracy in comparison
with any solitary models.
REFERENCES
1. Bose I., Chen X. (2009) Hybrid models using unsupervised clustering for prediction of
customer churn. J Organ Comput Electr Commer 19(2): 133–151. https://www.kdd.org/
kdd-cup/view/kdd-cup-2009/Data.
2. Huang, B., Kechadi, M. T., Buckley, B. (2012). Customer churn prediction in
telecommunication. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(1), 1414–1425.
174
3. Huang, Y., and Kechadi, T. (2013). An effective hybrid learning system for
telecommunication churn prediction. Expert Systems with Applications, 40(14),
5635–5647.
4. Hudaib, A., R. Dannoun, O. Harfoushi, R. Obiedat and H. Faris (2015). Hybrid data mining
models for predicting customer churn. International Journal of Communications, Network
and System Sciences, 8(05), 91.
5. Huigevoort, C., Dijkman, R. (2015). Customer churn prediction for an insurance company
(Doctoral dissertation, M. Sc. Thesis, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven,
Nether- land).
6. Idris, A., Khan, A., Lee, Y. S. (2013). Intelligent churn prediction in telecom: employing
mRMR feature selection and RotBoost based ensemble classification. Applied intelligence,
39(3), 659–672.
7. Inbarani, H. H., M. Bagyamathi and A. T. Azar (2015). A novel hybrid feature selection
method based on roughest and improved harmony search. Neural Computing and
Applications, 26(8), 1859–1880.
8. Keramati A, Jafari-Marandi R, Aliannejadi M, Ahmadian I, Mozaffari M, Abbasi U (2014)
Improved churn prediction in telecommunication industry using data mining techniques.
Appl Soft Comput 24: 994–1012.
9. Rajamohamed, R., Manokaran, J. (2017). Improved credit card churn prediction based on
rough clustering and supervised learning techniques. Cluster Computing, 1–13.
10. Runge, J., Gao, P., Garcin, F., Faltings, B. (2014, August). Churn prediction for high-value
players in casual social games. In Computational Intelligence and Games (CIG), 2014
IEEE Conference on (pp. 1–8). IEEE.
11. Sivasankar, E., and Vijaya, J. (2018). Hybrid PPFCM-ANN model: an efficient system for
customer churn prediction through probabilistic possibilistic fuzzy clustering and artificial
neural network, Neural Computing & Application. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521–018–
3548–4.
12. Tsai, C. F., Lu, Y. H. (2009). Customer churn prediction by hybrid neural networks. Expert
Systems with Applications, 36(10), 12547–12553.
13. Vafeiadis, T., Diamantaras, K. I., Sarigiannidis, G., Chatzisavvas, K. C. (2015). A
comparison of machine learning techniques for customer churn prediction. Simulation
Modelling Practice and Theory, 55, 1–9.
14. Vijaya. J and E. Sivasankar and S. Gayathri (2018). Fuzzy Clustering with Ensemble
Classification techniques to improve the Customer Churn Prediction in Telecommunication
Sector. Neural Computing and Applications, DOI: 10.1007/978–981–13–1280–9_25.
175
18 GRAMMAR EXPERT AN AUTOMATED ESSAY

SCORING APPLICATION
Vikash Varma Sayyaparaju1, Ramya Bhargavi Pichukala2, Vidyadhari

Tummalapalli3 and Abhinav Dayal4
Computer Science and Engineering, Vishnu Institute of Technology, Bhimavaram,
1,2,3,4
India
ABSTRACT: Writing Skills are applicable to most areas of one’s life and career and
helps people to stand out in their field. One can use these abilities to promote their
business on social media platforms, blogs or any kind of marketing emails. Essays and
their evaluation play a significant role in analyzing the capability of a person and will
lay a path for the better learning process and overall development. Validating manually
becomes a time consuming process and a burden on the validator. This paper describes
the automated essay scoring application “Grammar Expert” which does the detection and
correction of grammatical mistakes in the text received as input for the device and help
in analyzing it according to one’s needs with the help of readability index. This work
made use of Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK) for features extraction and Language
Tool (LT) API for identifying errors. Storing the performance, results and feedback of
each and every submission one did, is the thing which is not done before and plays an
important role in understanding one’s area of mistakes and improve accordingly. It helps
the validators in assessing their people through tests and by viewing or analyzing the
stored performances, they may find the most common and vital mistakes and address
among them. The most successful outcome is that it is user-friendly.
Keywords: Automated Scoring, Essay Evaluation, NLTK, Language Tool [LT], Writing
Skills, Identification of Mistakes, Detection and Correction of Errors, Storing and Analysing
Performances, Grammar Expert
I. INTRODUCTION
Essay Writing has important skills development and educational functions [1]. It
allows for practice and development of transferable skills that are valuable both
for students and professionals. It helps in organizing one’s thinking and gives
a focus for exploring and consolidating what one is learning. Both spoken and
written English communication skills are essential in today’s global economy.
Technical writing, documentation, emails etc. are important skills for any white-
collar worker. More than 73% of employers require people with strong written
communication skills [2]. In fact, written communication skills stands at third place
in priority for selecting a candidate after leadership and team working skills. Clear
177
writing indicates that a person can think clearly and have proper understanding
of the concept. Author of [3] emphasized writing skills by saying: “If you are
trying to decide among a few people to fill a position, hire the best writer.” At the
college level, AAC&U echoed this sentiment [4]. According to their survey, 93%
of employers gave importance to a candidate being able to clearly demonstrate
critical thinking and clear communication along with being able to solve complex
problems. Moreover 75% of employers stress upon written communication skills
at the college level. Looking at the “Definitive Human Resource and Job search
Statistics”, it is evident that Recruiters check candidate’s abilities on top social
media platforms and in their blogs.
Traditional methods of evaluating candidates written English abilities are time-
consuming as evaluating manually is a tedious task. A survey on computer generated
feedback for assessing written communication skills [5] revealed that out of the
small number of studies conducted, most examined the effects of Automatic Writing
Evaluation (AWE) feedback on overall scores and error frequencies in written tests.
The survey conclusions suggest need for further research and integration of AWE
in classroom effectively. In recent times with NLP techniques, efforts are made to
automate Grammar checking and giving instant feedback by using a computing
device to the user. Authors in [6] combine Natural Language Processing approaches
with individual differences in writers like demographic traits, individual scores
etc. Authors in [7] experimented effectiveness of AWE on Chinese Undergraduate
English Majors. In their study group, every individual wrote two essays and was
graded by four separate human raters along with an automated evaluator called
WriteToLearn. They found that the automated tool had inconsistencies in terms
of identifying certain types of errors like use of prepositions and proper choice of
words etc.
Unlike using Regression models, [8] used a hierarchical approach for AWE.
They measured text difficulty, structure, and cohesion using several tools like
Coh-Metrix, Writing Analysis Tool (WAT) and Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count
(LIWC). Put together these tools use integration of lexicons, parts-of-speech (POS),
shallow semantics, patterns etc. to assess quality of written document in terms of
its connectivity, lexical and semantic co-referentiality, lexical diversity, vocabulary,
narrativity and several spatial and temporal aspects.
Authors in [9] determined coherence in text by mapping essay into a semantic
space and finding variations between them. Their system called SAGE – Sematic
Automated Grader for Essays provided semantic feedback for written essays.
In this work, we use Language Tool [19] for punctuation, Grammar and spelling
errors. Alongside we developed measures for word, vocabulary and sentence quality.
We used this work to publish a site “GrammarExpert.ga” that was used to train students
to improve their writing skills. Our scoring system matched closely to the placement
company’s written evaluation with a minor error of ± 10%.
178
Grammar Expert an Automated Essay Scoring Application
II. METHODOLOGY
Scoring of essay comprises of various factors accounting for sentence and word
quality, grammatical errors, spelling mistakes etc. Figure 1 provides the overall
workflow of the application.
Figure 1. Automatic essay scoring workflow
A. Readability index
The quality of the text can be assessed by an important feature like Readability
Index which helps in the judgment and scoring for the text. The Readability Index
(RI) is a measure to assess how understandable is the text [15]. The value of RI is
proportional to the age group that will be able to understand the text. A score of 3–4
is perfect for children of age group 7–9, whereas a score of 10 is perfect for age
group 15–17. The Readability Index is calculated as a combination of Word Index
(number of letters per word) and sentence Index (number of words per sentence) as
shown below:
characters words
RI = 4.71 ´ + 0.5 ´ - 21.43 (1)
words sentences
B. Language tool
In our work, to automate the scoring system, identifying and obtaining the mistakes
was an important step so as to help in score calculation and penalty decisions. We
made use of Language Tool API to serve that purpose [19]. The error detection
process splits the text into parts of speech (POS). POS tagging is a process where
each sentence is split into words and each word is assigned POS tag. A checker
has a series of rules that defines an error based upon the ordering of the POS tags.
At whichever location in the given text any of the rules match, there is an error.
Similarly there is a spell checker. The system collects all matching locations and
prepares a summary JSON report about location and explanation of the error as well
as suggestions on how to correct those errors. Table 1 categorizes the various errors
detected by the system.
179
Parts of Speech (POS) Tagging: Parts of speech correspond to noun, verb,

adjective, adverb etc. About 11.5% percent of all words are ambiguous and these are
also often occurring words. For example house can be a noun suggesting a building;
house can also be a verb suggesting providing shelter. In general around 40% percent
of the words in a text are usually ambiguous [19].
Table I. Types of errors in written english
Default
Type of Error Description
Penalty
These are computed by comparing words in a given text with
Spelling Errors a large test of known words. If the word is not in the list then 0.25
it is considered incorrect.
Structural: these type of errors can be corrected by

rearranging the structure of text, for example removing,
Grammar Errors adding or moving one or more words. 0.25
Non-Structural: These type of errors require replacement of
some word with one or more words.
Using uncommon words and complicated sentence

Style Errors structures makes the text towards incomprehensible side, 2
which is seldom desired.
All other types of errors. With contextual grammars as that

Semantic Errors of natural languages like English, these kind of errors are NA
very difficult to find automatically.
C. Natural Language Toolkit (NLTK)
NLTK is a leading platform to work with human language data. It gives access to
several lexical resources such as Word Net as well as over 50 easy to use corpora.
It also provisions a suite of text processing libraries for classification, tokenization,
stemming, tagging, parsing, and semantic reasoning. Parts of speech tags like nouns,
adjectives, adverbs, Interjections, verbs e`tc. in the text were easily derived by using
NLTK.
D. Score Calculation
Vital features like average word length (μw), average words per sentence(μs) are
calculated as follows:
length ( w )
mw = å
wÎW -S W -S
(2)
mw
ms = (3)
T
180
Where, W is the total number of words and S is the set of stop words. T, is a set of all
sentences.
In order to calculate the score, we define maximum and minimum penalty for
each error category viz. spelling and grammar errors as well as not meeting set
requirements for word and sentence quality and the word limit. Final score, S is then
calculated as follows.
S = 10 - (0.25N G + 0.25NS + Pwq + Psq + Pwl ) (4)
Where, NG is count of grammar errors, NS is count of spelling errors, Pwq is penalty

for not meeting desired word quality, Psq is penalty for not meeting desired sentence
quality, and Pwl is penalty for not meeting desired word limit. Since Score can’t be
negative, if the above equation gives a negative value, Score is set to 0. For word
quality, the system expects mean word length to exceed a desired value and penalizes
the score if it is smaller subject to a maximum penalty.
ì wd -w
ï ´ WL p if w d > w (5)
Pwq = í w d
ï
î 0 otherwise
here, |w|d is the desired mean word length, WLp is the maximum penalty for word
quality. If mean word length is greater than desired, the above is replaced by 0. A
similar method is used for calculating sentence quality penalty by comparing against
desired mean words per sentence, and for work length penalty by comparing against
desired mean word length.
III. APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT
Authors designed a web app called Grammar Expert [20] utilizing the Assessment
tools developed in previous sections. Authors chose Django, a high-level Python
Web framework, known for quick development and effective design, for creating
this application. Language Tool is used as a basis for identifying grammar and
spelling mistakes, which is a Java based application controlled as a managed thread
from inside the Python code. Natural Language Toolkit is used for extraction of
features of text. HTML, CSS, BootStrap-4, JavaScript, JQuery, Ajax etc. are used
for designing a decent user interface that allows the user to interactively see his/
her performance.
The application allows practice questions, as well as test questions that a teacher
can create. It also provides monitoring tools to assess the performance as shown in
Figures 2, 3. We currently provide support for four types of questions, viz. Essay
writing, picture story writing, connect words and connect phrases.
181
Figure 2. User attempt review
Figure 3. Performance evaluation
IV. RESULTS
We tested the application with few hundred users and over 5000 essay attempts. They
attempted the test and the results are analyzed further. This also helped an individual
in assessing one’s position by analyzing their previous performances and teachers to
find the most common mistakes and address among the students. Our work also got an
accuracy of 87% compared to actual placement test by an IT Company. Students got
182
an advantage of preparation and improvement. Figure 4, shows a sample study of 30

attempts on how our scoring performs against an actual company score. The top line
in figure shows RMS (Root Mean Square) error between two scores.
Figure 4. Comparison of grammar expert (Blue) automatic score against actual company
(Orange) score on 30 example tests
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This study was undertaken to automate the essay scoring process and help people
to keep track of their performances and validators or teachers to conduct tests
and evaluate accordingly. It is successful in achieving this and giving meaningful
feedback. Our open challenges for future work include semantic based evaluation,
plagiarism checking etc. and also using the best possible algorithms to predict the
score and results so that it can be introduced with another platform where this can be
used as a basis for applying jobs related to English like Journalist, Teacher etc. This
may also serve as a platform where companies opt for its service as a part of their
recruitment process.
REFERENCES
1. http://studyskills.curtin.edu.au/essays/introduction/why-write-essays/, Last accessed

2019/1/6.
2. G. Kaleigh Moore, Article on How to Hire the Best research- National Association of
Colleges and Employers.
3. Jason Fried. BOOK: Rework. Publisher-RHUK, Edition (2010).
4. Employer Priorities for College Learning and Student Success, https://www.aacu.org/sites/
default/files/files/LEAP/2013_EmployerSurvey.pdf. Last accessed 2019/10/19.
5. Stevenson, M., & Phakiti, A. “The effects of computer-generated feedback on the
quality of writing.” Assessing Writing, vol. 19, pp. 51–65, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
asw.2013.11.007.
6. Scott. A. Crossley, Laura K. Allen, Erica L. Snow and Danielle S. McNamara, “Incorporating
learning characteristics into automatic essay scoring models.” Journal of Educational Data
Mining, vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 1–19, 2016.
183
7. Sha Liu and Antony John Kunnan, “Investigating the Application of Automated Writing
Evaluation to Chinese Undergraduate English majors: A Case Study of WriteToLearn”,
Calico Journal vol 33.1. 2016, DOI: 10.1559/cj.v33il.26380.
8. M C Namara, D. S., Crossley, S. A., Roscoe, R. D., Allen, L. K., & Dai, J. “A hierarchical
classification approach to automated essay scoring.” Assessing Writing, vol. 23, pp. 35–39,
2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2014.09.002.
9. Kaja Zupanc, Zoran Bosnic “Automated essay evaluation with semantic analysis,”
Knowledge-Based Systems, Vol. 120, pp. 118–132, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
knosys.2017.01.006.
10. Attali, Y. “Validity and reliability of automated essay scoring.” In M. D. Shermis &
J. Burstein (Eds), Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new
directions, pp. 181–199. New York, NY: Routledge, 2013.
11. Allen, L. K., Snow, E. L., & McNamara, D. “The Narrative Waltz: The Role of Flexibility
in Writing Proficiency.” Journal of Educational Psychology. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1037/
edu0000109.
12. Bridgeman, B. “Human ratings and automated essay evaluation.” In M. D. Shermis &
J. Burstein (Eds), Handbook of automated essay evaluation: Current applications and new
directions, pp. 221–232. NewYork, 2013. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203122761.ch13.
13. F. Gutierrez, D. Dou, F. Fickas, G. Griffiths “Online Reasoning for Ontology-Based Error
Detection in Text,” On the Move to Meaningful Internet Systems: OTM 2014 Conferences
Lecture Notes in Computer Science 8841 (2014) 562–579.
14. Shermis, M. D. “State-of-the-art automated essay scoring: Competition, results, and future
directions from a United States demonstration” Assessing Writing, Vol. 20, pp. 53–76.
2014. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2013.04.001. http://www.readabilityformulas.com/
automated-readabilityindex.php. Last accessed, 2019/10/19.
15. Li, J., Link, S., & Hegelheimer, V. “Rethinking the role of automated writing evaluation
(AWE) feedback in ESL writing instruction.” Journal of Second LanguageWriting, 27,
1–18. 2015. doi: 10.1016/j.jslw.2014.10.004.
16. Li, Z., Link, S., Ma, H., Yang, H., & Hegelheimer, V. “The role of automated writing
evaluation holistic scores in the ESL classroom.” System, Vol. 44, pp. 66–78. 2014.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2014.02.007.
17. Perelman, L. (2014). “When ‘the state of the art’ is counting words.” Assessing Wr i t i n g ,
Vol. 21, pp. 104 – 111, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2014.05.001.
18. LanguageTool https://languagetool.org/; last accessed 2019/1/6.
19. Grammar Expert Homepage, https://grammarexpert.ga. Last accessed 2019/10/19.
184
Index
3D Avatars 90 K-means Clustering 74

Automatic target recognition 35 Linear Models of Dimensionality
Automatic Writing Evaluation 178 Reduction 10
Lip Synch 92
Brain MR-Image 83 Machine learning 59
Brain Tumor Classification 140, 141 Market Capitalization 120
Chirp pulse 35, 45 Multimodal Medical Image
Classification 3, 73, 141, 147, 169 Fusion 112
Cloud Computing 15 Neutrosophic Sets 84
Cloud Security parameters 22 Natural Language Toolkit 90, 180
Cloud Deployment Models 17 Part of Speech 179
Cluster centroids 73 Packet Delivery Ratio 55
Clustering 73 Performance Analysis 119
Convolution Neural Networks 136 Phoneme 89
Customer Churn Prediction 170 Pooling 137
CNN 27, 135, 148 Quadrature Detection 39
Cross-Range 35 Range-Doppler 35
DDOS Attacks 15–23 Range profiles 35, 39
Deep Learning Network Models 28 Rasberry PI 129
Dimensionality reduction 3 Recommender System 65
Distributed Denial of Service 16 Rectified Linear Unit 137
Ensemble classification 172 Remote Sensing 157
Feature Extraction 4, 10 Reputation 61
Feature selection 4 Rushing Attack 50
Fuzzy C-means 81 Scalability 4
Gradient Domain Guided Filtering 108 Search Engine 64
Grammar Expert 189 Single valued neutrosophic sets 84
Home automation 127 Specific Absorption Rate 162
Image Centroid 75 Synthetic Aperture Radar 35
Image fusion 107 Training Accuracy 135
ImageNet Dataset 27 UAV Image 146
Image segmentation 73 Viseme 89
Improved Sum Modified Laplacian 109 Wireless Mesh Networks 49
Information Retrieval 60, 66 Web Crawler 65
Inverse Synthetic Aperture Radar 35 Web Text Mining 66
IoT Based Door Locking 127 Writing Analysis Tool 178
ISAR Imaging 41 Yield Prediction of Crops 148
185
View publication stats

Proceedings of National Conference Without Crop 11

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Proceedings of National Conference Without Crop 11

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

A BRIEF VISIT TO THE LANDSCAPE OF CLOUD DDOS ATTACKS

Conference Paper · October 2019

Rajkumar Batchu Amogh Katti

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

DDoS attacks in cloud computing View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda

and by CRC Press

CRC Press is an imprint of Informa UK Limited

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

ISBN: 978-1-003-04398-0 (ebk)

Computer Based Systems 1

01. A Short Survey of Dimensionality Reduction Techniques 3

02. A Brief Visit to the Landscape of Cloud DDoS Attacks 15

03. Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models 27

Computer Based Processes 33

04. Range Doppler ISAR Imaging using Chirp Pulse 35

07. Image Based Centroid Selection for Clustering 73

Computer Based Applications 79

10. DCNN-SVM: A New Approach for Lung Cancer Detection 97

13. Smart Home Security System 127

14. Brain Tumour Classification using Convolution Neural Networks 135

18. Grammar Expert an Automated Essay Scoring Application 177

On behalf of organising committee, we welcome you to the first annual conference on

• Dr. Anupama Namburu, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. Amogh katti, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. Hari Seetha, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. Nandh Kumar R., VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

• Dr. K. Gokulnath, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

WEBSITE AND DIGITAL MEDIA

• R. Balaji Programmer, VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh

ABOUT THE EDITORS

Anupama Namburu has received her doctoral degree

Soubhagya Sankar Barpanda has received his doctoral

Computer Based Systems

A Short Survey of Dimensionality Reduction Techniques

Brief Visit to the Landscape of Cloud DDoS Attacks

Comparative Study of Image Colorization Neural Network Models.

1 A SHORT SURVEY OF DIMENSIONALITY

V. Lakshmi Chetana1, Soma Sekhar Kolisetty1 and K. Amogh2

Amaravati - 522 237, Andhra Pradesh, India

ABSTRACT: Advancement in data collection has increased the availability of high-

Keywords: Dimensionality reduction, Data reduction, Feature relection, Feature extraction,

II. APPROACHES TO DIMENSIONALITY REDUCTION

Figure 1. Classification of dimensionality reduction techniques

Figure 2. Control flow of feature subset selection

ii. Subset evaluation

information, correlation and instance-based approaches to select features. The filtering

Figure 3. Filter process

Step-1: Generating candidate feature subsets.

Figure 4. Wrapper process

Figure 5. Embedding process

iii. Stopping criteria

iv. Result validation

ii. Non-Linear Methods

III. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

Advancements in data collection methods lead to the availability of heterogeneous

3. M. Labani, P. Moradi, F. Ahmadizar, and M. Jalili, “A novel multivariate filter method

2 A BRIEF VISIT TO THE LANDSCAPE OF CLOUD

B. Raj kumar1 and Amogh Katti2

1 A SHORT SURVEY OF DIMENSIONALITY

2 A BRIEF VISIT TO THE LANDSCAPE OF CLOUD

3 COMPARATIVE STUDY OF IMAGE

4 RANGE DOPPLER ISAR IMAGING USING CHIRP