Geology is the scientific study of the rocks and soils that make up the Earth.

This includes exploring

their origins, nature, and how they are formed. Engineering geology, therefore, is the scientific study
of geology concerning civil engineering projects such as the design and construction of buildings,
bridges, dams, and the like.
*NSCP Chapter 3 – Requirements for excavations, fills, footings and foundations for any building or structure.

Roles of engineering geologists

1. Site investigation – “Where is the suitable site for the construction?”

2. Foundation design – “What type of foundation should be utilized?”
3. Stability analysis – “Will the structure be safe against sliding or collapsing?
4. Ground improvement – “How can we increase the strength and stability of the base soil?”
5. Environmental Impact Assessment – “What are the beneficial and adverse effects of the
project?”
Rocks are naturally occurring solid masses or aggregates of minerals. It can be categorized by its
mineral content, chemical composition, and the way it is formed.

There are three main types of rocks, namely: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

a. Igneous rocks
i. This type of rock is formed when molten rocks solidify.
ii. Molten rocks beneath the Earth’s surface are called magma, while molten rocks
above the surface are called lava.
iii. Its texture is affected by the rate of cooling. Rapid cooling of molten rocks results in
fine-grain rocks, while slow cooling results in coarse-grain rocks.
b. Sedimentary rocks
i. This type of rock is formed when sediments are compacted and cemented to each
other.
ii. Sediments are solid materials deposited into a new location due to erosion.
iii. Weathering is the breaking down of rocks and minerals on Earth’s surface. It can be
in the form of physical, chemical, and biological weathering.
iv. Lithification is the process where deposited grains of sediment are compacted under
pressure, expel fluids, and gradually convert into a solid rock.
v. Diagenetic processes cause sediment and rocks to undergo physical, biological, and
chemical alterations.
a. Physical – Due to pressure, temperature, and desiccation (removal of water
content).
b. Biological – Induced by bacteria and burrowing animals.
c. Chemical – Mineral exchange caused by an increase in pressure and oxidation.
c. Metamorphic rocks
i. This type of rock is formed due to the presence of heat and pressure.
ii. Metamorphic rocks are not hot enough to melt, otherwise they would become
igneous.
iii. Foliation refers to the repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks due to immense
pressure.

*Addendum: Solidification or Crystallization instead of Cooling

Common uses of rocks

1. Used in foundations, walls, piers, roads, railways and retaining walls.

2. Used as aggregates in concrete.
3. Used in the production of concrete and cement.
4. Used as a sub-base filter for sewage and water facilities.
5. Used for architectural and ornamental requirements.
https://uh.edu/~geos6g/1330/weath.html

Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering. The
rocky landscape of Earth is caused by the continuous process of weathering and erosion. Weathering
can be mainly divided into three processes.

1. Physical weathering (Mechanical) – causes the rock to crumble.

a. Frost Wedging (Freeze-Thaw) – pore water expands and creates cracks.
b. Abrasion – friction with other rocks or other materials.
c. Thermal Stress – expansion and contraction of the rock itself
2. Chemical weathering – molecular structure changes including acid-base and redox reactions.
a. Decomposition
b. Acidification
c. Oxidation – the interaction of oxygen and iron in the presence of water
d. Carbonation – mixing of water with carbon dioxide (carbonic acid)
e. Hydrolysis
3. Biological weathering – changes due to the movements of plants and animals.
a. Root Wedging
b. Burrowing animals
c. Human activity

Weathering processes in hot and humid climates:

1. Decomposition – changes caused by atmospheric exposure where the initial rock minerals
degrade or break down to sand, clay, and silt at the earth's surface.
2. Disintegration – crack growth and coalescence of cracks to form fissures and propagation of
large joints.
3. Eluviation – refers to the removal of dissolved or suspended material from a layer or layers of
the soil.
Rate of weathering in different climates and environments:

1. Cooler climate – breakdown and rock decay are less active in colder locations.
2. Desert environment – where mechanical degradation is prominent.
Water – as a liquid or a vapour – is nearly always moving through the soil which is also called
infiltration. Soil water or groundwater is the subsurface water that fills the voids in the soil above the
groundwater table.

a. downward – due to gravity and cohesion

b. upward – due to evaporation
c. sideways – due to cohesion
 A. Factors affecting infiltration rate

a. Soil texture – fine or coarse soil

b. Moisture content – dry or wet soil (amount of water present in the soil)
c. Porosity – the volume of voids between soil particles
d. Permeability – the measure of ease of passage of liquids

Figure (A) – relative porously - there is a presence of gaps or voids, non-permeable – water will not be
able to pass through from top to bottom.

Figure (B) – porous – voids are evident, non-permeable – water will not be able to pass through from
top to bottom due to pressure between rock particles.

Figure (C) – porous – large voids, permeable – there are gaps or spaces between rock particles for
water to pass through.

Different rates of infiltration depending on type of soil

 B. Behaviour and effect of water in soil

1. Groundwater fluctuation – (decrease) can be caused by dewatering and tunnelling below

a site, and (increase) precipitation.
2. Lowering of the water table – less occurrence of rain during summer or unsustainable use
of deep wells.

Non-uniform water table

a. Groundwater flow - due to gravity and adhesion/cohesion

((https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/adhesion-and-cohesion-water,
https://www.hindawi.com/journals/geofluids/2021/3794889/)
b. Groundwater quality
3. Rising water levels
4. Inflows – the movement of water in soil
(https://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/How-water-moves-in-the-soil.pdf)

C. Groundwater effects on soil

1. Saturation and moisture content – alters the material’s density, strength and
compressibility.
2. Pore water pressure – defined as the pressure of groundwater held between soil or rocks
in the gaps (or pores) between particles. A rise in pore water pressure reduces the shear
strength of the soil.

3. Erosion
4. Slope stability – greater rainfall infiltration causes the slope to behave unstably and
subsequently fail.
5. Consolidation and settlement – sinking or tilting of structures.

Other terminologies:

a. Recharge – voids between the soil are filled with rainwater.

b. Groundwater table – refers to the boundary between the saturated or phreatic
zone and the unsaturated or vadose zone or zone of aeration.
c. Lag time – term used for the delay in the effects of rainfall.
Geological Hazards

1. Landslides – refers to the mass movement of a material such as rock, earth or debris,
down a slope.
a. Falls – collapse of a material from a cliff or steep slope.

b. Topples – forward rotation and movement (at the base or in reference to a pivot
point)

c. Slides – downslope movement along a distinctive rupture or slip surface

i. Rotational
 ii. Translational

d. Flows – movement down a slope in the form of a fluid

https://www.bgs.ac.uk/discovering-geology/earth-hazards/landslides/how-to-classify-a-landslide/
 2. Earthquake – a sudden, violent shaking of the earth’s surface.

Types of seismic waves:

3. Volcanic Eruption – defined as the expulsions of gas, rock fragments, and/or molten lava
into the surface or onto the atmosphere, from within the earth.
a. Calm and effusive – produces lave flows.
b. Explosive – produces as and pyroclastic density currents.