j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Engineering properties of ultra-high strength

concrete containing sugarcane bagasse and corn
stalk ashes

Ahmed M. Maglad a, Mohamed Amin b, Abdullah M. Zeyad c,

Bassam A. Tayeh d,*, Ibrahim Saad Agwa b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia
b
Civil and Architectural Constructions Department, Faculty of Technology and Education, Suez University, Egypt
c
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
d
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, P.O. Box 108, Gaza Strip,
Palestine

article info abstract

Article history: Agricultural countries suffer from growth problems of agricultural waste ash (AWA). This
Received 20 December 2022 research paper studies the use of AWA as a partial substitute for cement to produce ultra-
Accepted 27 January 2023 high-strength concrete (UHSC). This paper also investigates the effect of using sugarcane
Available online 2 February 2023 bagasse ash (SBA) and corn stalk ash (CSA) on the properties of UHSC. Residues from the
combustion process of agricultural wastes are utilized as a pozzolanic material inserted as
Keywords: a partial substitute for cement for UHSC production. The replacement rates of cement by
Ultra-high strength concrete the SBA were 10%, 20%, and 30% of the mass, whilst those of cement by the CSA were 2%,
Sugarcane bagasse ash corn stalk 4%, 6%, and 8% of the mass. The effects of SBA and CSA on workability, compressive
ash strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity on UHSC
Mechanical properties properties were investigated. In addition, the effects of SBA and CSA on resistance to
Transport properties chloride ion penetration and water sorptivity and permeability in UHSC were investigated.
The investigations showed impressive results. That is, producing UHSC with respective
compressive and flexural strengths of more than 205 and 27 MPa is possible when 24% of
cement mass replacement by AWA (SBA 20% þ CSA 4%) is conducted at the test age of 28
days. The lowest permeability is achieved with 38% of cement mass replacement by AWA
(SBA 30% þ CSA 8%) of 140 coulombs and 0.95 (cm/sec) for chloride and water permeability,
respectively.
© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

demand for concrete [1]. Concrete is the most used building

1. Introduction material, due to its low cost and mechanical, physical, and
chemical properties that make it the highest strength [2],
The rapid development of the construction industry over the environmental resistance [3], and durability [4]. Scientists
course of the past two decades has led to an increase in the were able to use concrete in the field of radiation protection

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.01.197
2238-7854/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
[5,6], shielding [7,8], heavy concrete [9,10], and fortifications
[11]. In addition to the ability to produce ultra-high strength
concrete and adapt to complex shapes and dimensions,
cement is the main component in producing concrete and
controlling its properties [12]. Therefore, cement production is
increasing annually by 2.5%, and its production increased in
2020 to reach 3.5 GT [13], and it is expected to reach about
3.7e4.4 Gt in 2050 [14]. Cement is the third most energy-
consuming industrial material in the world, after steel and
aluminum [15]. In addition, a major problem during cement
production is the emission of carbon dioxide (CO2) in huge
quantities into the atmosphere, and thus it is a major
contributor to global warming [16]. In 2006 the global cement
industry caused the emission of about 5% of carbon dioxide
and 18% of the greenhouse gases emitted, as follows: about
50% of the direct activities of production processes (preparing
clinker), about 40% of the combustion of fuel consumed for
energy production, and about 10% of indirect electrical energy
consumption [17]. The emission of carbon dioxide during the
cement production process has three sources [18]. The pro-
duction of one ton of cement results in the emission of
approximately 525 kg of carbonate from the removal of
limestone to produce one ton of clinker [19], 325 kg is emitted
as a result of fuel combustion, and 50 kg from combustion of
fuel for production electricity [20]. In the past years, supple-
mentary or alternative materials of cement (cementitious
material) was used to minimize the consumption of cement
thus reduce the carbon dioxide emissions [21]. The significant
increase in demand for agricultural products has resulted in
huge amounts of agricultural waste [22], which often comes in
the form of ash after the burning process to produce energy
[23].
Currently, a huge amount of agricultural waste is produced
such as palm oil fuel ash [24], cotton stalk [25], rice husk ash
[26], sugar cane ash [27], corn cob ash [28], olive ash [29], etc.,
and industrial waste products, such as fly ash, silica fume [30],
and granular blast furnace slag [31]. Consequently, the
disposal of agricultural and industrial waste in landfills poses
a great environmental risk due to the pollution of air [32], soil
[33], and water (surface and groundwater) [34]. On the other
hand, it can be used in the concrete industry as a partial
substitute for cement to reduce the consumption of cement or
as a supplementary material to improve the durability [35]and
strength properties of concrete [36].
Sugar cane bagasse is classified as a by-product of sugar
industry as a result of extracting sugar from sugar cane. As a
result of sugar preparation processes, large quantities of
agricultural waste are available called sugarcane bagasse,
which turn out to sugarcane bagasse ash (SBA) after burning it
to produce energy [37]. Global production of sugarcane
reached 1.9 billion tons in 2018. The ranking of the largest
sugarcane producing countries is Brazil, which produces
about 746.8 million tons, or 39% of the global production, fol-
lowed by India with a global production rate of 20%, then
China with a global production of 6% and Thailand with a
global production rate of 5% [38]. Many researches on SBA
confirms that the main component is SiO2 of approximately
within the range of 59.2e87.7%, of the mass of SBA, which
makes it meet the minimum requirements of ASTM C618 to
classify as pozzolanic materials, which requires a total of
3197
70% [39]. In addition, other oxides such as K2O, MgO, Na2O,
P2O5 and SO3 are present as secondary components [40]. Some
researchers reported that the process of burning sugarcane
bagasse at a temperature between 600 and 800  C, produces
SBA containing amorphous silica in high proportions, which
gives it high pozzolanic properties [41].
The study by Ganesan et al. at [42] incorporation of 5e30%
SBA with concrete, which achieved better properties than
reference concrete, the highest compressive strength was
achieved when replacing 20% of cement mass by SBA at test
ages of 28 and 90-days. In another study, it was shown that the
use of SBA works successfully as a filler and helps to achieve
high compaction ability in self-compaction concrete [43]. Ac-
cording to Abdullah et al., replacing 10% of the cement weight
with SBA resulted in high compressive strength when
compared to other replacement ratios ranging from 0 to 50%
[44]. In addition to its role in improving the performance of the
slurry against water absorption and chlorine penetration, as a
result of increasing the density of CeSeH gel and its imper-
meable microstructure [45]. According to Praveenkumar et al.,
cement paste samples containing 15% SBA have a high-
density CeSeH network with no visible pores [46]. Corn crop
production is considered one of the main food crops in the
world, agricultural production is widely distributed around
the world, and statistics indicate that its production exceeded
the production of both wheat and rice [47]. According to the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAOSTAT), corn crop production exceeded 883 million tons
per year in 2011, while wheat (704 million tons) and rice (723
million tons) were produced for the same year [48,49]. During
the harvesting process, corn stalk residues are produced as an
agricultural by-product of harvesting corn, with a total global
production of approximately 1.0 billion tons [50]. Corn stalk
ash (CSA) is obtained by burning the corn stalk at calcination
temperature 600e800  C. Through the process of burning corn
crop residues to provide biofuels energy, large quantities of
ash are produced, which constitute an environmental burden,
which requires safe disposal. Jarabou et al. (2013) reported that
ash can be used as a partial or complementary substitute for
concrete production [51]. Corn ash has a chemical composi-
tion of SiO2þAl2O3þFe2O3 between 49.1 and 77.1% and this
ensures its classification among the pozzolanic materials
based on the specifications of ASTM [52]. A limited number of
researchers have studied the use of CSA as a partial substitute
for cement in concrete works, and these studies have rec-
ommended the use of CSA within 10% of the mass of cement
[53,54]. Currently, research on developing bio-based CSA-
based concrete is still very limited.
Mineral admixtures from by-products of industrial or
agro-industrial processes are commonly employed in many
applications of high-performance concrete. In general, the
incorporation of these by-products from agricultural waste
into the concrete industry contributes to the improvement of
their properties [55]. Several studies conducted by researchers
report the use of SBA in normal cement concrete [41]. How-
ever, research studies on incorporating SBA in high-strength
concrete are available in very few, either for incorporation it
in ultra-high strength concrete are very rarely or almost none
[56,57]. While the research studies on incorporating CSA in
normal concrete are available in a limited number [58].
3198 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Ultra-high strength Concrete (UHSC) has a compressive coefficient and water permeability. The experimental pro-
strength of 150e200 MPa, which is approximately 3e8 times cedures and results of numerous UHSC mixtures were pre-
that of conventional concrete [59,60]. UHSC strength depends sented in this paper. Finally, the obtained results were
on three main characteristics: cement paste microstructure, discussed, which led to the inclusion of a new type of local
aggregate size, and quality, and microstructure of interfacial agricultural waste as a partial substitute for cement and the
transition zone between aggregates and fibers with matrix production of UHSC.
[61]. Micro-structure of cement paste can be improved by
reducing the water-to-cement ratio as well as keeping the
diameter of the aggregate below 150 mm [62,63]. In addition to 2. Experimental work
the important elements of cementitious or supplementary
materials, whose role is not limited to reducing the cost of 2.1. Materials
concrete production, but also contributes to increasing the
strength [64]. Cementitious and supplementary materials 2.1.1. Cement
contribute to improving the properties of microstructure by: 1) The used cement was an ordinary Portland type (OPC I-52.5 N),
Filling of micropores; 2) pozzolanic interaction with Ca(OH)2, as presented in Table 1. Various tests on cement included
3) Improvement of the intermediate transition zone between initial and final setting time, specific gravity, fineness, and
aggregate and fibers with matrix [65]. Several researchers compressive strength. Physical properties and chemical
conducted tests on the properties of UHSC with some ultrafine composition tests were performed according to ASTM C-150-3
materials of mineral admixtures such as silica fume, such as [70].
limestone, fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace, slag and
metakaolin [66], and the results indicated that these supple- 2.1.2. Sugarcane bagasse and corn stalk ashes
mentary cementitious materials are promising for the pro- The sugarcane industry in Egypt goes back to the year 710 AD.
duction of UHSC [67]. On the other hand, the very fine ash Cane plantations are concentrated in Upper Egypt. The total
produced from agricultural waste can be used as a supple- amount of cane cultivated in Upper Egypt is approximately 16
mentary material for the production of UHSC [68]. Some re- million tons per year. Eight sugarcane-producing factories are
searchers reported adding ultra-fine rice straw ash to 20% of found in Egypt, most of which are close to the cultivation
the cement mass led an to increase the compressive strength (Elmina, Sohag, Qena, Luxor, and Aswan) [71]. The sugarcane
higher than 190 at test age of 90-days [69]. Additionally, re- bagasse used in this study was obtained from Qena, Egypt. This
searchers reported that incorporating palm oil fuel ash as a sugarcane bagasse is acquired as a by-product of the harvested
partial substitute for cement with up to 17% of the cement sugarcane, which requires burning, grinding, and sieving to
mass increased compressive strength in excess of 156 MPa in produce SBA for use in concrete as amorphous silica. The first
the 90-day test age [64]. Therefore, the possibility of stage of amorphous silica production from sugarcane bagasse
researching the use of partial substitutes for cementitious or
supplementary cement materials from agricultural wastes is
still in the interest of many researchers. Due to the in-
Table 1 e Physical properties and chemical compositions
efficiency of agricultural waste ash, researchers are reluctant of cement, sugarcane bagasse ash, and corn stalk ash.
to use it as a partial substitute for cement for UHSC produc-
Properties Cement Sugarcane bagasse Corn stalk
tion. In this research and to overcome this problem, the
ash ash
agricultural waste ash was ground to increase the surface area
Chemical composition (%)
and the thermal treatment to eliminate the remaining carbon.
SiO2 20 75 43
In addition to mixing two types of agricultural ash waste
Al2O3 6.25 3.9 5.1
containing different chemical compositions to ensure the Fe2O3 3.55 2.0 3.4
improvement of the initial and final properties. Chemical CaO 62.34 7.5 25.5
compositions of sugarcane bagasse ash (SiO2 of 75 wt%) and MgO 2.12 2.6 6.2
corn stalk ash (CaO of 25.5 wt%). This research aims to expand SO3 2.42 1.1 1.3
the list of agricultural wastes that can be used to produce K2O 0.75 3.1 9.5
Na2O 0.81 0.4 1.8
UHSC. In this research, ash residues of corn stalk were used,
LOI 1.76 3.4 2.1
whose effect on the properties of UHSC was not previously Cl e 1.0 0.8
studied. Thus, this material can be added to the list of agri- Cu e e 1.3
cultural waste that can be used as supplementary materials to Physical
produce UHSC. In addition, ash residues of sugarcane bagasse Specific 3.15 2.2 2.15
were used. This paper focuses on studying the effect of using gravity
Specific area 3350 20,835 23,673
CSA and SBA as a partial substitute for cement on the prop-
(cm2/gm)
erties of UHSC. The replacement rates for SBA were in pro-
Colour Grey Dark grey Light grey
portions of 10%, 20% and 15% of the cement mass, whilst Particle size 22.5e28 0.8e7 0.6e4.4
those for CSA were in proportions of 2%, 4%, 6% and 8%. The mm
effects of agricultural waste (CSA and SBA) on the UHSC Initial setting 80 e e
properties were evaluated by applying the following tests: time (min)
slum flow, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, Final setting 310 e e
time (min)
modulus of elasticity, chloride permeability, sorptivity
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8 3199

involves burning at a temperature of 600  C to prevent the
crystallisation of silica. However, burning for a sufficiently long
time is also necessary to burn away all the cellulose and retain
the black or grey coloured ash, which is known as SBA. The SBA
is placed in a 600  C furnace for 2 h following the recommen-
dations found in the literature [72e74].
The corn stalk used in this study was obtained from the El-
Mansoura area, Egypt. Corn is abundantly produced in this
region. The corn stalks are cut after their harvest and are used
as an additive in concrete production due to their high silica
content. These stalks are stored for drying to zero moisture
after their appropriate collection and burned to obtain their
ash [75]. The CSA is placed in a 600  C furnace for 2 h following
the recommendations found in the literature [72e74].
The sugarcane bagasse and corn stalk are placed in a 600  C
furnace for 2 h following the recommendations found in the
literature [76,77]. After heating, the ashes are cooled in free
space at room temperature for 30 min. Then, the ashes are
ground and sieved using sieve analysis; the particles passed
from a 75-mm sieve. Fig. 1 illustrates the visual inspection of
SBA and CSA. The physical properties, which are tested by
SEM analysis, reveal that SBA and CSA are micro and irregular
as shown in Fig. 2. The chemical compositions of SBA and CSA
are determined by energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectros-
copy analysis as shown in Table 1 and Fig. 3, respectively.
2.1.3. Quartz powder
Quartz powder with a maximum particle size of 20 mm was
used to act as a filler material. The physical and chemical
properties of the quartz powder used are shown in Table 2.
2.1.4. Quartz sand
The particle size of quartz sand used is this study varied be-
tween 150 and 475 mm, as shown in Fig. 4, which provides
structure to the mixing matrix as in UHSC because no coarse
aggregates were introduced. The sand used for the experi-
mental programme was locally procured with a specific gravity
of 2.66, a bulk unit weight of 1680 kg/m3, fineness modulus of
2.7 and water absorption of 0.78%. Testing on quartz sand was
conducted in accordance with ASTM C33/C33M [78].
2.1.5. Steel fibre
Straight brass-coated steel fiber is used in this study. Previously
[79e82], showed that the steel fiber helped in transforming the

Fig. 1 e Ashes used.

Fig. 2 e SEM micrographs of ashes.

3200 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Fig. 3 e EDX image.

Table 2 e Physical and chemical properties of the quartz

powder.
Properties Quartz powder
Physical properties
Specific gravity 2.56
Specific area (cm2/gm) 4985
Unit weight (kg/m3) 1200
Colour White
Chemical compositions (%)
SiO2 98.152
Al2O3 0.073
Fe2O3 0.065
CaO 0.054
SO3 1.914

brittle failure of UHSC into ductile failure. Thence, steel fibers

Fig. 4 e Grading curve of quartz sand used.
were used as 2% fraction of volume to prepare the UHSC in the
present as [83,84]. The detailed physical and mechanical
properties of the steel fibers were defined in Table 3 and Fig. 5. 2.2. Mix composition and sample preparation

2.1.6. Superplasticizer
Superplasticizer (SP), which is commercially available, is used
to enhance the consistency and workability of fresh concrete. It
meets the requirements for superplasticizer according to Refs.
[85,86] with a specific gravity of 1.1 and a colour of clear liquid.
Sixteen mixtures were designed and created for this study as
presented in Table 4. The absolute volume method was used
to design concrete mixes. Portland cement was replaced at
varying proportions by SBA and CSA as a binary cementi-
tious material. SBA and CSA replaced cement by up to 30%
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8 3201

Table 3 e Properties of steel fibre.

Length Diameter Aspect Tensile Modulus of Density
(mm) (mm) ratio strength elasticity (kg/m3)
(MPa) (GPa)
10 0.11 100 1750 195 7000

high workable mix. Firstly, dry raw constituents of UHSC,

Fig. 5 e Fibre used in this study.
and 8% by SBA and CSA, respectively. Cement was replaced
with 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% of SBA and 0%, 2%, 4% 6% and 8%
of CSA in the production of UHSC. The control mix was
prepared without replacing Portland cement with either SBA
or CSA and three mixes were prepared by partially replacing
Portland cement with SBA without incorporating CSA into
the mixes. The mixture ID in Table 4 represents the per-
centage proportion of cement replacement with SBA and
CSA. For example, 10SBA-2CSA indicates mixtures in which
the cement was replaced with 10% SBA and 2% CSA. The
water-to-binder ratio for all mixtures was fixed at 0.17, and
SP dosage in concrete was high at approximately 2.3% by
weight of total binder content based on the previous work
[82,87,88]. The usage of steel fibre in all mixtures was kept
constant at 2% of the concrete mix volume.
A vertical vane type mixer of 25 L capacity with a variable
operating speed was used in this study for mixing the con-
stituent materials in the preparation of UHSC specimens. A
sequential mixing procedure was then adopted to obtain a
namely cement, silica fume, quartz powder, quartz sand, SBA
and CSA if used in the mix, were combined for approximately
2 min at 200 rpm. Next, 50% of the water was added to the dry
mixture and mixed for approximately 5 min at the same
speed. The remaining 50% of the water with SP was added at a
constant rate to the mix, followed by a subsequent mixing for
5 min at a rate of 400 rpm. The steel fibre was incorporated
into the mix after thorough mixing, which was continued for
another 3 min. The prepared mix was then placed in the steel
moulds in layers with compaction by using the vibrating table.
Lastly, the steel moulds were covered with a thick sheet to
prevent moisture loss. The prepared specimens were
demoulded after 24 h and stored in a curing room at a
controlled temperature of 24 ± 2  C and a humidity of 95% ± 5%
until the curing age according to ASTM C192 [89].
2.3. Test procedure
Fig. 6 illustrates the flow chart of the implemented experi-
mental work. Immediately after the mixing was concluded
for each mixture, the slump flow test was evaluated in
accordance with the test procedures in ASTM C1437 [90] on
the fresh concrete to measure the workability (see Fig. 7). The
mechanical properties of the mixtures were evaluated
considering the compressive strength, splitting tensile
strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity. The
compressive strength at the ages of 1, 7, 28 and 91 days was
conducted using cubic samples with a dimension of 100 mm
according to the test procedures in BS EN 12390-3 [91]. All
specimens were tested in a hydraulic testing machine with a

Table 4 e Proportions of UHSC mixtures (Kg/m3).

Mixture ID Cement Quartz sand Quartz powder SBA CSA Steel fiber SP Water
0S0C 1050 1070.0 157.5 0 0 140 24.15 178.5
10S0C 945 1024.1 157.5 105 0 140 24.70 178.5
20S0C 840 978.1 157.5 210 0 140 25.20 178.5
30S0C 735 932.1 157.5 315 0 140 26.25 178.5
10S2C 924 1019.8 157.5 105 21 140 25.30 178.5
20S2C 819 973.8 157.5 210 21 140 26.35 178.5
30S2C 714 927.9 157.5 315 21 140 27.30 178.5
10S4C 903 1015.5 157.5 105 42 140 26.20 178.5
20S4C 798 969.5 157.5 210 42 140 27.20 178.5
30S4C 693 923.6 157.5 315 42 140 28.00 178.5
10S6C 882 1011.2 157.5 105 63 140 27.10 178.5
20S6C 777 965.2 157.5 210 63 140 28.20 178.5
30S6C 672 919.3 157.5 315 63 140 29.10 178.5
10S8C 861 1006.9 157.5 105 84 140 28.10 178.5
20S8C 756 960.9 157.5 210 84 140 29.40 178.5
30S8C 651 915.0 157.5 315 84 140 31.50 178.5
3202 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Fig. 6 e The flow chart of the implemented experimental work.

capacity of 200 tons and accuracy of 0.5 ton. The compressive

strength “fc” was calculated using formula (1). 2F
fsp ¼ (2)
pLD
Pc
fc ¼ (1) where: F is the maximum load in N. L is the length of the
A
specimen in mm. D is the diameter of the specimen in mm.
where: Pc is maximum load in compression. A is the cross-
The flexural strength test, which conforms to ASTM C 78
sectional area of the specimen.
[93], was performed on concrete beams with dimensions of
Cylindrical samples with a diameter of 150 mm and a
500  100  100 mm at 28 days. The beams were simply sup-
height of 300 mm were used for the evaluation of split tensile
ported with a clear span of 450 mm and was subjected to two-
strength according to the requirements of BS EN 12390-6 [92].
point loading. The distance between the two loads was
The tensile splitting test was carried out in a hydraulic testing
150 mm. A flexural machine with a capacity of 100 kN and
machine of 2000 kn capacity. The tensile splitting strength
accuracy of 0.1 kN was used. The flexural strength “fr” (in N/
“fsp” in (N/mm2) is given by formula (2).
mm2) is given by formula (3).

FL
fr ¼ (3)
bt2
where: F is the ultimate load in N. b is the breadth of the beam.
t is the depth of the beam cross section in mm. L is the dis-
tance between the two supports in mm.
The modulus of elasticity test was executed on a
150  300 mm cylinder at 28 days according to ASTM C 469 [94].
Three Loading/unloading cycles were applied up to stress
level of about one third of the ultimate compressive strength.
The average displacements were recorded at each load
increment. The stress-strain curves are plotted, and the slope
of the last loading cycle was taken as a measure for the
modulus of elasticity. The results for each age represent the
average of the three samples tested.
Resistance to chloride ion penetration was evaluated by
conducting tests according to the method described in ASTM
C 1202 [95]. This test helps in evaluating the electrical
Fig. 7 e Slump flow test. conductance of UHSC samples to demonstrate an indication
of the resistance offered by the samples to chloride ion
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
penetration. One-disc specimens from each mix of size
100 mm diameter and 50 mm thick was tested. The specimens
were given pre-treatment as indicated in the code provision
(ASTM C 1202) [95]. The sides of the disc were coated with
epoxy. As the sample used in this study was 100 mm diameter,
suitable corrections were made to obtain the charge passed
using the equation suggested in ASTM C 1202 [95].
The sorptivity test, which indicates the rate of water absorp-
tion, was determined by conducting the test described in ASTM
C1585-13 [96]. A standard test specimen of size 100 mm diameter
and 50 mm length was used in this test. An increase in the
specimen mass was measured at required time intervals. The
noted increase in mass was used to determine the capillary ab-
sorption, which was plotted against time to provide the sorptiv-
ity. High resistance from the concrete indicates low sorptivity
values, which can be used to assess the quality of concrete.
The apparatus subjects the concrete specimens to a hy-
drostatic water pressure of 30 bars for a 24-h period to eval-
uate the water permeability of concrete. The water
permeation through the test specimens is directly collected
and measured in a graduated cylinder. Darcy coefficient can
be calculated for concrete by determining the hydrostatic
pressure, duration, specimen dimensions and the water
permeation amount. The test was conducted on cylindrical
specimens of diameter 150 mm and 150 mm height at 28 days
according to BS EN 12390-8 [97]. Chloride ion penetration,
sorptivity and water permeability tests, all were performed at
28 days of age. Three samples were tested and an average of
these three samples is presented in the results.
The permeability coefficient (K) was calculated using the
following formula (4).
Q H
k¼
ATP
where, Q: Volume of the permeated water (cm3). H: Height of
the specimen (cm). A: Cross-sectional area of the specimen
Fig. 8 e Effect of SBA with CSA replacement of cement on slump flow diameter.
3203
(cm2). T: Time in seconds. P: Rate of water pressure multiplied
by the coefficient ¼ 1019.72 g/cm2.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Slump flow
Fig. 8 shows the slump flow diameter for UHSC mixtures. The
results show the relationship between the diameter of slump
flow and the effect of using SBA and CSA as partial cement
substitutes in UHSC. The inclusion of SBA and CSA slightly
reduced the slump flow diameter. For the control mixture
0S0C, the slump flow diameter was 447 mm while the slump
flow diameter was smaller than 370 mm for the mixture 30S8C
when using the SBA and CSA as a partial replacement of the
cement mass by 30% and 8%, respectively. Moreover, the re-
sults indicate that the diameter of the slump flow decreases
proportionally with the increasing rate of cement mass
replacement by SBA and/or CSA. Fig. 8 shows the decreasing
slump flow diameter with increasing replacement rates of SBA
for mixtures 0S0C, 10S0C, 20S0C and 30S0C of 447, 434, 434 and
428 mm, respectively. In addition, the diameter of the slump
flow decreased with increasing replacement rates of the CSA
and SBA mixture, reaching 434, 422, 408, 391, and 377 for the
20S0C, 20S2C, 20S4C, 20S6C, and 20S8C mixtures, respectively.
The reason for the decrease in the slump flow diameter may
be attributed to the effect of the surface area of the cement
substitutes. In other words, the increased surface area of the
binder resulting from the partial replacement of cement by
SBA or/and CSA in concrete content led to an increased water
demand, and the amount of free water in the paste decreased.
(4) Increasing the surface area requires more water consumption
for the surface-wetting process of very fine materials. Thus,
the stability of the water-to-binder ratio leads to part of the
mixing water going to the surface-wetting process, thus
3204 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
declining the fresh properties of UHSC This is consistent with
several previous studies linking the effect of increasing the
surface area of cement substitute materials on the fresh
properties of concrete [98e101]. In addition to the surface
area, the change in the chemical compositions of the binder as
a result of the use of cement substitutes affects the fresh
properties of UHSC.
The tests showed that the specific area was 3350, 20,835,
and 23,673 cm2/gm for OPC, SBA, and CSA, respectively. In
addition, the chemical composition of CSA contains 25% of
CaO, which plays an important role in the early reaction,
which may negatively affect the fresh properties. This is
consistent with many previous studies that link the effect of
increasing the chemical compositions of cement substitutes
on the fresh properties of concrete [102,103].
3.2. Mechanical properties
3.2.1. Compressive strength
The results in Fig. 9 generally show that SBA and CSA can be
used as a substitute for 30% of the cement to achieve higher
compressive strength than that of the control mixture at 1, 7,
28, and 90 days. All evaluated UHSC presented an increase in
compressive strength with the increased in curing time,
characteristic behaviours of composite materials due to the
development of OPC hydration and in the case of the UHSC
containing SBA and CSA and the interaction of this residue
with the OPC in the presence of water. The early compressive
strength development of SBA and CSA concretes and the in-
crease in compressive strength up to 30% cement replacement
of SBA and CSA may be due to the following: silica content,
fineness, amorphous phase, specific surface area, degree of
reactivity of SBA and CSA and pozzolanic reaction between
Fig. 9 e Effect of SBA with CSA replacement of cement on compressive strength.
calcium hydroxide and reactive silica in SBA in the alkaline
environment, as reported by previous works [104e106]. In this
study, the compressive strength at 28 days was higher than
that of the control mixture by approximately 10.4%, 14.10%,
and 9% for 10S0C, 20S0C, and 30S0C, respectively, when using
mono-substitution of SBA. The diversity of the properties of
agricultural waste ash (AWA) is an important tributary to
improving the properties of concrete by mixing more than one
type of AWA. Therefore, in addition to cement, the ashes of
cotton wastes can be used to produce a ternary binder of SBA
and CSA to help highly efficient supplementary cementitious
material (SCMs) to produce UHSC [107e111]. In addition to
other oxides of varying proportions present in both the ashes,
the chemical analysis shows that SBA and CSA comprised 75%
and 43% SiO2 respectively. Accordingly, the results showed
that incorporation of SBA (10%, 20%, and 30%) and CSA (2%,
4%, 6%, and 8%) in mixes as a partial replacement of cement
mass led to the improvement of mechanical properties. The
mixture having CSA as a partial replacement by 4% and SBA
(10%, 20%, and 30%) of cement mass outperformed all the
other mixes including control mix and achieved the highest
compressive strength. At 90 days, the results were 194.9, 205.1,
and 196.6 MPa for 10S4C, 20S4C, and 30S4C mixes, respec-
tively. The increase in the rates of using the SBA as a partial
replacement to cement by 30% of cement mass led to a slight
decrease in the compressive strength for all ages (1, 7, 28, and
90 days) compared with a partial replacement of 10% and 20%
SBA. This decrease in compressive strength may be attributed
to a decreased cement content and decreased workability.
Compared to control mix with higher workability, the decline
in workability with 30% replacement of cement by SBA
resulted in formation of additional voids that negatively re-
flected on the compressive strength. This is consistent with
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
previous research, Wu et al. report that using SBA as a partial
replacement of 20% of the cement weight resulted in a higher
compressive strength 119.6 MPa than the reference mixture
114.9 MPa at 28 days [112].
The compressive strength of UHSC samples varied based
on the type of AWA and the substitution ratios at all ages. At
later ages of UHSC, the pozzolanic reaction of AWA kicked-in,
therefore, additional reaction products such as CeSeH and
CeAeH are generated in the cement matrix, which makes its
structure denser, and increases the compressive strength
[113]. In pozzolanic reaction, Ca (OH)2 resulting from primary
hydration of cement reacts with a pozzolanic substance and
results in additional cement hydrates such as CeSeH. These
products make concrete matrix denser and improve the
strength and durability of the concrete. The interior of the
concrete is highly alkaline; therefore, fly ash components
such as SiO2 and Al2O3 are dissolved in it. These dissolved
components react with the calcium in the cement and lead to
pozzolanic reactions. The pozzolanic reaction is greatly
influenced by the chemical properties and the total glass
phases content of the ash [114]. It can be seen in the chemical
composition that the CaO content of the CSA is more than 25%
of the total mass, thus explains the positive effect on the
compressive strength when it is used as a partial substitute for
cement. In addition, the alkaline oxides such as (K2O and
Na2O) play a crucial role in activating the pozzolanic reaction
[115]. It can be seen that the alkaline oxides in CSA account for
more than 11% of the mass which had a positive impact on
activation of pozzolanic reaction.
3.2.2. Splitting tensile strength
Splitting tensile strength is one of the significant mechanical
properties of concrete necessary for the design of concrete
structural elements. The splitting tensile strength of the UHSC
mixture at 28 days versus different SBA and CSA replacement
ratios are shown in Fig. 10. The results indicate that 20% of
Fig. 10 e Effect of SBA with CSA replacement of cement on splitting tensile strength.
3205
SBA is the optimum limit. The high content of Portland
cement combined with 20% SBA concrete induces more hy-
dration reaction than that combined with 30 SBA concrete.
Nevertheless, the replacement of 30% of SBA still improves the
high strength of concrete compared with the reference con-
crete. Moreover, the incorporation of SBA produces relatively
high-strength concrete due to its fine particle size, high sur-
face area, high silica content (SiO2 ¼ 75%), high degree of
reactivity and high pozzolanic reaction between calcium hy-
droxide and reactive silica in SBA [116,117]. The use of 10%,
20%, and 30% SBA increased the split tensile strength of UHSC
by 6.3%, 8.15%, and 1.5%, respectively, compared with the
reference mixture. In addition, incorporation of the two types
of agricultural residue ash is an important factor in improving
the properties of UHSC. Therefore, SBA and CSA can be used in
addition to cement to produce a ternary binder to generate
high-efficiency cementitious materials for UHSC production.
The incorporation of 4% CSA and 20% SBA as a partial cement
substitute improved the cement hydration reaction, the use of
composite residues of SBA (10%, 20%, and 30%) with 4% CSA
increased the split tensile strength (16.78%, 19.58%, and 12%,
respectively), compared with the reference mixture [118]. The
increase in the rates of using the CSA as a partial replacement
to cement by 6% and 8% of cement mass led to a slight
decrease in the split tensile strength compared with a partial
replacement of 2% and 4% CSA.
3.2.3. Flexural strength
The flexural strength of the UHSC specimens at 28 days versus
different SBA with CSA replacement ratios of cement is shown
in Fig. 11. The flexural strength development in SBA and
control concrete was similar to the developments of
compressive and splitting tensile strengths. Replacing 20%
cement content by SBA and 2%, 4%, 6% and 8% by CSA leads to
more hydration reaction, thus achieving higher flexural
strength compared to other replacement ratios. However,
3206 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

there is slight decrease in flexural strength when 30% of
cement content is replacement SBA compared to flexural
strength achieved with substitution of 20% cement content
with SBA, still the flexural strength is higher compared to
reference mix [119]. The replacement of 10%, 20%, and 30%
SBA with 0% of CSA (10S0C, 20S0C and 30S0C) results the in-
crease in flexural strength to 7.27%, 9.72%, and 3.41%,
respectively. By contrast, the results in Fig. 11 showed that the
process of combining the SBA (10%, 20%, and 30%) with CSA
(2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) of cement mass led to the improvement
of the mechanical properties. These results indicate that 20%
SBA with 4% CSA replacement ratios of cement is the
optimum limit. The flexural strength was 22.82, 26.63, 27.39,
and 25.80 MPa for 0S0C, 10S4C, 20S4C, and 30S4C, respectively.
3.2.4. Modulus of elasticity
Fig. 12 shows the results of the modulus of elasticity test of
UHSC samples when using SBA with CSA as a partial
replacement for cement. The results reveal that the modulus
of elasticity increases with the replacement of cement mass
by SBA up to 20%. However, in case of UHSC prepared
replacing 30% cement content by SBA the elasticity modulus
of was observed to be less than elasticity modulus of UHSC
prepared with 20% cement content substituted by SBA. Still

Fig. 11 e Effect of SBA with CSA replacement of cement on flexural strength.

Fig. 12 e Effect of SBA with CSA replacement of cement on the modulus of elasticity.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
the elasticity modulus is within acceptable range and higher
than that of the reference mix.
The results presented in Fig. 12 showed that elastic
modulus of the UHSC was increased by 5%, 7%, and 4.53%
compared to reference mix when substituting cement content
by SBA by 10%, 20%, and 30%, respectively. The initial increase
in the modulus of elasticity was mostly due to the significantly
high degree of SBA reactivity and higher pozzolanic reactivity
between calcium hydroxide and reactive silica in SBA
[116,120]. In addition, the process of combining SBA (10%, 20%,
and 30%) with CSA (2%, 4%, 6%, and 8%) as partial substitution
of cement mass had a positive effect on improving the elas-
ticity modulus of UHSC. The maximum value of the elasticity
modulus in all mixtures was 58.01 GPa pertaining to a concrete
mix containing partial replacement of cement content with
SBA and CSA, in ratios of 20% and 4% respectively.
In general, the addition of two types of AWA (SBA and CSA)
resulted in improvements in the pressure-resisting properties
of UHSC, which may be attributed to the best synergistic ef-
fects of the triple mixtures OPC þ SBA þ CSA. The integrative
chemical compositions between the different compositions to
add a high content of SiO2 and CaO improve the mechanical
properties. In addition to the role of microparticles in refining
micropores or closing their path, their ability to reach the
microporous in the cement matrix [121,122]. This description
is based on the results obtained in this study, which demon-
strated that using two types of ash with the highest substi-
tution level improves all transport properties of the 30S8C
mixture.
3.3. Physical properties
3.3.1. Chloride penetration resistance
Fig. 13 shows the total charge of the chloride ion penetration
through the UHSC samples for all the mixtures applied in this
study. This test expresses the efficiency of the UHSC produced
Fig. 13 e Chloride permeability results for UHSC at 28 days.
3207
from the inclusion of agricultural waste as a partial substitute
for cement to reduce the passage of chloride ions. Papadakis
(2000) reported that the chloride penetration resistance of
concrete is mainly governed by the following two reasons: (1)
the porosity and permeability of concrete matrices or the
interface between the aggregate and the matrix, which are
functions of the size distribution of cracks and pores; (2) the
capability of chloride ion binding in the cement matrix, which
is affected by the development of hydrate gel CeSeH and C3A
content (or C4AF in the absence of C3A phase) [123]. The
incorporation of SBA and CSA as a partial cement substitute
resulted in refining the microstructure and filling the micro-
pores and capillaries, thus positively contributing to the
reduction of porosity and microcracks in UHSC mixtures. This
phenomenon is attributed to the reduction in chloride pene-
tration into the UHSC samples due to the incorporation of SBA
and CSA. Accordingly, the results presented in Fig. 13 revealed
that the total charge passing through the UHSC samples de-
creases with the increase in the overall replacement rate. The
maximum drop in a reduction in chloride ion penetration was
reached at the highest cement replacement rate by 30% and
8% of SBA and CSA, respectively. Moreover, the total charge
passed by all samples regardless of cement replacement ratios
by SBA and CSA was less than 350 coulombs, which indicates
the high packing density of the UHSC samples. Therefore, the
chloride permeability reduced by 30%, 38%, and 47% when the
cement content was replaced with SBA by 10%, 20%, and 30%
in the UHSC samples, respectively, compared with the refer-
ence mixture (0S0C). Moreover, it was observed that the
permeability of chloride in UHSC samples was reduced by
45%, 53%, and 60%, when 8% of cement mass was replaced
with CSA along with inclusion of SBCA partially substituting
cement mass by 10%, 20%, and 30%, respectively. The test
results represented the effective role of agricultural waste
utilisation as a partial substitute for cement in the production
of UHSC. Compared with the compressive strength of 150 MPa
3208 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
for the reference concrete (0S0C), the addition of replacement
rates of up to 38% of the cement mass achieved a decrease in
the passage of the chloride charge to 60%, with properties of
compressive strength up to 166 MPa. When used as a partial
substitute for cement, ultra-fine pozzolanic materials can
generally improve pore microstructures in two ways. Firstly, is
the filler effect, in which ultra-fine particles fill the spaces
between cement grains and those between cement grains and
aggregates. Secondly is the pozzolanic effect, in which the SBA
and CSA react with Ca(OH)2 to produce additional CeSeH gel,
which leads to a reduction in pore size and capillary porosity
during hydration [124]. Thus, by these two ways the ultra-fine
pozzolanic materials increase the density of the cement paste
and a high-density microstructure and decrease the pores,
leading to low permeability of chloride in the UHSC samples.
This finding is consistent with the report of previous re-
searchers, in which the pozzolanic and very-fine materials are
crucial to the reduction of chloride ion penetration into con-
crete [61,125].
It is noted that the behaviour of UHSC samples to resist the
penetration of ions depends mainly on the density of the
cement matrix, which increases with the increase in the rates
of partial replacement of cement content with finer materials
such as SBA and CSA. SBA and CSA (Being Finer than cement
particles) play an important role by closing the pores and
reducing the permeability of the ions. The higher the substi-
tution rate, the lower the chloride permeability results [2,126].
3.3.2. Sorptivity
Fig. 14 exhibits the initial sorptivity coefficient results of UHSC
samples, which include SBA and CSA as a partial substitute for
cement. The presented results revealed the positive effect of
including these types of ash from agricultural residues, which
led to a decrease in the sorptivity coefficient.
Fig. 14 e Sorptivity coefficient for UHSC at 28 days.
Therefore, the inclusion of very fine pozzolanic materials
in the production of concrete is crucial in reducing the
permeability of concrete. These substances contribute to
filling the pores in the cement paste or at the interfaces
between the aggregate and the cement paste, thus closing or
reducing the size of the capillary pores. Therefore, in addi-
tion to increasing strength, the SBA and CSA play a benefi-
cial role by reducing the capillary absorption of concrete. A
decrease in the sorptivity coefficient of 18%, 29%, and 35%
was observed in the UHSC sample when the rate of cement
replacements by SBA was by 10%, 20%, and 30%, respec-
tively, compared with the control mixture. In addition, the
incorporation of CSA as a partial replacement at 2%, 4%, 6%,
and 8% with the 10%, 20%, and 30% of SBA contributed to a
higher decrease sorptivity coefficient compared with the
single replacement by SBA. Moreover, the sorptivity coeffi-
cient significantly decreased when binary replacement is
used by SBA and CSA. A decrease in the coefficient by 22%,
34%, and 40% for each of 10S2C, 20S2C, and 30S2C, respec-
tively, is realised by using CSA as a partial substitute of 2%
of the cement mass compared with the reference mixture.
Meanwhile, using CSA as a partial substitute of 4% of the
cement mass achieved a coefficient reduction of 29%, 39%,
and 45% for each of 10S4C, 20S4C, and 30S4C, respectively,
compared with the reference mixture. In addition, using
CSA as a partial substitute of 6% of the cement mass ach-
ieved a decrease in the coefficient by 35%, 45%, and 50% for
each of 10S6C, 20S6C, and 30S6C, respectively, compared
with the reference mixture. Meanwhile, the highest
decrease is observed when CSA is used as a partial substi-
tute of 8% of the cement mass by 42%, 51%, and 56% for each
of 10S8C, 20S8C, and 30S8C, respectively, compared with the
reference mixture. The sorptivity coefficient markedly
decreased with the increase in the replacement rates of CSA
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
up to 8%. The lowest sorptivity coefficient of 1.35  104
(mm/s0.5) was achieved at a binary replacement rate by the
SBA and the CSA of 30% and 8% of the cement mass,
respectively. By contrast, the decrease in compressive
strength cannot be neglected when the replacement rates
are raised to 38% of the cement mass in the 30S8C mixture.
The compressive strength was 169.3, 174.3, 179.9, and
166.9 MPa for the mixtures 30S2C, 30S4C, 30S6C, and 30S8C,
whilst the compressive strength was 150.3 of 0S0C. The low
compressive strength, which was mentioned earlier, maybe
due to the dilution effect of cement content caused by high
replacement rates.
Many researchers have shown in their studies that a
decrease in compressive strength is not necessarily accom-
panied by an increase in permeability. A decrease in the
compressive strength of concrete may occur directly due to
the high replacement of the cement content with supple-
mentary cementitious materials. This high replacement does
not leave enough cementitious material at the later stages to
drive secondary hydration reaction with pozzolanic materials.
In addition, most often such supplementary pozzolanic ma-
terials are finer than cement particles and play part in
reducing workability of mix which indirectly is one of the
major causes of reduced compressive strength. On the other
hand, high-quality supplementary cementitious materials
play an important role in improving the impermeable prop-
erties of concrete by acting as fillers and filling the voids and
reducing the porosity, without improving the mechanical
properties [127,128].
Notably, the presence of SBA and CSA as a partial substi-
tute for cement contributed to the highly impermeable con-
crete, and the sorptivity coefficient generally decreased
compared with the reference mixture. In addition to the
pozzolanic effect of SBA and CSA, this finding may be due to
the filling effect of very fine materials [56].
Fig. 15 e Water permeability results of UHSC at 28 days.
3209
3.3.3. Water permeability
Fig. 15 shows the water permeability test results of UHSC
samples containing SBA and CSA as a partial substitute for
cement. The results demonstrate the positive effect of
including agricultural residue ash (SBA and CSA) as a partial
substitute in different proportions, which led to a decrease in
water permeability of all samples prepared with partial sub-
stitution of cement with SBA and CSA when compared with
the reference mixture. In addition, the effective influence of
using CSA and SBA as a partial substitute for cement had the
largest effect by reducing water permeability compared with
the mono-substituted samples of SBA. Inclusion of SBA as a
partial substitute of 30% of cement mass for the 30S0C
mixture without incorporation of CSA achieved a water
permeability of 1.39  1011 (cm/sec) compared to the refer-
ence mixture with 1.58  1011 (cm/sec). By contrast, the in-
clusion of CSA of 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% with SBA of 30% as a
partial cement replacement yielded results of 1.28, 1.17, 1.05,
and 0.9  1011 (cm/sec) for a mixture of 30S2C, 30S4C, 30S6C,
and 30S8C, respectively. These results highlighted the role of
AWA as a pozzolanic material in improving the concrete
permeability. In addition to their pozzolanic reaction and the
formation of an additional gel, these ultra-fine materials
played a role in reducing the water permeability inside the
UHSC samples by filling the fine pores. The process of filling
the micro-pores and forming the additional gel led to
increased density of cement paste of the UHSC, providing
increased resistance to water permeability. Similar results
have also been reported when very fine pozzolanic materials
were used to replace Portland cement, and concrete demon-
strated increased resistance to water permeability [129].
3.3.3.1. Relations between sorptivity coefficient and water
permeability. Fig. 16 illustrates the relations between sorptiv-
ity coefficient and chloride permeability of UHSC samples
3210 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Fig. 16 e Relations between sorptivity coefficient and chloride permeability.

prepared with various percentage substitution of cement
content SCA and CSA. The relationship between the sorptivity
coefficient and chloride permeability is observed. The
decrease in the absorption coefficient corresponds to a
reduction in the surface water absorption of the same con-
crete mixture. As previously mentioned, sorptivity coefficient
and chloride permeability are affected by capillary pores and
pores in the cement paste microstructure and the interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) between aggregates and cement paste.
Thus, any improvement in the cement paste microstructure
contributes to reducing the transfer of liquids and chlorine
ions through the cement paste to the inside. In addition, the
high correlation coefficients of R2 ¼ 0.93 indicated a significant
linear relationship between sorptivity coefficient and chloride
permeability.
3.3.3.2. Relations between sorptivity coefficient and water
permeability. Fig. 17 illustrates the relations between sorptiv-
ity coefficient and water permeability of UHSC samples pre-
pared with various percentage substitution of cement content
SCA and CSA. The relationship between the sorptivity coeffi-
cient and water permeability reveals the relationship between
permeability properties. Therefore, any improvement in the
cement paste microstructure contributes to reducing the

Fig. 17 e Relations between sorptivity coefficient and water permeability.

 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8 3211

transfer of liquids and chlorine ions through the cement paste
to the inside. In addition, the high correlation coefficients of
R2 ¼ 0.89 indicated a significant linear relationship between
coefficient and water. The decrease in the sorptivity coeffi-
cient corresponds to a reduction in the surface water perme-
ability of the same concrete mixture. As previously
mentioned, sorptivity coefficient and water permeability are
affected by capillary pores and pores in the cement paste
microstructure and the ITZ between aggregates and cement
paste.
The drawn relationships show that the improvement of
one of the previous characteristics was reflected in other
remaining permeability characteristics. Therefore, the strong
relationship between the permeability properties was due to
the small filler effect caused by the finer particle size of the ash
compared with cement. This effect results in a dense and
3212 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8

Fig. 18 e SEM of UHSC samples.

compact microstructure and thus prevents chloride perme-
ation and water absorption. Moreover, the enhanced potential
pozzolanic reactions increase the homogeneity of the mortar
matrix, which leads to the efficiency improvement of the
concrete permeability resistance [130].
In general, the addition of two types of AWA (SBA and CSA)
led to improvements in UHSC transport properties, such as
chloride permeability, absorption coefficient, etc. This may be
attributed to the best synergistic effects of the three-
component cement of OPC þ SBA þ CSA, also the role of ul-
trafine particles to micropores refine or close its path [121,122].
This opinion is based on the obtained results, which proved
that using two types of ash with the highest substitution level
improved all the transport properties of the 30S8C mixture.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8 3213

Fig. 19 e Cost analysis of concrete mixes.

packing efficiency was due to the fineness of the SBA caused

4. Microstructure analysis by its lesser average particle size diameter than that of
cement, thus helping to reach additional narrow areas (micro-
Fig. 18(aei) display the morphology by SEM images on the pore) and fill them. 2) The pozzolanic reaction, which, in turn,
microstructures of the UHSC samples of 0S0C, 20S0C, 20S2C, increases the density of the gel (CeSeH) through its interac-
20C4C, 20S6C, and 20S8C. tion with the products of the hydration process (Ca(OH)2). In
Fig. 18(a) and (b) show a difference between the addition to the improvement of the transport properties by
morphology of the 0S0C mix sample and that involving the reducing the permeability of water and ions, the improvement
replacement of 20% of the cement with SBA (20S0S). The re- of the microstructure was directly reflected in the enhance-
sults indicate that the microstructure of the 0S0C mixture is ment of the mechanical properties compared with the refer-
more porous and less dense compared with 20S0C mixture. ence mixture (0S0C). This finding enhances the understanding
Moreover, the SEM imaging shows a longer ITZ range between of the improvement achieved in the properties of UHSC pro-
aggregate and non-contact cement paste compared with that duced in this study. Previous researchers have mentioned the
of mixture 20S0C. The improvement of the concrete micro- role of supplementary materials (pozzolanic materials) in
structure may be attributed to two main reasons: 1) the building an effective microstructure during addition to con-
crete mixtures [131,132].
The SEM imaging in Fig. 18(eei) shows a clear improvement
in the microstructure of the CSA-containing UHSC samples
Table 5 e Compressive strength after 28 days, Cost (m3)
compared with the 0S0C and 20S0C mixtures. The gradual
US $ and Cost/MPa (US $).
upward replacement of CSA by 2%e8% of the cement mass
Mixture compressive Cost Cost/MPa Reduction in
resulted in an incremental improvement in the microstruc-
ID strength at (m3) US (US $) cost (%)
28 days (MPa) $ ture. Mixtures containing replacement ratios of 20% SBA and
6%, and 8% cement mass of CSA were denser and less porous
0S0C 150.3 345.02 2.30 0.00
than mixtures with replacement ratios of CSA 2%, and 4%
10S0C 165.4 341.03 2.06 10.18
20S0C 171.5 336.88 1.96 14.43
mass of cement. Small cracks were observed between the
30S0C 163.9 334.38 2.04 11.13 cement paste and aggregate particles considering the ITZ for
10S2C 170.8 342.19 2.00 12.72 UHSC mixtures due to water film effects. By contrast, the
20S2C 177.6 339.69 1.91 16.68 cracks between the aggregate and cement paste in 20S4C and
30S2C 169.3 336.90 1.99 13.31 20S6C mixtures were markedly reduced and disappeared in
10S4C 175.2 344.25 1.96 14.40
20S8C mixture compared with 20S0C and 20S2C. Furthermore,
20S4C 182.6 341.60 1.87 18.50
the inclusion of CSA as a partial cement substitution led to a
30S4C 174.3 338.36 1.94 15.43
10S6C 172.4 346.31 2.01 12.49 compact and dense ITZ due to the dense and evenly distrib-
20S6C 178.8 343.96 1.92 16.20 uted CeSeH gel. This phenomenon could be attributed to the
30S6C 170.9 341.02 2.00 13.07 pozzolanic interaction of SBA and CSA that consumed Ca
10S8C 168.6 348.67 2.07 9.91 (OH)2, forming additional hydration products of CeSeH gel.
20S8C 175.2 346.92 1.98 13.74 The pore structure was refined by a hydration process
30S8C 166.9 347.58 2.08 9.28
involving SCMs. The inclusion of very fine pozzolanic
3214 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
materials of SBA and CSA that led to pore size refinement was
related to the formation of additional CeSeH, which filled the
large detrimental pores and thus enhanced the strength and
impermeability of the UHSC mixtures [125,133]. According to
Shilaret al., the inclusion of nano-pozzolanic materials
improved the microstructure of the concrete by gradually
filling the nano-voids, and the pozzolanic reaction resulted in
the formation of additional CeSeH gel [134].
5. Cost analysis of concrete incorporating
agriculture wastes
Despite the advantages of using agriculture wastes as SCMs in
concrete, the cost of the resulting product is always a key
factor. The cost analysis of concrete mixes was conducted and
cost for per m3 concrete and per MPa of compressive strength
at 28 days was calculated, as shown in Fig. 19 and Table 5.
Considering the cost/MPa, the cost per m3 of the replacement
levels, was less than that of the reference cement. The results
show that the use of 20% SBA and 4% CSA had a higher lower
cost per m3 comparison with all concrete mixture. For
instance, the reduction in concrete cost was 14.43%, 16.68%,
18.50%, 16.20% and 13.74% for 20S0C, 20S2C, 20S4C, 20S6C and
20S8C respectively, compared to control mix 0S0C. The cost
for the SBA or CSA, was 50 USD/ton (including grinding,
incineration, and collection).
6. Conclusions
 The experimental results presented in this study demon-
strated the possibility of effectively producing UHSC using
ash from agricultural residues of sugarcane crops and corn
stalks as a partial substitute for cement. The general con-
clusions obtained based on the empirical investigation re-
sults are presented in this study.
 The use of SBA and CSA as partial replacements for cement
resulted in a slight decrease in the workability of UHSC,
and this decrease increased as the replacement rate
increased. The high surface area of SBA and CSA is pri-
marily responsible for the decrease in slump flow diameter
from 447 mm for the reference mixture (0S0C) to 370 mm
for the mixture containing SBA and CSA (30S8C).
 The mechanical properties of the UHSC mixtures improved
when high-fine agricultural residues (SBA and CSA) were
used as a partial replacement for cement at a rate of
10e38% wt.
 The use of SBA and CSA as partial cement replacements in
UHSC improved its compressive strength compared to the
reference mix. At 90 days, the 20S4C mix had a compres-
sive strength of 205 MPa, while the 0S0C mix had a
compressive strength of 165 MPa.
 Superior performance was observed in all mechanical tests
for split tensile strength (20.09 MPa), flexural strength
(27.39 MPa), and modulus of elasticity (58,010 MPa) when
CSA was incorporated into the production of UHSC at a
replacement rate of 4% and SBA replaced 20% of the mass
of cement.
 The chloride ion penetration resistance, water absorption,
and water permeability of UHSC were improved when 38%
of the cement weight was substituted with SBA and CSA of
high fineness.
 In comparison to the reference mixture, replacing 38% of
the cement weight with SBA and CSA reduced chloride
penetration, water sorptivity, and water permeability by
60%, 56%, and 40%, respectively.
 SEM images of microstructure demonstrate that the
improvement in microstructure increases as the cement
replacement rate rises. the addition of SBA and CSA As a
partial replacement for cement improved the microstruc-
ture by densifying the cement matrix, decreasing the
porosity, and enhancing the transition zone between the
aggregate and the cement matrix.
 Considering the cost/MPa, the results show that the use of
20% SBA and 4% CSA had a higher lower cost per m3
comparison with all concrete mixture, the reduction in
concrete cost was 18.50%, compared to control mix 0S0C.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to the Deanship of Scientific
Research at Najran University for funding this work under the
National Research Priorities funding program, grant code (NU/
NRP/SERC/11/6).
references
[1] Hamada HM, Thomas BS, Tayeh B, Yahaya FM,
Muthusamy K, Yang J. Use of oil palm shell as an aggregate
in cement concrete: a review. Construct Build Mater
2020;265:120357.
[2] Johari MAM, Zeyad AM, Bunnori NM, Ariffin KS. Engineering
and transport properties of high-strength green concrete
containing high volume of ultrafine palm oil fuel ash.
Construct Build Mater 2012;30:281e8.
[3] Zhang C, Ali A. The advancement of seismic isolation and
energy dissipation mechanisms based on friction. Soil
Dynam Earthq Eng 2021;146:106746.
[4] Tayeh BA, Hasaniyah MW, Zeyad AM, Awad MM, Alaskar A,
Mohamed AM, Alyousef R. Durability and mechanical
properties of seashell partially-replaced cement. J Build Eng
2020;31:101328.
[5] Basyigit C, Akkurt I, Altindag R, Kilincarslan S, Akkurt A,
Mavi B, Karaguzel R. The effect of freezingethawing (FeT)
cycles on the radiation shielding properties of concretes.
Build Environ 2006;41(8):1070e3.
[6] Demir N, Tarim UA, Popovici M-A, Demirci ZN, Gurler O,
Akkurt I. Investigation of mass attenuation coefficients of
water, concrete and bakelite at different energies using the
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
FLUKA Monte Carlo code. J Radioanal Nucl Chem
2013;298(2):1303e7.
[7] Gunoglu K, Akkurt I. _ Radiation shielding properties of
concrete containing magnetite. Prog Nucl Energy
2021;137:103776.
[8] Akkurt I, Malidarre RB. Physical, structural, and mechanical
properties of the concrete by FLUKA code and Phy-X/PSD
software. Radiat Phys Chem 2022;193:109958.
[9] Akkurt I, Bas‚yigit C, Kilincarslan S, Beycioglu A. Prediction
of photon attenuation coefficients of heavy concrete by
fuzzy logic. J Franklin Inst 2010;347(9):1589e97.
[10] Akkurt I, Akyıldırım H, Karipçin F, Mavi B. Chemical
corrosion on gamma-ray attenuation properties of barite
concrete. J Saudi Chem Soc 2012;16(2):199e202.
[11] Akkurt I, Altindag R, Basyigit C, Kilincarslan S. The effect
of barite rate on the physical and mechanical properties
of concretes under FeT cycle. Mater Des
2008;29(9):1793e5.
[12] Faried AS, Mostafa SA, Tayeh BA, Tawfik TA. Mechanical
and durability properties of ultra-high performance
concrete incorporated with various nano waste materials
under different curing conditions. J Build Eng
2021;43:102569.
[13] Akashi O, Hanaoka T, Matsuoka Y, Kainuma M. A projection
for global CO2 emissions from the industrial sector through
2030 based on activity level and technology changes. Energy
2011;36(4):1855e67.
[14] Khalil MJ, Aslam M, Ahmad S. Utilization of sugarcane
bagasse ash as cement replacement for the production of
sustainable concreteeA review. Construct Build Mater
2021;270:121371.
[15] Teja KV, Sai PP, Meena T. Investigation on the behaviour of
ternary blended concrete with scba and sf, IOP Conference
Series: materials Science and Engineering. IOP Publishing;
2017, 032012.
[16] Lei Y, Zhang Q, Nielsen C, He KJAE. An inventory of primary
air pollutants and CO2 emissions from cement production
in China, 1990e2020. Atmos Environ 2011;45(1):147e54.
[17] Cleetus A, Shibu R, Sreehari P, Paul VK, Jacob BJ, M.A.C.O.E.
Technology, Kerala, India. Analysis and study of the effect
of GGBFS on concrete structures. Int Res J Eng Technol 2018.
[18] Xu J, Wu Z, Chen H, Shao L, Zhou X, Wang S. Influence of
dry-wet cycles on the strength behavior of basalt-fiber
reinforced loess. Eng Geol 2022;302:106645.
[19] Huang Y, Zhang W, Liu X. Assessment of diagonal
macrocrack-induced debonding mechanisms in FRP-
strengthened RC beams. J Compos Construct
2022;26(5):04022056.
[20] €
Ozbay _
E, Erdemir M, Durmus‚ HIJC. Utilization and efficiency
of ground granulated blast furnace slag on concrete
propertieseA review. Construct Build Mater
2016;105:423e34.
[21] Zeyad AM, Johari MA, Tayeh BA, Saba AM. Ultrafine palm oil
fuel ash: from an agro-industry by-product into a highly
efficient mineral admixture for high strength green
concrete. J Eng Appl Sci 2017;12(7).
[22] Ovchinnikov P, Borodin‚ecs A, Millers R. Utilization potential
of low temperature hydronic space heating systems in
Russia. J Build Eng 2017;13:1e10.
[23] Tayeh BA, AlSaffar DM, Askar LK, Jubeh AI. Effect of
incorporating pottery and bottom ash as partial
replacement of cement. Karbala Int J Modern Sci 2019;5(4):9.
[24] Zeyad AM, Johari MAM, Abutaleb A, Tayeh BA. The effect of
steam curing regimes on the chloride resistance and pore
size of highestrength green concrete. Construct Build Mater
2021;280:122409.
[25] Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Agwa IS. Effects of nano
cotton stalk and palm leaf ashes on ultrahigh-performance
3215
concrete properties incorporating recycled concrete
aggregates. Construct Build Mater 2021;302:124196.
[26] Santhosh KG, Subhani SM, Bahurudeen A. Recycling of
palm oil fuel ash and rice husk ash in the cleaner
production of concrete-A review. J Clean Prod 2022:131736.
[27] Arif E, Clark MW, Lake N. Sugar cane bagasse ash from a
high-efficiency co-generation boiler as filler in concrete.
Construct Build Mater 2017;151:692e703.
[28] Șerba  noiu AA, Gra  dinaru CM, Muntean R, Cimpoeșu N,
Șerba  noiu BV. Corn cob ash versus sunflower stalk ash, two
sustainable raw materials in an analysis of their effects on
the concrete properties. Materials 2022;15(3):868.
[29] Tayeh BA, Hadzima-Nyarko M, Zeyad AM, Al-Harazin SZ.
Properties and durability of concrete with olive waste ash as
a partial cement replacement. Adv Concr Constr
2021;11(1):59e71.
[30] Bulut HA, S‚ahin R. Radiological characteristics of Self-
Compacting Concretes incorporating fly ash, silica fume,
and slag. J Build Eng 2022;58:104987.
[31] de Paiva FFG, Tamashiro JR, Silva LHP, Kinoshita A.
Utilization of inorganic solid wastes in cementitious
materialseA systematic literature review. Construct Build
Mater 2021;285:122833.
[32] Koul B, Yakoob M, Shah MP. Agricultural waste
management strategies for environmental sustainability.
Environ Res 2022;206:112285.
[33] Mavakala BK, Sivalingam P, Laffite A, Mulaji CK, Giuliani G,
Mpiana PT, Pote  J. Evaluation of heavy metal content and
potential ecological risks in soil samples from wild solid
waste dumpsites in developing country under tropical
conditions. Environ Challeng 2022;7:100461.
[34] Gra dinaru CM, S‚erba  noiu AA, Babor DT, Sa
^ rbu GC, Petrescu-
Mag IV, Gra  dinaru ACJJA, Ethics E. When agricultural waste
transforms into an environmentally friendly material: The
case of green concrete as alternative to natural resources
depletion. J Agric Environ Ethics 2019;32(1):77e93.
[35] Yildizel SA, Calis G, Tayeh BA. Mechanical and durability
properties of ground calcium carbonate-added roller-
compacted concrete for pavement. J Mater Res Technol
2020;9(6):13341e51.
[36] Munshi S, Sharma RP. Experimental investigation on
strength and water permeability of mortar incorporate with
rice straw ash. Adv Mater Sci Eng 2016:2016.
[37] Xu Q, Ji T, Gao S-J, Yang Z, Wu NJM. Characteristics and
applications of sugar cane bagasse ash waste in
cementitious materials. Materials 2019;12(1):39.
[38] F. Organizational, FAO. The food and agriculture
organization of the united Nations. 2020. http://www.fao.
org/home/en. [Accessed 19 April 2020].
[39] ASTM. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or
calcined natural pozzolan for use in concret. West
Conshohocken, PA, USA: ASTM C618, ASTM
INTERNATIONAL; 2018.
[40] Cordeiro G, Toledo Filho R, Fairbairn EJC. Effect of
calcination temperature on the pozzolanic activity of sugar
cane bagasse ash. Construct Build Mater 2009;23(10):3301e3.
[41] Bahurudeen A, Santhanam MJC. Influence of different
processing methods on the pozzolanic performance of
sugarcane bagasse ash. Cement Concrete Compos
2015;56:32e45.
[42] Ganesan K, Rajagopal K, Thangavel KJC. Evaluation of
bagasse ash as supplementary cementitious material.
Cement Concrete Compos 2007;29(6):515e24.
[43] Moretti JP, Nunes S, Sales AJC. Self-compacting concrete
incorporating sugarcane bagasse ash. Construct Build Mater
2018;172:635e49.
[44] Abdalla TA, Koteng DO, Shitote SM, Matallah M. Mechanical
and durability properties of concrete incorporating silica
3216 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
fume and a high volume of sugarcane bagasse ash. Results
Eng 2022;16:100666.
[45] Khalil MJ, Aslam M, Ahmad SJC. Utilization of sugarcane
bagasse ash as cement replacement for the production of
sustainable concreteeA review. Construct Build Mater
2020:121371.
[46] Praveenkumar S, Sankarasubramanian G, Sindhu S.
Strength, permeability and microstructure characterization
of pulverized bagasse ash in cement mortars. Construct
Build Mater 2020;238:117691.
[47] Ahmad MR, Chen B, Oderji SY, Mohsan MJE. Development
of a new bio-composite for building insulation and
structural purpose using corn stalk and magnesium
phosphate cement. Energy Build 2018;173:719e33.
[48] F. Faostat, A.C.J.R. Production, Italy. Food and agriculture
organization of the united nations, 2010. 2016.
[49] Rosas-Castor J, Guzma  n-Mar J, Herna ndez-Ramı́rez A,
Garza-Gonza  lez M, Hinojosa-Reyes LJSotTE. Arsenic
accumulation in maize crop (Zea mays): a review. Sci Total
Environ 2014;488:176e87.
[50] Lu Z, Zhao Z, Wang M, Jia WJC. Effects of corn stalk fiber
content on properties of biomass brick. Construct Build
Mater 2016;127:11e7.
[51] Jarabo R, Monte M, Fuente E, Santos S, Negro CJIC. Products,
Corn stalk from agricultural residue used as reinforcement
fiber in fiber-cement production. Ind Crops Prod
2013;43:832e9.
[52] Li Q, Zhao Y, Chen H, Zhao P, Hou P, Cheng X, Xie N. Effect
of waste corn stalk ash on the early-age strength
development of fly ash/cement composite. Construct Build
Mater 2021;303:124463.
[53] Raheem AA, Ikotun BDJJoBE. Incorporation of agricultural
residues as partial substitution for cement in concrete and
mortareA review. J Build Eng 2020:101428.
[54] Raheem AA, Adedokun SI, Adeyinka E, Adewole B.
Application of corn stalk ash as partial replacement for
cement in the production of interlocking paving stones. In:
International journal of engineering research in Africa.
Trans Tech Publ; 2017. p. 85e93.
[55] Cordeiro G, Toledo Filho R, Tavares L, Fairbairn EJC.
Pozzolanic activity and filler effect of sugar cane bagasse
ash in Portland cement and lime mortars. Cement Concrete
Compos 2008;30(5):410e8.
[56] Rajasekar A, Arunachalam K, Kottaisamy M,
Saraswathy VJC. Durability characteristics of Ultra High
Strength Concrete with treated sugarcane bagasse ash.
Construct Build Mater 2018;171:350e6.
[57] Rukzon S, Chindaprasirt PJM. Utilization of bagasse ash in
high-strength concrete. Mater Des 2012;34:45e50.
[58] Dewi SH, Mildawati R, Perdana TJJoG. Engineering,
environment, technology, the benefits of adding corn stalk
ash as a substitution of some cement Against of
Compressive Strength Concrete. J Geosci Eng Environ
Technol 2019;4(3):208e16.
[59] Shaikh FUA, Luhar S, Arel HS‚, Luhar IJC. Performance
evaluation of Ultrahigh performance fibre reinforced
concreteea review. Construct Build Mater 2020;232:117152.
[60] Zhang Z, Liang G, Niu Q, Wang F, Chen J, Zhao B, Ke L. A
Wiener degradation process with drift-based approach of
determining target reliability index of concrete structures.
Qual Reliab Eng Int 2022;38(7):3710e25.
[61] Wang D, Shi C, Wu Z, Xiao J, Huang Z, Fang ZJC. A review on
ultra high performance concrete: Part II. Hydration,
microstructure and properties. Construct Build Mater
2015;96:368e77.
[62] Zhang Z, Li W, Yang J. Analysis of stochastic process to
model safety risk in construction industry. J Civ Eng Manag
2021;27(2):87e99.
[63] Chen J, Tong H, Yuan J, Fang Y, Gu R. Permeability
prediction model modified on Kozeny-Carman for building
foundation of clay soil. Buildings 2022;12(11):1798.
[64] Mohammed AN, Johari MAM, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA,
Yusuf MOJJoACT. Improving the engineering and fluid
transport properties of ultra-high strength concrete
utilizing ultrafine palm oil fuel ash. J Adv Concrete Technol
2014;12(4):127e37.
[65] Sorelli L, Constantinides G, Ulm F-J, Toutlemonde FJC. The
nano-mechanical signature of ultra high performance
concrete by statistical nanoindentation techniques. Cement
Concrete Res 2008;38(12):1447e56.
[66] Deng E-F, Zhang Z, Zhang C-X, Tang Y, Wang W, Du Z-J,
Gao J-P. Experimental study on flexural behavior of UHPC
wet joint in prefabricated multi-girder bridge. Eng Struct
2023;275:115314.
[67] Ghafari E, Ghahari SA, Costa H, Júlio E, Portugal A,
Dura ~ es LJC. Effect of supplementary cementitious materials
on autogenous shrinkage of ultra-high performance
concrete. Construct Build Mater 2016;127:43e8.
[68] Shi T, Liu Y, Hu Z, Cen M, Zeng C, Xu J, Zhao Z. Deformation
performance and fracture toughness of carbon nanofiber-
modified cement-based materials. ACI Mater J 2022;119(5).
[69] Van Tuan N, Ye G, Van Breugel K, Fraaij AL, Dai Bui DJC. The
study of using rice husk ash to produce ultra high
performance concrete. Construct Build Mater
2011;25(4):2030e5.
[70] A.S.o.T. Materials, standard specification for Portland
cement. ASTM C150, American Society of Testing Materials
USA; 2015.
[71] Nakhla DAH. Achieving environmental sustainability of
sugarcane industry in Egypt: an application of life cycle
assessment. 2015.
[72] Faried AS, Mostafa SA, Tayeh BA, Tawfik TA. The effect of
using nano rice husk ash of different burning degrees on
ultra-high-performance concrete properties. Construct
Build Mater 2021;290:123279.
[73] Xu W, Lo TY, Memon SA. Microstructure and reactivity of
rich husk ash. Construct Build Mater 2012;29:541e7.
[74] Embong R, Shafiq N, Kusbiantoro A, Nuruddin MF.
Effectiveness of low-concentration acid and solar drying as
pre-treatment features for producing pozzolanic sugarcane
bagasse ash. J Clean Prod 2016;112:953e62.
[75] Agwa IS, Omar OM, Tayeh BA, Abdelsalam BA. Effects of
using rice straw and cotton stalk ashes on the properties of
lightweight self-compacting concrete. Construct Build
Mater 2020;235:117541.
[76] Madandoust R, Ghavidel R. Mechanical properties of
concrete containing waste glass powder and rice husk ash.
Biosyst Eng 2013;116(2):113e9.
[77] Vayghan AG, Khaloo A, Rajabipour F. The effects of a
hydrochloric acid pre-treatment on the physicochemical
properties and pozzolanic performance of rice husk ash.
Cement Concr Compos 2013;39:131e40.
[78] ASTM A. C33/C33M-16e1: standard Specification for
Concrete Aggregates. West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania,
United States: ASTM International; 2016.
[79] Saad M, Agwa IS, Abdelsalam Abdelsalam B, Amin M.
Improving the brittle behavior of high strength concrete
using banana and palm leaf sheath fibers. Mech Adv Mater
Struct 2020:1e10.
[80] Amin M, Tayeh BA. Investigating the mechanical and
microstructure properties of fibre-reinforced lightweight
concrete under elevated temperatures. Case Stud Constr
Mater 2020;13:e00459.
[81] Wu Z, Shi C, He W, Wu L. Effects of steel fiber content and
shape on mechanical properties of ultra high performance
concrete. Construct Build Mater 2016;103:8e14.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
[82] Amin M, Tayeh BA, Agwa IS. Effect of using mineral
admixtures and ceramic wastes as coarse aggregates on
properties of ultrahigh-performance concrete. J Clean Prod
2020;273:123073.
[83] Hakeem IY, Amin M, Abdelsalam BA, Tayeh BA, Althoey F,
Agwa IS. Effects of nano-silica and micro-steel fiber on the
engineering properties of ultra-high performance concrete.
Struct Eng Mech 2022;82(3):295e312.
[84] Amin M, Hakeem IY, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Maglad AM,
Agwa IS. Influence of recycled aggregates and carbon
nanofibres on properties of ultra-high-performance
concrete under elevated temperatures. Case Stud Constr
Mater 2022;16:e01063.
[85] H.H.R.W.-R. Admixture, ASTM C 494, Type F/G, Only
admixtures which have been tested and accepted in mix
designs shall be used.
[86] B. EN, 934-2: 2001. Admixtures for concrete, mortar and
groutePart 2: concrete admixturesedefinitions,
requirements, conformity, marking and labelling. London,
UK: British Standards Institution; 2001.
[87] Aghdasi P, Ostertag CP. Green ultra-high performance fiber-
reinforced concrete (G-UHP-FRC). Construct Build Mater
2018;190:246e54.
[88] Azmee NM, Shafiq N. Ultra-high performance concrete:
from fundamental to applications. Case Stud Constr Mater
2018;9:e00197.
[89] C. ASTM C192. Standard practice for making and curing
concrete test specimens in the laboratory. ASTM Int. West
Conshohocken; 2006.
[90] C. ASTM. Standard test method for flow of hydraulic
cement mortar. C1437 2007.
[91] BSI, BS EN. 12390-3: 2009: testing hardened concrete. In:
Compressive strength of test specimens. UK: BSI London; 2009.
[92] B.S. Institutes. B. EN, BS EN 12390-6: 2009, testing hardened
concrete. In: Tensile splitting strength of test specimens.
London, UK: British Standard Institution; 2009.
[93] C. ASTM. Standard test method for flexural strength of
concrete (using simple beam with third-point loading).
American society for testing and materials; 2010. p. 19428.
2959.
[94] C. Astm. Standard test method for static modulus of
elasticity and Poissons ratio of concrete in compression.
Pennsylvania: ASTM Standards, American Society for
Testing and Materials; 2002. 469.
[95] Shi C. Another look at the rapid chloride permeability test
(ASTM C1202 or ASSHTO T277). Baltimore: FHWA Resource
Center; 2003.
[96] A. C-13. Standard test method for measurement of rate of
absorption of water by hydraulic-cement concretes. West
Conshohocken, Pennsylvania, United States: ASTM; 2013.
[97] B. EN, 12390-8: 2009. Testing hardened concrete part 8. 2009.
[98] de Azevedo AR, Amin M, Hadzima-Nyarko M, Agwa IS,
Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Adesina A. Possibilities for the
application of agro-industrial wastes in cementitious
materials: a brief review of the Brazilian perspective. Clean
Mater 2022;3:100040.
[99] Agwa IS, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Adesina A, de Azevedo AR,
Amin M, Hadzima-Nyarko M. A comprehensive review on
the use of sugarcane bagasse ash as a supplementary
cementitious material to produce eco-friendly concretes.
Mater Today Proc 2022.
[100] Agwa IS, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Amin M. Effect of different
burning degrees of sugarcane leaf ash on the properties of
ultrahigh-strength concrete. J Build Eng 2022:104773.
[101] Amin M, Tayeh BA, Kandil MA, Agwa IS, Abdelmagied MF.
Effect of rice straw ash and palm leaf ash on the properties
of ultrahigh-performance concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater
2022;17:e01266.
3217
[102] Pyo S, Kim H-K. Fresh and hardened properties of ultra-
high performance concrete incorporating coal bottom ash
and slag powder. Construct Build Mater 2017;131:459e66.
[103] Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Saba AM, Johari MA. Workability,
setting time and strength of high-strength concrete
containing high volume of palm oil fuel ash. Open Civ Eng J
2018;12(1).
[104] Singh N, Singh V, Rai S. Hydration of bagasse ash-blended
portland cement. Cement Concr Res 2000;30(9):1485e8.
[105] Martirena-Hernandez J, Betancourt-Rodriguez S,
Middendorf B, Rubio A, Martinez-Fernandez J, Lo  pez JM,
Gonza  lez-Lo
 pez R. Pozzolanic properties of residues of
sugar industries (first part). Mater Construccio n
2000;50(260):71e8.
[106] Paya  J, Monzo  J, Borrachero MV, Dı́az-Pinzo
 n L, Ordonez LM.
Sugar-cane bagasse ash (SCBA): studies on its properties for
reusing in concrete production. J Chem Technol
BiotechnolInt Res Process Environ Clean Technol
2002;77(3):321e5.
[107] Meng W, Valipour M, Khayat KH. Optimization and
performance of cost-effective ultra-high performance
concrete. Mater Struct 2017;50(1):1e16.
[108] Zhang J, Zhao Y. The mechanical properties and
microstructure of ultra-high-performance concrete
containing various supplementary cementitious materials. J
Sustain Cement Based Mater 2017;6(4):254e66.
[109] Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Agwa IS. Effect of
ferrosilicon and silica fume on mechanical, durability,
and microstructure characteristics of ultra high-
performance concrete. Construct Build Mater
2022;320:126233.
[110] Amin M, El-Aziz A, Agwa IS, Abu El-Hassan K. Properties
and microstructure of high strength concrete
incorporating different supplementary cementitious
materials, key engineering materials. Trans Tech Publ;
2022. p. 247e57.
[111] Hakeem IY, Amin M, Zeyad AM, Tayeh BA, Maglad AM,
Agwa IS. Effects of nano sized sesame stalk and rice straw
ashes on high-strength concrete properties. J Clean Prod
2022;370:133542.
[112] Wu N, Ji T, Huang P, Fu T, Zheng X, Xu Q. Use of sugar cane
bagasse ash in ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) as
cement replacement. Construct Build Mater
2022;317:125881.
[113] Cho YK, Jung SH, Choi YC. Effects of chemical composition
of fly ash on compressive strength of fly ash cement mortar.
Construct Build Mater 2019;204:255e64.
[114] Sakai E, Miyahara S, Ohsawa S, Lee S-H, Daimon M.
Hydration of fly ash cement. Cement Concr Res
2005;35(6):1135e40.
[115] Bui PT, Ogawa Y, Nakarai K, Kawai K. Pozzolanic reaction of
fly ash cement paste in the presence of alkali activator. Proc
JCI 2015;37:157e62.
[116] Akram T, Memon SA, Obaid H. Production of low cost self
compacting concrete using bagasse ash. Construct Build
Mater 2009;23(2):703e12.
[117] Ganesan K, Rajagopal K, Thangavel K. Evaluation of bagasse
ash as supplementary cementitious material. Cement
Concr Compos 2007;29(6):515e24.
[118] Bunnori NM, Alani AH, Noaman AT, Johari MAM, Majid TA.
Relationships between compressive strength and transport
properties of ultrahigh-strength green concrete utilizing
ternary-blended binder. J Mater Civ Eng
2020;32(3):04020011.
[119] Khalil MJ, Aslam M, Ahmad S. Utilization of sugarcane
bagasse ash as cement replacement for the production of
sustainable concreteeA review. Construct Build Mater
2020:121371.
3218 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 3 ; 2 3 : 3 1 9 6 e3 2 1 8
[120] Chindaprasirt P, Rukzon S, Sirivivatnanon V. Resistance to
chloride penetration of blended Portland cement mortar
containing palm oil fuel ash, rice husk ash and fly ash.
Construct Build Mater 2008;22(5):932e8.
[121] Qureshi LA, Ali B, Ali A. Combined effects of supplementary
cementitious materials (silica fume, GGBS, fly ash and rice
husk ash) and steel fiber on the hardened properties of
recycled aggregate concrete. Construct Build Mater
2020;263:120636.
[122] Liew KM, Sojobi AO, Zhang LW. Green concrete:
prospects and challenges. Construct Build Mater
2017;156:1063e95.
[123] Papadakis VG. Effect of supplementary cementing materials
on concrete resistance against carbonation and chloride
ingress. Cement Concr Res 2000;30(2):291e9.
[124] Shi C, Wang D, Wu L, Wu ZJC. The hydration and
microstructure of ultra high-strength concrete with
cementesilica fumeeslag binder. Cement Concrete Compos
2015;61:44e52.
[125] Shi C, Wu Z, Xiao J, Wang D, Huang Z, Fang ZJC. A review on
ultra high performance concrete: Part I. Raw materials and
mixture design. Constrct Build Mater 2015;101:741e51.
[126] Zeyad AM, Almalki A. Role of particle size of natural
pozzolanic materials of volcanic pumice: flow properties,
strength, and permeability. Arabian J Geosci 2021;14(2):1e11.
[127] Sengul O, Tasdemir MA. Compressive strength and rapid
chloride permeability of concretes with ground fly ash and
slag. J Mater Civ Eng 2009;21(9):494e501.
[128] Zeyad AM, Johari MAM, Alharbi YR, Abadel AA,
Amran YHM, Tayeh BA, Abutaleb A. Influence of steam
curing regimes on the properties of ultrafine POFA-
based high-strength green concrete. J Build Eng
2021;38:102204.
[129] Rattanachu P, Tangchirapat W, Jaturapitakkul CJJoMiCE.
Water permeability and sulfate resistance of eco-friendly
high-strength concrete composed of ground bagasse ash
and recycled concrete aggregate. J Mater Civ Eng
2019;31(6):04019093.
[130] Chen H-J, Yu Y-L, Tang C-W. Mechanical properties of ultra-
high performance concrete before and after exposure to
high temperatures. Materials 2020;13(3):770.
[131] Rong Z, Sun W, Xiao H, Jiang GJC. Effects of nano-
SiO2 particles on the mechanical and
microstructural properties of ultra-high performance
cementitious composites. Cement Concrete Compos
2015;56:25e31.
[132] Tayeh BA, Zeyad AM, Agwa IS, Amin M. Effect of
elevated temperatures on mechanical properties of
lightweight geopolymer concrete. Case Stud Constr Mater
2021:e00673.
[133] Shilar FA, Ganachari SV, Patil VB, Nisar KS. Evaluation of
structural performances of metakaolin based geopolymer
concrete. J Mater Res Technol 2022;20:3208e28.
[134] Shilar FA, Ganachari SV, Patil VB. Advancement of nano-
based construction materials-A review. Construct Build
Mater 2022;359:129535.