Sherwood 2017

AN46CH23_Sherwood ARI 8 September 2017 10:23
Annual Review of Anthropology
Brain Plasticity and Human

Evolution
Chet C. Sherwood1 and Aida Gómez-Robles1,2
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2017.46:399-419. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
1
Department of Anthropology and Center for the Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology,
Access provided by University of Reading on 10/23/17. For personal use only.
The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052; email: sherwood@gwu.edu

2
Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, London
WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom; email: a.gomez-robles@ucl.ac.uk
Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2017. 46:399–419 Keywords

The Annual Review of Anthropology is online at altriciality, synaptogenesis, myelination, culture, social learning
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Human behavior is shaped by social learning to an extent that is unrivaled in
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evolutionary history that have enabled this remarkable cultural capacity?
Human brain anatomy and function have evolved to be highly responsive
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tionary changes in human brain plasticity are also evident in fossil hominins
and from analyses of ancient DNA.
399
THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BRAIN ORGANIZATION

Modern human behavior is extraordinarily flexible, as manifest in the varied manners of commu-
nication, belief, customs, food, dress, and music practiced around the world and over the course
of history. These cultural traditions are passed down across the generations, not by genes, but
by social learning and cooperation. The extreme propensity for human behavior to be molded
by social learning is a core feature of our species’ adaptive complex (Tomasello 2009). Compar-
ative psychological research suggests that humans have unique social cognitive skills to facilitate
more intense cooperation and prosocial behaviors, which promote enculturation over the course
of development (Hare 2011). By entering the “cultural niche,” human societies benefit from the
gradual accumulation of information spread both horizontally and vertically to innovative tools
and practices that no individual would likely be able to invent on their own (Boyd et al. 2011). Fur-
thermore, ample evidence indicates that the cultural environment, in turn, shapes brain structure
and function across modern human populations owing to the innate plasticity of neurodevelop-
ment (Han & Ma 2015). What neurobiological changes have occurred in our species’ evolutionary
history that have enabled this remarkable cultural capacity?

Since the human lineage split from the last common ancestor shared with chimpanzees and
bonobos approximately 6–8 million years ago, human evolution has involved brain size expansion,
reorganization of neural structures, and molecular changes (Schoenemann 2006, Rilling 2008,
Preuss 2011, Teffer & Semendeferi 2012, Somel et al. 2013, Verendeev & Sherwood 2017).
Substantial enlargement in the absolute mass of the neocortex and other related structures has led
to a brain that is more than triple the size of that in great apes and our earliest hominin ancestors
(Holloway et al. 2004, Sherwood et al. 2008). Brain enlargement in human evolution has entailed
increased numbers of neurons and elaboration of their connections. Adult human brains have
nearly 90 billion neurons and approximately 100 trillion synaptic connections, with among
the highest number of neocortical neurons of any species measured so far (Herculano-Houzel
2012). There remains debate about whether neocortical enlargement in humans has involved
expansion in the relative size of certain cortical regions above and beyond predictable allometric
patterns (Holloway 1968, Deacon 1997, Semendeferi et al. 2002, Schoenemann et al. 2005,
Rilling 2006, Barton & Venditti 2013, Smaers et al. 2017). No matter how it arises, the fact
is that compared to the brains of other primates, an especially large proportion of the human
neocortical surface is made up of association areas of the prefrontal, temporal, and parietal lobes
relative to primary sensorimotor regions, with correlated expansion of long-range connectivity
linking these higher-order cortical areas to one another and the cerebellum (Rilling & Seligman
2002, Sherwood et al. 2008, Balsters et al. 2010, Preuss 2011, Bauernfeind et al. 2013, Buckner &
Krienen 2013, Passingham & Smaers 2014, Charvet et al. 2017). In particular, human brains have
increased connectivity across long-range corticocortical fiber pathways, including the arcuate and
superior longitudinal fasciculi, which are important in functions such as language and imitation
(Rilling et al. 2008, Hecht et al. 2015).
NEUROPLASTICITY AND CULTURAL CAPACITY

The human-specific brain structure differences enumerated above are not sufficient on their own
to explain our species’ capacity for flexible learning, innovation, and cultural diversity. Human
evolution has produced not only a brain that is intelligent, in terms of raw computational power,
but also one that builds itself to be enculturated. That is, human brain anatomy and function are
highly responsive to experiences from the environment, especially the milieu of social interactions
(Han & Ma 2015). The neurotypical development of several core features of human behavior
and cognition, such as the capacity to interpret facial expressions, understand the mental states of
400 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

others, and utilize language, depends on early-life experiences with social partners (McLaughlin
et al. 2017). Studies have shown that variation in early-life rearing experience impacts the devel-
opment of cognitive performance in other primates as well (e.g., Dettmer et al. 2016); for example,
chimpanzees and bonobos raised in settings characterized by frequent sociocommunicative inter-
actions with humans performed better on social and physical cognition tasks than did apes reared
in standard laboratory or zoo conditions (Russell et al. 2011). Additionally, great ape populations
in nature exhibit local traditions in behavior that are thought to be maintained through social
transmission (Whiten et al. 1999, van Schaik et al. 2003, Robbins et al. 2016). Thus, social expe-
rience plays an essential role in shaping neural circuits of the primate brain (Platt et al. 2016), a
process that has been further amplified in human evolution.
Brain plasticity refers to the way synaptic connections, axon fiber pathways, and the mapping of
the cerebral cortex can change during the lifespan in response to the environment and experience
(Bufill et al. 2011). This capacity for neuroplasticity can also serve as the basis for recovery of
function after events such as stroke or traumatic brain injury. Notably, the brain is especially open
to modification by the environment through learning during early stages of development, which
include critical periods for the onset of a variety of cognitive functions and language acquisition
(McLaughlin et al. 2017). Brain development in mammals proceeds with an initial overproduction
of neurons and synaptic connections during fetal and early postnatal periods. Some of these con-
nections are pruned later in postnatal development to refine circuits based on activity-dependent
mechanisms (Edelman 1987, Workman et al. 2013). Within this neurodevelopmental framework,
there are multiple avenues to increase brain plasticity within a lineage. Shifts in the timing between
neurodevelopmental events and birth may alter the window of opportunity for environmental and
social factors to influence the establishment of circuitry (Halley 2017). Additionally, modifications
in the timing or expression level of molecular signals underlying neuron proliferation and migra-
tion, axon pathfinding, myelination, and synaptic formation and turnover may also contribute to
species-specific variation in neuroplasticity (Somel et al. 2013, Finlay & Uchiyama 2015). There
might also be evolutionary changes in epigenetic interactions through DNA methylation that alter
the degree to which experience can modify gene expression patterns (Zeng et al. 2012, Mendizabal
et al. 2016). In this article, we review various lines of evidence that support the conclusion that
brain plasticity has increased throughout human evolution.
ALTRICIAL HUMAN BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

The pace of primate development is precocial in comparison with other mammals, meaning
that after a long gestation period neonates are born with fairly advanced mobility and behav-
ioral maturity. However, in comparison with other primates, humans have been described as
secondarily altricial (Portmann 1969) or helpless (Trevathan & Rosenberg 2016). Altriciality in
modern humans is evident in terms of the relatively slow development of offspring indepen-
dence and a greater demand for caregiver attention. Considering that altricial neonates are highly
vulnerable and require extensive parental care to survive, traits that are costly and might be
expected to decrease fitness, why do humans break from the more precocial pattern typical of
other primates? Gestation length in humans is approximately 270 days (Sacher & Staffeldt 1974),
which is very similar to the average gestation length observed in gorillas and orangutans (265
and 270 days, respectively) and 6 weeks longer than the corresponding period in chimpanzees
(230 days). In absolute terms, human newborns are roughly two times larger than great ape new-
borns both for total body size and for brain size (Table 1). Therefore, the claim that humans are
secondarily altricial is not based on gestation length, absolute body size, or absolute brain size.
Neonatal body weight in humans is on average 5.6% of adult body weight, which is also larger
than the proportion of neonatal to adult body size observed in great apes: 3.4% in chimpanzees,
www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 401

Table 1 Variation in neonatal and adult brain and body weight in apesa
Neonatal Neonatal Neonatal/ Neonatal/
Gestation brain weight body weight Adult brain Adult body adult brain adult body
Species time (days) (g) (g) weight (g) weight (g) weight weight
Hylobates lar 210 65 400 102 5500 0.637 0.073
Pongo pygmaeus 270 129 1500 343 36900 0.376 0.041
Gorilla gorilla 265 227 1750 406 140000 0.559 0.013
Pan troglodytes 230 128 1560 360 45000 0.356 0.035
Homo sapiens 270 335 3660 1300 65000 0.258 0.056
a
Data from Sacher & Staffeldt (1974).
1.2% in gorillas, and 4.1% in orangutans, following data in Sacher & Staffeldt (1974). In contrast,
neonatal brain size in humans represents only one-quarter of adult brain size, whereas neonatal
brain size in chimpanzees and orangutans is approximately one-third of adult brain size and that
of gorillas is approximately half of adult brain volume (Table 1). Thus, human altriciality arises
because a significantly greater proportion of brain growth and maturation is offset to the postnatal
period as compared with great apes and other primates (Figure 1).
Why is such a large fraction of human brain size growth deferred to occur after birth? During
the fetal period of neurogenesis, there is minimal variation among eutherian mammals, including
humans, in the overall pattern of volumetric growth acceleration of the brain (Halley 2017). Thus,
it is not a change in the shape of the human brain’s intrinsic growth curve that accounts for the
emergence of altriciality. Rather, two major constraints on the overall length of gestation might
be at play: obstetrical (Rosenberg 1992) and metabolic (Dunsworth et al. 2012). Both types of
constraints are related to the evolution of a progressively larger brain, which, in combination
with the narrow birth canal that is functionally required for bipedalism in hominins, poses spatial
limitations during parturition (Rosenberg 1992) or which requires large amounts of energy that
cannot be supplied by the mother (Dunsworth et al. 2012). These constraints are thought to have
prohibited gestation from lengthening to the extent that would be expected for a species with such
a large brain size. Therefore, a more altricial pattern of development came to characterize humans
as brain size increased in our evolutionary history.
Because mammalian peak brain growth velocity curves are relatively invariant (Halley 2017),
after birth in modern humans, brain volume continues to increase at an extremely rapid fetal-
like rate for more than a year, which is not observed in other primates (Leigh 2006). Based
on the predictable sequence of neurodevelopmental events (Workman et al. 2013), it can be
modeled that certain aspects of brain maturation, such as the onset of myelination of limbic,
striatal, and neocortical structures, were transposed from the prenatal period to the postnatal
period over the course of human evolution as brain size expanded (Gómez-Robles et al. 2017).
Indeed, comparative study of longitudinal samples of human, chimpanzee, and rhesus macaque
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans shows that humans are characterized by a much more
rapid increase in cerebral white matter volume during early infancy (Sakai et al. 2012). The growth
of white matter underlying the neocortex is the major basis of overall brain volume expansion in
the first 18 months of infant development in humans. The secondarily altricial nature of human
brain development means that greater exposure to social and environmental variability during
postnatal development has the capacity to exert a strong influence during the early establishment
of connectivity. This may be especially important in boosting brain plasticity, which enables the
achievement of developmental milestones that typically occur in the first year of life, such as the
onset of joint attention and the appearance of first words (Fjell et al. 2015).

1,500
1,000
Total brain
volume (cm3)
500
Homo
0 sapiens
800
Gorilla
beringei
600
Gray matter Pan

volume (cm3) 400 troglodytes
200 Macaca
mulatta
0
Sapajus
800 apella
600
White matter
volume (cm3) 400
200
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Age (years)
Figure 1
Variation in total brain volume, cerebral gray matter, and white matter volume during postnatal development in humans, mountain
gorillas, chimpanzees, rhesus macaques, and tufted capuchins. Data have been obtained from relevant references (Cofran & DeSilva
2015, McFarlin et al. 2013, Phillips & Sherwood 2008, Sakai et al. 2012). Growth curves were fitted according to best models described
in original publications.
MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY IN THE HUMAN BRAIN
Altriciality in relative brain size is reflected in several neuroanatomical and behavioral features,
which are also relatively immature in human neonates (Portmann 1969). For example, whereas
major sulcal patterns are already established at birth (Dubois et al. 2008), secondary and tertiary

folding, which are the result of regional patterns of cortical expansion, continue in the early
postnatal period (Hill et al. 2010, White et al. 2010). At the microstructural level, most cortical
neurogenesis and migration are complete at birth, such that the laminar structure of the cerebral
cortex is established at term (Kostović et al. 2002, de Graaf-Peters & Hadders-Algra 2006). The
earliest synaptic connections are formed during the first trimester of prenatal development, but
these are transient connections with preplate neurons that will later give rise to the more stable
connections that are part of mature circuits (Tau & Peterson 2009).
At the time of birth, dendritic arborization and synaptogenesis are occurring at peak rate,
which will extend well into the first few years of postnatal life (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar 1997).
The excess of neurons and synaptic connections formed during early development is pruned later
through a process regulated by synaptic activity, cell-cell contact, and various trophic factors that
are produced by neurons and glia (Huttenlocher 1984, Lossi & Merighi 2003).
This process of activity-dependent refinement is essential in the establishment of local and
association circuitry that facilitates the integration of information across cortical domains (Levitt
2003). The timing of synaptic pruning in the human brain differs among cortical regions, as has
been shown through direct measures of synaptic densities (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar 1997) and
indirect measures of cortical gray matter thinning (Sotiras et al. 2017). These data demonstrate a
more extended period of maturation in heteromodal association regions compared with primary
sensory and motor areas. Notably, human neuroimaging studies show that there is a relationship
between protracted developmental changes in cortical morphology and cognitive performance
later in life (Shaw et al. 2006, Schnack et al. 2015). For example, using a longitudinal sample,
Shaw et al. (2006) found that children who scored the highest on an intelligence test had brains
that were characterized by an especially prolonged phase of initial increase in prefrontal cortical
thickness prior to the period of thinning.
Comparison of developmental changes in cortical synaptic densities and pyramidal neuron
dendritic arborization between humans and other primates shows variation that may be related
to plasticity (Figure 2). In macaques, the process of synaptogenesis, whereby new synapses are
formed, peaks during infancy at approximately three months of age, and pruning of excess synapses
is completed by the end of the juvenile period (Rakic et al. 1986). By contrast, in humans and chim-
panzees, peak synapse density occurs later during the juvenile period, with pruning of synapses
extending into early adulthood (Huttenlocher & Dabholkar 1997, Petanjek et al. 2011, Bianchi
et al. 2013). Interspecific differences also occur in the timing of maturation among different cortical
regions. In macaque monkeys, densities of spines located on the dendrites of prefrontal pyramidal
neurons are higher than other areas from the time of birth and throughout postnatal development
(Elston et al. 2006). In humans and chimpanzees, however, dendritic arbors of prefrontal cortex
pyramidal neurons reach adult-like morphological complexity and spine density later in develop-
ment than do dendritic arbors in sensory and motor cortices (Travis et al. 2005, Bianchi et al.
2013). Thus, the overall pattern of development of cortical connections appears to be extended in
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
Figure 2
Variation in synapse density and myelination during development in rhesus macaques (top), chimpanzees (middle) and humans (bottom).
Data were obtained from different published papers (Bianchi et al. 2013, Huttenlocher & Dabholkar 1997, Huttenlocher et al. 1982,
Miller et al. 2012, Rakic et al. 1986). X-axes represent the proportion of time to adulthood at each age. Adult life for each species was
calculated as the age of first reproduction in females plus 8% of the maximum lifespan for each species as reported in Mitani et al.
(2012). Adult ages calculated in this way are 8 years in rhesus macaques, 18 years in chimpanzees, and 28 years in humans. For synaptic
density, bi- and tri-exponential curves were fitted to data in all species because growth curves were not provided in the original
publications for rhesus macaques and humans. For myelination, best-fit curves described in the original publication are shown.

both humans and chimpanzees relative to macaques. What is further remarkable in the evolution
of human brain development is that this protracted synaptic refinement occurs in a neocortex that
is concomitantly also growing to be more than threefold the size of the cortex in chimpanzees and
other great apes, meaning that a much greater diversity of connectional networks has the potential
to be impacted by developmental plasticity (Buckner & Krienen 2013).
40
Brodmann’s area
Synapses per 100 μm2
30 Macaca Pan Homo

Cortical region
Primary motor 4 4 4
20 Primary 1 3 3
somatosensory
Prefrontal 9 10 10
Macaca 10 Visual 17 18 18
mulatta
Limbic 34 – –
1.6 4.8 8
years years years
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Proportion of adult life (%)
20
0.08
Myelinated fiber length
15
density (μm/μm3)
0.06
10 0.04
Pan 5 0.02
troglodytes
3.6 10.8 18 3.6 10.8 18
years years years years years years
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Proportion of adult life (%) Proportion of adult life (%)
70
60 0.08
Myelinated fiber length
density (μm/μm3)
50
0.06
40
30 0.04
Homo 20
sapiens 0.02
10
5.6 16.8 28 5.6 16.8 28
years years years years years years
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Proportion of adult life (%) Proportion of adult life (%)
SYNAPTOGENESIS MYELINATION

Myelination is another important neurodevelopmental process. The myelin sheath is a lipid-

rich wrapping that surrounds axons to enhance the speed and fidelity of the transmission of infor-
mation encoded in action potentials, a process that is essential for enabling synchronized timing
of ensembles of neuronal activity in sensory processing and cognition (Fields 2015). In humans,
myelination starts by the twenty-ninth week of fetal development and continues until adulthood
(Tau & Peterson 2009). At the time of birth, unmyelinated white matter is the predominant brain
tissue, and the proportion of total brain volume that contains myelinated white matter is only
approximately 5% (Hüppi et al. 1998).
Neocortical myelination is developmentally protracted in humans compared with chimpanzees
and other primates. Whereas adult-like levels of myelination are achieved in chimpanzees at the
time of sexual maturity, myelination in humans extends beyond late adolescence (Miller et al.
2012). This protracted maturation in humans might allow for further refining of executive and
sociocognitive functions, such as selective attention, working memory, inhibitory control, and
perspective-taking, which characterize the transition from adolescence to early adulthood (Sotiras
et al. 2017). Although major changes in decision making and emotional regulation are well known
to occur during this life-history period in humans, we do not have comparable data to determine
whether other primates undergo similar developmental changes in cognition after the transition
to adulthood.
Taken together, the extended period of neural development observed in humans offers an
additional opportunity for environment-dependent brain maturation in adolescence and early
adulthood, during which important processes, such as myelination (Miller et al. 2012) and con-
tinued developmental pruning of synaptic spines on pyramidal neurons in the prefrontal cortex
(Petanjek et al. 2011), are known to occur. This prolonged period of brain maturation is expected
to play a less critical role in increasing plasticity than does the initial postnatal period, during
which major brain size growth and patterning are under way. However, the adolescent period
is important in the acquisition of social skills and in the establishment of adult forms of lan-
guage and communication (Locke & Bogin 2006), as well as in the acquisition of foraging skills
(Schuppli et al. 2012).
Comparisons of population variability in the cerebral morphology of adult humans and chim-
panzees are congruent with the microstructural evidence for the evolutionary enhancement of
neurodevelopmental plasticity in humans. Analyses of large samples of MRI scans have shown
that human brains exhibit substantially more fluctuating asymmetry than do chimpanzee brains
(Figure 3) (Gómez-Robles et al. 2013). Fluctuating asymmetry differs from directional asym-
metry, which has a genetic origin and is related to the lateralization of functions, such as hand
preference and language. By contrast, fluctuating asymmetry is the result of environmental influ-
ences during development (Dongen 2006). Although fluctuating asymmetry is usually considered
to be indicative of developmental instability, it may also be the outcome of increased develop-
mental plasticity (Palmer & Strobeck 2003). The observation of very high levels of fluctuating
asymmetry in healthy human populations supports this interpretation. In addition, heritability for
cortical organization in humans is relatively low, whereas in chimpanzees it is high and similar to
the heritability level for brain size; the latter points to the greater level of environmental influence
in cortical organization in humans (Gómez-Robles et al. 2015). The lowest heritability values are
observed in association areas of the human cerebral cortex, which also show the greatest expansion
from birth to adulthood and during primate evolution (Hill et al. 2010) as well as the highest de-
gree of interindividual variation among humans (Mars et al. 2017). In addition, the general level of
fluctuating asymmetry has significant heritability in several brain areas in both chimpanzees and
humans, which indicates that plasticity—as inferred from fluctuating asymmetry—is an evolvable
trait (Gómez-Robles et al. 2016).

H ER I TA B I L I T Y VAR IATIO N (%)
LOW HIGH LOW HIGH
Pan troglodytes Homo sapiens Pan troglodytes Homo sapiens
Size Symmetry
75.3% 56.4%
h 2 = 0.53 h 2 = 0.83
SP SF SP
SF
IP IP
Lobe Directional
proportions O IF O IF asymmetry
T T
1.9% 8.1%
CS CS
PCS SyF
SyF POS PCS Fluctuating
Sulci FOS
LS LOS asymmetry
STS STS
19.1% 26.6%
Figure 3
Differences in heritability (h2 ) and asymmetric variation between chimpanzees and humans. Left: Heritability for brain volume and
general lobe proportions is high in both species, whereas heritability for sulcal anatomy is also high in chimpanzees but generally low in
humans (with the exception of the central sulcus and the Sylvian fissure). Right: Percentages indicate the proportion of total variance
corresponding to the different types of symmetric and asymmetric variation. Asymmetric variation is substantially greater in humans
than in chimpanzees, both for directional and for fluctuating asymmetry. Both types of asymmetric variation are preferentially located
in inferior parietal areas in humans, whereas in chimpanzees only directional asymmetry is preferentially localized in this region. Data
are from Gómez-Robles et al. (2013, 2015). Abbreviations for lobe proportions: IF, inferior frontal length; IP, inferior parietal length;
O, occipital length; SF, superior frontal length; SP, superior parietal length; T, temporal length. Abbreviations for sulci: CS, central
sulcus; FOS, fronto-orbital sulcus; LOS, latero-orbital sulcus; LS, lunate sulcus; PCS, precentral sulcus; POS, parieto-occipital sulcus;
STS, superior temporal sulcus; SyF, Sylvian fissure.
MOLECULAR EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF

DEVELOPMENTAL PLASTICITY IN THE HUMAN BRAIN
In the genome, approximately 17 million single nucleotide changes and 2.5 million insertions
and deletions have occurred on the human lineage since the split from the last common ances-
tor with chimpanzees and bonobos (Marques-Bonet et al. 2009). By searching through all these
differences, recent comparative studies of gene sequences have pinpointed molecular pathways in-
volved in synapse formation and function, which have been significantly modified in human brain
evolution.

Changes in the sequence of particular genetic regions, such as FOXP2 (Forkhead Box P2) and
SRGAP2 (SLIT-ROBO Rho GTPase Activating Protein 2), show evidence of human-specific
effects on synaptic growth and plasticity (Enard 2011, Charrier et al. 2012, Dennis et al. 2012).
Humans carry four duplicates of the SRGAP2 gene, whereas other primates carry only one (Sud-
mant et al. 2010). This gene underwent two duplications after chimpanzees and humans diverged
(Dennis et al. 2012). One of these duplications, designated as SRGAP2C, is expressed in the de-
veloping human brain, where it dimerizes with ancestral SRGAP2A, silencing its function. This
inhibition underlies certain human-specific neural developmental changes that are related to brain
plasticity (Charrier et al. 2012). Studies of cells containing SRGAP2C from genetically modified
mice and human brain tissue show that the gene slows down the process of neuronal migration
and dendritic spine development, leading to a greater total number of synapses that mature over
a longer period of time (Charrier et al. 2012).
The FOXP2 gene encodes a transcription factor that is crucial to the development of speech
motor control in humans (Enard 2011). Research has demonstrated human-specific changes in
FOXP2 that are associated with the development and function of corticostriatal circuits that are
involved in speech and language (Fisher & Scharff 2009). Experiments using mice engineered to
express the human variant of FOXP2 reveal particularly remarkable effects in the striatum, includ-
ing extending neurite outgrowth of medium spiny neurons and affecting synaptic strength and
dopaminergic neurotransmission, supporting the conclusion that the FOXP2 changes in human
evolution might have altered mechanisms of brain plasticity that are important for vocal learning
(Enard et al. 2009).
Profiling mRNA (messenger RNA) and protein expression changes across postnatal develop-
ment has also been employed as a strategy to examine differences between human brains and those
of other primates. The human neocortex is known to be an especially dynamic site of developmen-
tal change at the molecular level. For example, interindividual variation in mRNA expression is
higher in children than in adults (Sterner et al. 2012). Over the lifespan, 50–70% of brain-expressed
genes show changes in mRNA abundance; the most rapid changes take place in newborns (Somel
et al. 2009). In general, the human brain shows a conserved pattern in the trajectory of devel-
opmental changes in transcriptome, metabolome, and lipidome levels, with similar increases and
decreases in expression level as those observed in chimpanzees and macaque monkeys (Somel et
al. 2009). What differs most, however, is the timing of these molecular expression trajectories,
suggesting that heterochrony (i.e., delay or acceleration of developmental events across species)
might be a powerful mechanism at play in human brain evolution. The most striking developmen-
tal shift observed is an extension of gene expression patterns associated with synapse formation
and elimination in the human prefrontal cortex (Liu et al. 2012). These processes might reflect
neoteny, a mechanism of heterochrony where traits are retained from earlier stages of develop-
ment into later phases of life by slowing the pace of ontogenetic changes (Gould 1977, Bufill et al.
2011). In the same data set, however, it is notable that no human-specific prolongation of synaptic
gene expression is evident in the cerebellum, nor is there a delay in the prefrontal cortex for other
important neurodevelopmental processes such as myelination or axonogenesis.
Molecular evidence indicates that the human brain maintains a high level of plasticity into
adulthood as well. Many studies have now examined mRNA and protein expression in brain tissue
from adult humans and other primates. Several studies have shown that among the genes that are
differentially expressed in the human neocortex, a greater number show an increase in expression
than show a decrease (Preuss et al. 2004, Khaitovich et al. 2005, Vallender et al. 2008; but see Uddin
et al. 2004, Babbitt et al. 2010). This research has consistently found that the human neocortex
is characterized by upregulation of transcripts associated with synapse formation, glutamatergic
excitatory neurotransmission, and aerobic energy metabolism (Cáceres et al. 2003, 2007; Uddin

et al. 2004; Muntané et al. 2015). Measurements of metabolites and other proteins from mass
spectrometry similarly show an acceleration of metabolic changes in the human prefrontal cortex
compared with other primates (Fu et al. 2011, Bauernfeind et al. 2015), which suggests a higher
level of neuronal and synaptic activity than in our closest relatives (Preuss 2011).
Regulation of gene expression may be influenced by several factors, including stochastic, ge-
netic, and environmental effects. Importantly, the environment can impact gene expression via
epigenetic mechanisms such as DNA methylation and histone modification. DNA methylation is a
chemical alteration that affects chromatin regulation and gene expression, which occurs by adding
a methyl group to nucleotide bases, predominantly at cytosines followed by guanines (CpGs).
DNA methylation of gene promoters can silence mRNA transcription. Hundreds of genes show
lower levels of promoter methylation in the human prefrontal cortex than in chimpanzees and
rhesus macaques, which indicates that the epigenomic landscape has been significantly modified in
human brain evolution (Zeng et al. 2012, Mendizabal et al. 2016). Consequently, these methylomic
differences suggest that gene regulation in human brain tissue may have an increased capacity to
be affected by environmental factors.
THE POTENTIAL OF THE FOSSIL RECORD AND ANCIENT DNA TO

CONTRIBUTE TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THE EVOLUTION OF
HUMAN BRAIN PLASTICITY
Although comparisons between modern humans and other living primates help us to identify some
of the derived features of the brain that underlie our species’ extraordinary capacity for cultural
learning, to gain insight into the origins of brain plasticity we must also examine the fossil record
of hominin evolution. However, the study of brain plasticity in hominins is a significant challenge,
owing to the fragmentary nature of the fossil evidence and the fact that soft tissue is not preserved.
Accordingly, paleoanthropology has approached this question through analyses of variation in
developmental timing as inferred from changes in endocranial volume and other skeletal or dental
indicators of growth (e.g., Smith et al. 2010). Investigators generally assume that the shift toward
a more altricial pattern of development observed during hominin evolution is associated with
an increased level of neural plasticity (Hublin et al. 2015). Such interpretations, however, are
complicated by the fact that developmental processes, such as the rate and duration of growth,
are tremendously difficult to analyze in samples that are not representative of the entire temporal
span of ontogeny. We have extremely few infant and juvenile endocranial remains from hominins.
One can infer that australopiths and other small-brained earlier hominins (White et al. 1994,
Senut et al. 2001, Brunet et al. 2002) are likely to have shown a more precocial pattern of develop-
ment, similar to what characterizes living great apes, because obstetrical and metabolic constraints
on the timing of birth would not have limited in utero brain size growth (Tables 1 and 2). Later
hominins, such as Neanderthals and other large-brained species, may be inferred to have shown
a more altricial pattern of growth (Table 2). However, there is little agreement on whether early
postnatal development of endocranial morphology differs substantially between Neanderthals and
modern humans. On the one hand, it has been argued that modern humans show an early glob-
ularization phase in endocranial development (related to more rounded parietal and cerebellar
shape) that is not observed in Neanderthals (Gunz et al. 2010). In contrast, other investigators
have concluded that morphological patterns of endocranial development are broadly similar be-
tween both species (Ponce de León et al. 2016). Regardless of the developmental process, more
globular superior parietal lobe shape appears to be a distinctive feature of modern human en-
docranial morphology by adulthood compared with other hominins (Gunz et al. 2010, Bruner
et al. 2011). The evolution of such morphologically localized reorganization may be facilitated by
ontogenetic modularity of human brain anatomy (Gómez-Robles et al. 2014).
Table 2 Variation in estimated neonatal and observed adult cranial capacity in homininsa,b
Estimated neonatal Adult endocranial Neonatal/adult endocranial
Species endocranial volume (cc) volume (cc) volume
Ardipithecus ramidus 126.5 300.0 0.422
Australopithecus afarensis 170.2 455.6 0.374
Australopithecus africanus 172.5 463.3 0.372
Paranthropus boisei 181.8 498.4 0.365
Paranthropus robustus 190.1 530.0 0.359
Homo habilis 210.6 612.2 0.344
Homo erectus 274.2 886.0 0.310
Homo neanderthalensis 397.3 1424.8 0.279
Homo sapiens 373.8 1336.1 0.280
a
Data from DeSilva (2011).
b
Note, data for Homo sapiens differ moderately between Sacher & Staffeldt (1974) and DeSilva (2011).
For species with a brain size intermediate between that of modern humans and that of great apes,
such as Homo erectus, determining their developmental pattern has been especially challenging.
Whereas some researchers have estimated the pattern of postnatal brain size growth of Homo
erectus to be midway between that of chimpanzees and of modern humans (Coqueugniot et al.
2004, O’Connell & DeSilva 2013, Hublin et al. 2015), others have suggested that its developmental
pattern was within the range of variation of Homo sapiens (Leigh 2006). Favoring one or the other
position is not straightforward because they both have similar drawbacks. First, most inferences
concerning Homo erectus ontogeny are based on the study of one single infant, the Mojokerto
child (Antón 1997). Because brain growth rate is estimated from the proportion of adult brain size
reached by this child at death, inferences critically depend on his/her age, which has been estimated
to be as young as less than 1 year old and as old as 8 years old (Antón 1997, Coqueugniot et al.
2004). Second, developmental patterns are often calculated from comparisons of infant and adult
endocranial size, which provides a crude estimate of the rate and duration of brain size growth and
cannot provide insight into the cellular and molecular mechanisms of neurodevelopment (Webb et
al. 2001). Third, another source of discrepancy derives from uncertainty regarding the geological
age of the Mojokerto child, which is estimated to be 1.2–1.8 Ma (Swisher et al. 1994, Morwood et
al. 2003, Huffman et al. 2006, O’Connell & DeSilva 2013). Although this variation is substantial
and has important implications for developmental inferences, it certainly corresponds to an early
representative of H. erectus, whose temporal range is estimated to be 1.8 Ma to less than 100 ka
(Antón 2003). Because a temporal trend to increase brain size exists from earlier to later Homo
erectus (Antón 2002), we cannot rule out a gradual modification of development within the Homo
erectus lineage.
Insights into the evolution of hominin brain plasticity can also be gleaned from the study
of ancient DNA through the comparison of the genome of modern humans, Neanderthals, and
Denisovans (Figure 4) (Meyer et al. 2012, Prüfer et al. 2014). Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA
has also been obtained from earlier Middle Pleistocene hominins (Meyer et al. 2014, 2016), but
information on these specimens is too limited to be included in this comparison. Among those
genes that show human-specific changes, several are involved in brain growth and development
(O’Bleness et al. 2012). In particular, the modern human version of FOXP2 has also been found in
Neanderthals and Denisovans (Krause et al. 2007, Reich et al. 2010), which indicates that the forms

FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 hum (regulatory)
SRGAP2C hum
Modern humans
FOXP2 hum (coding) FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 nonhum (regulatory) FOXP2 nonhum (regulatory)
SRGAP2C hum SRGAP2C hum
Neanderthals
Denisovans
FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 nonhum (regulatory)

SRGAP2C hum
Figure 4
Evolution of plasticity-related genes as inferred from ancient DNA. FOXP2 coding changes typical of modern humans are also found in
Denisovans and Neanderthals, whereas regulatory changes appear to be unique to modern humans. Changes in SRGAP2 paralogs are
shared by the three species. Data are from Dennis et al. (2012), Krause et al. (2007), and Maricic et al. (2013). Parts of the figure have
been adapted from Birney & Pritchard (2014), Gunz et al. (2012), Sawyer et al. (2015).
of brain plasticity associated with the FOXP2 mutation in modern humans may be shared by several
late hominin species. However, researchers have also suggested that, although coding changes in
the FOXP2 sequence may have evolved before the divergence of the [(Neanderthal–Denisovan)-
modern human] clade, they may have been later followed by regulatory changes unique to modern
humans (Maricic et al. 2013).
The human-specific duplication giving rise to SRGAP2C is estimated to have occurred at 2–
3 Ma (Dennis et al. 2012), corresponding roughly with the emergence of the genus Homo (Vill-
moare et al. 2015). This stage in hominin evolution is associated with continued brain size expan-
sion and intensification of widespread manufacture of stone tools (although recent reports have
shown that an earlier technology may predate the emergence of the genus Homo) (Harmand et al.
2015). Consistent with this date, evidence shows that both Neanderthals and Denisovans carried
the human-specific duplication, SRGAP2C (Dennis et al. 2012). Thus, as is the case for FOXP2
evolution, specific aspects of brain plasticity related to the evolution of SRGAP2 paralogs may
have been shared by several species within the genus Homo.
Finally, a new approach that offers a promising window to evaluate the evolution of brain
plasticity is the study of the ancient epigenome. DNA methylation is one of the best known epi-
genetic markers, and it can impact gene expression through several different mechanisms ( Jones
2012). Recent studies have used the natural degradation process of methylated and unmethylated
cytosines to infer methylation maps in Denisovans and Neanderthals (Gokhman et al. 2014), for
which high-coverage genome sequences are available (Meyer et al. 2012, Prüfer et al. 2014). Com-
parison of the Neanderthal, Denisovan, and modern human epigenomes has shown differentially
methylated regions that are especially common in brain-related genes (Gokhman et al. 2014).
This observation may initially appear to support the conclusion that there are differences in brain
plasticity between the three species. However, there are difficulties studying epigenetic variation
in a paleoanthropological context. Because methylation maps in Neanderthals and Denisovans

come from bone tissue in adult individuals, it remains uncertain how the observed epigenetic
signature can be extrapolated to developing brain tissue (Orlando & Willerslev 2014, Schneider
et al. 2014). Nevertheless, methylomes from various tissues and cell types show a high degree of
similarity for the majority of CpG sites (Ziller et al. 2013). Thus, ancient methylomes from fossils
may hold the promise of allowing us to glimpse human-specific changes that are relevant to the
evolution of brain plasticity.
COSTS AND BENEFITS OF HUMAN BRAIN PLASTICITY

New findings from anthropology and neuroscience now encourage the view that the human brain
is evolutionarily specialized for an extraordinary degree of plasticity (Charrier et al. 2012, Liu
et al. 2012, Gómez-Robles et al. 2013, Hrvoj-Mihic et al. 2013). Human brains are especially
plastic owing to shifts in the timing of neuroanatomical developmental changes relative to birth,
prolonged myelination, and molecular mechanisms that enhance the formation and refinement of
synapses. Altricial development, an enlarged and high energy–consuming neocortex, and increased
synaptic activity are all metabolically expensive traits. Estimates of daily total energy expenditure
in adult humans compared with great apes indicate that humans consume between 400 and 820
kcal per day more than close relatives do, in part owing to an elevated resting metabolic rate
(RMR) to support organ functions (Pontzer et al. 2016). A significant contributor to these costs
is the brain. Calculation of the percent of RMR required to support the brain shows that in males
and females the adult brain comprises 19.1% and 24.0%, respectively, of the body’s total energetic
budget; the relative cost is even higher in newborns (52.5% in males and 59.8% in females) and
children (66.3% in males and 65.0% in females) (Kuzawa et al. 2014).
These energetic costs must be subsidized through means that allow for high-quality dietary
resources to be delivered to growing humans during a time when they are too young to procure
their food independently (Aiello & Wheeler 1995, Isler & van Schaik 2009, Leonard & Robertson
1994). Consequently, human infants and children are especially dependent on not only their
mothers, but also other allomaternal caregivers such as grandparents, fathers, older siblings, and
other nonkin community members (Konner 2011, Isler & Van Schaik 2014). In humans, the
coevolution of more intensive cooperative behavior with allomaternal care might be an extension
of a more general pattern observed across primates, where such a cooperative breeding strategy
is correlated with proactive prosociality (Burkart et al. 2014). Such an extreme dependence on an
extended network of caregivers during early life is a distinctive aspect of human sociality and is
associated with an increased frequency and quality of social interactions that take place between
the infant and a range of social partners (Hrdy 2011). Because human infants receive attention
from a diversity of allomaternal caregivers at the time when plastic neural networks are being
actively constructed, these social relationships may serve as a critical scaffold for the understanding
of others’ intentions, setting the foundation for the developmental emergence of language and
culture.
According to this model, several interrelated life-history factors would be associated with
the evolution of large, altricial, and plastic brains in humans (Figure 5). For one, the demands
of relatively helpless infants might have acted as a selective force to increase longevity because
postreproductive kin, especially grandmothers, would be vital to providing additional support to
mothers (Hawkes 2003). Accordingly, the combination of such a high energy–consuming brain and
an extended lifespan may account for our species’ more pronounced brain structure deterioration in
old age and our heightened vulnerability to certain neurodegenerative illnesses, such as Alzheimer’s
disease (Bufill et al. 2013). Notably, even in the absence of disease, normal human brain aging
is characterized by overt volumetric shrinkage of cerebral gray matter, white matter, and the

Brain enlargement
Energetic costs
Dietary shift
Obstetrical and
metabolic constraints
Altricial brain More neurons, especially

development in the neocortex
Cooperative breeding
Increased risk of
Grandparenting neurodegenerative and
neurodevelopmental
Elongated lifespan
illness
Social learning
Greater influence of postnatal

Increased computational
experience in development
capacity and
of brain connections
executive control
and behavior
Figure 5
A model of the evolution of human brain plasticity and its interactions with life history and cognition.
hippocampus after 50 years of age, whereas the brains of chimpanzees and macaques do not
show such profound decline (Sherwood et al. 2011). Additional neurodevelopmental illnesses
might also be associated with the evolution of our human-specific life history and brain plasticity,
including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, which have an onset in the late adolescent/early-
adult period of cortical development. This life-history stage is characterized by uniquely human
prolonged myelination (Miller et al. 2012). Notably, autism spectrum disorder disrupts novel
molecular pathways involved in human-specific delayed synaptic gene expression (Liu et al. 2016).
Thus, some brain disorders of humans may be, in part, by-products of neoteny, causing shifts in
ontogenetic timing to retain juvenile characteristics into later stages of life.
Although plasticity may come with certain evolutionary costs (Pigliucci 2005), these aspects of
modern human development and neurobiology are related to fitness benefits as our species has
become dependent on cultural learning as a key adaptation (Tomasello 2009, Boyd et al. 2011).
Such an increase in the flexibility of the human brain allows for the incorporation of culturally
specific behaviors into the behavioral toolkit. Learning of languages, attitudes, belief systems,
and technologies all may serve to mark social group identity and facilitate cooperative sharing
of resources and skills (Richerson et al. 2016). According to this perspective, neural plasticity is
an essential component of human brain evolution, which, together with brain size enlargement
and neuroanatomical reorganization, transformed populations of human ancestors into a highly
intelligent and culture-dependent species.
DISCLOSURE STATEMENT
The authors are not aware of any affiliations, memberships, funding, or financial holdings that
might be perceived as affecting the objectivity of this review.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful to Chris Kuzawa, Soojin Yi, Drew Halley, and an anonymous reviewer for pro-
viding thoughtful comments that helped to improve this manuscript.
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AN46_FrontMatter ARI 7 September 2017 20:51
Annual Review of
Anthropology
Contents Volume 46, 2017
Perspectives
Recovering the Body
Margaret Lock p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 1
Archaeology
Rock Art and Ontology
Andrew Meirion Jones p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 167
Collective Action Theory and the Dynamics of Complex Societies
Elizabeth DeMarrais and Timothy Earle p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 183
Archaeologies of the Contemporary World
Rodney Harrison and Esther Breithoff p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 203
The Archaeological Study of Sacrifice
Glenn M. Schwartz p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 223
Archaeology and Human–Animal Relations: Thinking Through
Anthropocentrism
Brian Boyd p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 299
Social Network Analysis in Archaeology
Barbara J. Mills p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 379
Biological Anthropology
Late Australopiths and the Emergence of Homo
Darryl J. de Ruiter, S.E. Churchill, J. Hawks, and L.R. Berger p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p99
Primate Positional Behavior Development and Evolution
Michelle Bezanson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 279
The Monkeying of the Americas: Primate Biogeography in the
Neotropics
Jessica Lynch Alfaro p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 317
Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution
Chet C. Sherwood and Aida Gómez-Robles p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 399
vii
Anthropology of Language and Communicative Practices

Language and the Newness of Media
Ilana Gershon p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p15
Personal Narratives and Self-Transformation in Postindustrial
Societies
Cynthia Dickel Dunn p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p65
Human–Animal Communication
Don Kulick p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 357
Sociocultural Anthropology
Consuming DNA: The Good Citizen in the Age of Precision Medicine

Sandra Soo-Jin Lee p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p33

Precarious Placemaking
Melinda Hinkson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p49
Marriage and Migration
Caroline B. Brettell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p81
Fluid Drugs: Revisiting the Anthropology of Pharmaceuticals
Anita Hardon and Emilia Sanabria p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 117
Humans and Animals in Northern Regions
David G. Anderson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 133
What Does Catastrophe Reveal for Whom? The Anthropology of
Crises and Disasters at the Onset of the Anthropocene
Roberto E. Barrios p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 151
A Bundle of Relations: Collections, Collecting, and Communities
Joshua A. Bell p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 241
The Datafication of Health
Minna Ruckenstein and Natasha Dow Schüll p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 261
China–Africa Encounters: Historical Legacies and Contemporary
Realities
Helen F. Siu and Mike McGovern p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 337
Epidemics (Especially Ebola)
Sharon Abramowitz p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 421
Theme: Human–Animal Interaction

Humans and Animals in Northern Regions
David G. Anderson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 133
viii Contents
The Archaeological Study of Sacrifice

Glenn M. Schwartz p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 223
Primate Positional Behavior Development and Evolution
Michelle Bezanson p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 279
Archaeology and Human–Animal Relations: Thinking Through
Anthropocentrism
Brian Boyd p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 299
The Monkeying of the Americas: Primate Biogeography in the
Neotropics
Jessica Lynch Alfaro p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 317
Human–Animal Communication
Don Kulick p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 357
Indexes
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 37–46 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 447

Cumulative Index of Article Titles, Volumes 37–46 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 451
Errata
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Anthropology articles may be found at

http://www.annualreviews.org/errata/anthro
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AN46CH23_Sherwood ARI 8 September 2017 10:23

Annual Review of Anthropology

Brain Plasticity and Human

The George Washington University, Washington, DC 20052; email: sherwood@gwu.edu

Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 2017. 46:399–419 Keywords

THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN BRAIN ORGANIZATION

history that have enabled this remarkable cultural capacity?

NEUROPLASTICITY AND CULTURAL CAPACITY

400 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

ALTRICIAL HUMAN BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 401

402 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

Gray matter Pan

MORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 403

404 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

30 Macaca Pan Homo

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 405

Myelination is another important neurodevelopmental process. The myelin sheath is a lipid-

406 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

H ER I TA B I L I T Y VAR IATIO N (%)

LOW HIGH LOW HIGH

Pan troglodytes Homo sapiens Pan troglodytes Homo sapiens

MOLECULAR EVIDENCE FOR THE EVOLUTION OF

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 407

408 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

be affected by environmental factors.

THE POTENTIAL OF THE FOSSIL RECORD AND ANCIENT DNA TO

410 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 hum (coding) FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 hum (coding)

FOXP2 nonhum (regulatory)

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 411

COSTS AND BENEFITS OF HUMAN BRAIN PLASTICITY

412 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

Altricial brain More neurons, especially

Greater influence of postnatal

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 413

414 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

altriciality. PNAS 109(38):15212–16

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 415

rological Evidence. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Liss

416 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 417

design? Evol. Anthropol. 15(2):65–77

418 Sherwood · Gómez-Robles

variation and multicopy genes. Science 330:641–46

www.annualreviews.org • Brain Plasticity and Human Evolution 419

Contents Volume 46, 2017

Anthropology of Language and Communicative Practices

Consuming DNA: The Good Citizen in the Age of Precision Medicine

Sandra Soo-Jin Lee p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p33

Theme: Human–Animal Interaction

The Archaeological Study of Sacrifice

Don Kulick p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 357

Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 37–46 p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p p 447

An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Anthropology articles may be found at

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