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Introduction to process control
Control Engineering is concerned with techniques that are used to solve the following
six problems in the most efficient manner possible.
(a)The identification problem :to measure the variables and convert data for analysis.
(b)The representation problem :to describe a system by an analytical form or mathematical
model
(c)The solution problem :to determine the above system model response.
(d)The stability problem :general qualitative analysis of the system
(e)The design problem: modification of an existing system or develop a new one
(f)The optimization problem: from a variety of design to choose the best.
The two basic approaches to solve these six problems are conventional and modern
approach. The electrical oriented conventional approach is based on complex function
theory. The modern approach has mechanical orientation and based on the state variable
theory.
Control System Objectives
o Economic Incentive
o Safety
o Equipment Protection
o Reduce variability
o Increase efficiency
o Ensure the stability of a process
o Elimination of routine

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Basic terminologies in control system
System: It is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective.
Plant: It is the machine of which a particular quantity or condition is to be controlled.
Process: Is defined as the changing or refining of raw materials that pass through or
remain in a liquid, gaseous, or slurry state to create end products.
Control: In process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise
control of level, pH, oxygen, foam, nutrient, temperature, pressure and flow is important in
many process applications.
Sensor: A measuring instrument, the most common measurements are of flow (F),
temperature (T), pressure (P), level (L), pH and composition (A, for analyzer). The sensor
will detect the value of the measured variable as a function of time.
Set point: The value at which the controlled parameter is to be maintained.
Controller: A device which receives a measurement of the process variable, compares
with a set point representing the desired control point, and adjusts its output to minimize
the error between the measurement and the set point.
Error Signal: The signal resulting from the difference between the set point reference
signal and the process variable feedback signal in a controller.
Feedback Control: A type of control whereby the controller receives a feedback signal
representing the condition of the controlled process variable, compares it to the set point,
and adjusts the controller output accordingly.
Steady-State: The condition when all process properties are constant with time, transient
responses having died out.
Transmitter: A device that converts a process measurement (pressure, flow, level,
temperature, etc.) into an electrical or pneumatic signal suitable for use by an indicating or
control system.
Controlled variable: Process output which is to be maintained at a desired value by
adjustment of a process input.
Manipulated variable: Process input which is adjusted to maintain the controlled output
at set point.
Disturbance: A process input (other than the manipulated parameter) which affects the
controlled parameter.
Process Time Constant(τ): Amount of time counted from the moment the variable starts
to respond that it takes the process variable to reach 63.2% of its total change.
Block diagram: It is relationship between the input and the output of the system. It is
easier to visualize the control system in terms of a block diagram.

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Process dynamic: Refers to the time-varying behavior of controlled or uncontrolled

process behavior when there are subject to disturbances .
Process control: Controlling the unsteady state behavior and bring the system back to the
steady –state.
Classes of variables:
1) Un controllable variables: ambient condition ,catalyst activity.
2) Controllable variables: temperature ,pressure ,flow ,level ,pH.
3) Product variables: color ,viscosity, composition.
Transfer Function: it is the ratio of the Laplace transform of output (response function) to
the Laplace transform of the input (driving force) under assumption that all initial
conditions are zero unless that given another value. e.g. the transfer function of the above
block diagram is
G (s) = Y(s)/X(s)

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Closed-loop control system: It is a feedback control system which the output signals has a
direct effect upon the control action
Advantage: more accurate than the open-loop control system.
Disadvantages:
(1) Complex and expensive
(2) The stability is the major problem in closed-loop control system

Open-loop control system: It is a control system in which the output has no effect upon
the control action. (The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the
input).

Advantages:
(1) Simple construction and ease of maintenance.
(2) Less expensive than closed-loop control system.
(3) There is no stability problem.
Disadvantages:
(1) Disturbance and change in calibration cause errors; and output may be different from
what is desired.
(2) To maintain the required quality in the output, recalibration is necessary from time to
time
UNote : any control system which operates on a time basis is open-loop control system, e.g.
U

washing machine, traffic light …etc.

The transfer function: The dynamic behavior of the system is described by transfer
function (T.F) T.F=Laplace transform of the output (response)/Laplace transform of the
input (forcing function disturbance)
T.F=G(s)=y(s)/x(s) This definition is applied to linear systems
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CHAPTER 1 Laplace Transforms
Revision of Laplace Transforms
1.Laplace Transform
1.1 The definition of the Laplace Transforms
The Laplace transform of a function f(t) is defined to the f(s) according to the equation:

Laplace transforms convert differential equations into algebraic equations. They are related
to frequency response.

Example: Find the Laplace Transform f (t) =1

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of sin(wt) & g(t) = cos(wt)

Solution: Again, from Example 3 and Theorem above

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Example: Find the Laplace Transform of
f (t) = cosh(wt) & g(t) = sinh(wt)
Solution: From Example 2 and Theorem above,

1.2 Shifting Theorem

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1.3 Laplace Transform of the Derivative

Example: Find the Laplace Transform of the function x(t)which satisfy the following
differential equation and initial condition:-

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1.4 Laplace Transform of the integers

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1.5 Inverse of Laplace Transform
Inversion by partial fraction
The inverse of the Laplace could be obtained from tables for simple functions but for more
complicated function partial fraction is needed

1- Partial fraction
Example:

Example:

Example:

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Example:

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1.6. Solution of system dynamics in Laplace form:

Laplace transforms can be solved using
(1)partial fraction method.
A system is usually represented by following dynamic equation.

The factor of denominator, B(s) is represented by following forms,

i.Unrepeated factors
ii. Repeated factors
iii. Unrepeated complex factors
i.Unrepeated factors

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By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example
Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial fractionsand
obtain
its time-domain response

Solution:
The following equation in Laplace transform is expanded with its partial fractions as
follows

By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A = - 2 , B = 4 . Therefore

(ii) Unrepeated factors

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

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Example
Expand the following equation of Laplace transform in terms of its partial fractions and
obtain its time-domain response.

Solution:
The following equation in Laplace transform is expanded with its partial fractions as
follows.

By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A =-2,B = 4 . Therefore,

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

(iii) Complex factors: They contain conjugate pairs in the denominator.

By equating both sides, determine A and B.

Example
Expand the following equation of Laplace transform in terms of its partial fraction sand
obtain its time-domain response.

Solution:
The following equation in Laplace transform is expanded with its partial fractions as
follows.

Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,

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1.7 Final Value Theorem
Can determine the steady-state value of a time-domain signal or function from its Laplace
transform

1.8 Initial Value Theorem

Can determine the initial value of a time-domain signal or function from its Laplace
transform

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1.8 Special Functions
1- Step function

Step function with Time Delay

2. Pulse function

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3. Impulse function

4. Ramp function

Ramp function with time delay

5. Sine function

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CHAPTER 2
Response of first order systems
Linear Open-Loop Systems
2. Control System Dynamics
It is the study of characteristics behavior of dynamic system, i.e.
(a) Differential equation
i. First-order systems
ii. Second-order systems
(b) System transfer function: Laplace transform
2-1Transfer function, G(s)
Transfer function is an algebraic expression for the dynamic relation between the input and
the output of the process model both expression in s domain y(s),f(s)

It is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input with zero initial
conditions.
 One of the types of modeling a system
 Using first principle, differential equation is obtained
 Laplace Transform is applied to the equation assuming zero initial conditions

2-2Order of a system
Order of a system is given by the order of the differential equation governing the system
Alternatively, order can be obtained from the transfer function
In the transfer function, the maximum power of s in the denominator polynomial gives
the order of the system
2-3Block diagrams
Block diagram is a graphical representation of transfer functions and their interactions.
Block diagram assist the engineer in determining the quantitative aspects of dynamic
performance and in understanding the qualitative features of the system

.
Fig.1 Block diagram

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2-4Development of T.F for first order system:
Mercury Thermometer:
It is a measuring device used to measure the temperature of a stream. Consider a mercury
in glass thermometer to be located in a flowing stream of fluid for which the temperature x
varies with time. The object is to calculate the time variation of the thermometer reading y
for a particular change of x
The following assumptions will be used in this analysis:-
1. All the resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb (i.e., the
resistance offered by the glass and mercury is neglected).
2. All the thermal capacity is in the mercury. Furthermore, at any instant the mercury
assumes a uniform temperature throughout.
3. The glass wall containing the mercury does not expand or contract during the transient
response.
It is assumed that the thermometer is initially at steady state. This means that, before time
zero, there is no change in temperature with time. At time zero the thermometer will be
subjected to some change in the surrounding temperature x(t). (i.e at t<0 , x(t)= y(t)
=constant there is no change in temperature with time). At t=0 there is a change in the
surrounding temperature x(t)

unsteady state energy balance:

Input-output=accumulation

1st order differential equation

Output=0
Input=hA(x-y)

Where
A: area of the bulb
Cp: heat capacity of mercury
m: mass of mercury in the bulb
t: time
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h: film heat transfer coefficient h depend on the flow rate and properties of the surrounding
fluid and the dimension of the bulb. The dynamic behavior must be defined by a deviation
variables.
At steady state (s.s.) , t<0 , x(t)=constant=x s ,
R R

Substract eq. (2) from eq. (1(

Any system has a T.F of the form of equation (2.2) it is called first order system which is a
first order differential equation (Linear).
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2.5 Properties of transfer functions A T.F
relates two variables in a physical process. One of these is (Forcing or Input variable) and
the other is the effect (Response or Output).

• A transfer function (TF) relates one input and one output:

The following terminology is used

Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an output, y. Then, by
definition

If we select a particular input variation x(t) for which the L.T is x(s) then the response.

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Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that the transfer functions are
known:

Then the response to changes in both and can be written as:

The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:

Multiplicative Property Suppose that,

Then,

Substitute,

Or,

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2-6 Steady-State Gain The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady state
change in an output due to a steady-state change in the input. For example, suppose we
know two steady states for an input, u, and an output, y. Then we can calculate the steady
state gain, K, from:

Calculation of K from the TF Model: If a TF model has a steady-state

gain, then:

2-7 Order of a TF Model

Take assuming the initial conditions are all zero. Rearranging gives the TF:

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2.8 Transient response for different changes

Y(t)=? For different types of x(t)

1-Step Change

Several features of this response, worth remembering, are

 The value of y(t) reaches 63.2 % of its ultimate value when the time elapsed is equal to
one time constant τ.
 When the time elapsed is 2 3τ, and 4 τ, the percent response is 86.5%, 95%, and
98%, respectively

Where the ultimate value is find steady state value

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2-9 How to calculate the time constant ( )for 1st order system
1) Mathematical method

2) Method of 0.632 from response

The system response to a unit step input for a first order control system can be
represented in figure

Fig: The system response to a unit step input

Time constant (𝜏)is the time required for the response to reach 63% of the its utimate
value.

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3. Third method
Using the log-incomplete response The solution to the first-order differential equation (1)
with initial condition xo is

where Z(t)
is called the logarithm of the incomplete response, or the log-incomplete response
Note that in a plot of Z(t)
against time t, if the plotted line is straight, then the slope is given by −1/ . Given
data that appears to be first-order, the log-incomplete response method may be used
to determine the time constant through the following procedure:
Given data that appears to be first-order, the log-incomplete response method may be
used to determine the time constant through the following procedure :
Estimate the time constant from the 63% point on the free or step response plot.1
from data
2 .Extract the data points up to approximately
4τ (more on this in a bit).
3 .Calculate Z(t).
4 .Plot Z(t) against time t. If the resulting plot
is linear, then the system is likely first-order.
5 .Perform a linear curve fit, forcing the line to go through the origin, if possible.
6 .Determine the time constant τ from the slope of the linear curve fit.
So why only look at the data from t = 0 to t = 4τ? As the data approaches the steadystate
value, noise in the data masks the behavior of the response, making it difficult to obtain a
reliable value for the time constant.

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CHPTER 3
3- Physical Examples of first Order System
1-Mixing tank (involving mass transfer operation)
Consider the mixing process which a stream of solution containing salt (KCl) flows at a
constant volumetric flow rate Q into a tank of constant hold up volume V. The
concentration of the salt in the entering stream ,Ci (kg/m 3), varies with time. Find the
outlet concentration to step change in inlet concentration?

Fig. Mixing tank system

Solution
Assumptions:
1. The density of the solution is constant and the inlet flow rate is equal to the outlet flow
rate. Since the holdup volume is constant.
2. Initially pure water is running through the tank.
Mass balance
Mass rate of salt In - Mass rate of salt Out = Mass rate of salt accumulation in the tank
Steady-state mass balance around the tank:

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Eq.6 is linear, first order differential equation and zero initial condition and taking
Laplace transform of this expression and rearranging the results gives:

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Dynamic characteristics:

For a step change in the input, the process reaches a new steady state.
• The ultimate value of the output is kp a, which can be found from the last Equation ,(Eq.
9) by setting t →∞
• The time constant, τ can be found be setting t = τ in the last equation, (Eq. 9) which gives
y = 0.632 kp a. Then from Figure2, the time needed for y to reach 0.632 kp a is τ.
• The smaller the value of τ, the steeper is the initial response of the output.
• The larger static gain of a process, the larger steady state value of its output for the same
input change.

Fig. Response of first order system to a step input

2-Dynamics of heating tank :
Consider a perfectly mixed stirred and perfectly insulated tank header ,with a single feed
stream and single product stream, assuming that the flow rate and temperature of the Intel
stream (and that the rate of heat added per unit time (q)) can vary , develop a model to find
the tank temperature as a function of time
Energy balance equation.

Assumption :
constant liquid holdup and constant inflow(w
is constant), a linear model result

Figure Continuous stirred-tank heater

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Subtract equations

Define some important new variables(Deviation variables).

By substituting deviation variables for variables, the transfer functions are not related o
initial conditions.

Apply Laplace Transform.

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3-1Response of first order system
EXAMPLE
system consist of level tank output flow rate is directly proportional to its level drive
transfer function relating out put flow rate to input flow rate and also drive transfer
function relating its level to in put flow rate
Sol.
M.B in unsteady state

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Drive transfer function relating its level to input flow rate

Consider the system shown in Figure which consists of:

1. A tank of uniform cross-sectional area A.

2.Valve attached to the output flow which resistance constant=R.
qo : The output volumetric flow rate (volume / time) through the resistance, is related
to the head h by the linear relationship.

Where:
R is related as a linear resistance

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q(t) is a time varying volumetric flow rate with constant density ρ.

Find the T.F. that relates the head to the input flow rate q(t).
We can analyze this system by writing a transient mass balance around thetank:
Mass flow in - mass flow out = rate of accumulation of mass in the tank

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1-Step change

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2-Ramp Response

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3-impluse

4-sinsoidal response

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By comparing Eq. for the input forcing Y(t) function with Eq. for the ultimate periodic
response X(t), we see that
1. The output is a sine wave with a frequency w equal to that of the input signal.
2. The ratio of output amplitude to input amplitude is 11122<τ+w.
3. The output lags behind the input by an angle φ. It is clear that lag occurs, for the sign of
φ is always negative.

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3-2Non-linear systems
To solve non-linear systems there are two methods:-
1-Linearization method Making the non-linear function as linear using Taylar series and
give approximate results.
2-Non-linear solution It is difficult and give exact solution
Linearization Technique

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2-3-1 Linearization of system with one variable :

1. Turbulent flow
2. Chemical reaction at nth order ≠1
3. Radiation heat transfer
4-Dynamics of liquid level system

Consider the system which consists of a tank of uniform cross –sectional area A to which
is attached a flow resistance R such as a value ,a pipe ,or a weir.
Case 1
The volumetric flow rate "Q" through the resistance is related to the head "H" by linear
relationship (R is linear resistance). The density of liquid is constant. Find the transfer
function which relates the head to inlet flow.

Fig. Liquid level system

Mass balance Mass rate In – Mass rate Out= Mass accumulation in the tank Steady state
mass balance

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Case 2

Fig. Liquid level system with nonlinear resistance

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5-Dynamics of isothermal condition stirred tank reaction(CSTR):

It is important example in chemical eng. , continues stirred tank reactor :
1. 1st order reaction
2. Reaction is carried out isothermally k≠𝑓 (𝑡.)
Rate of reaction under isothermal condition r=f(con.)

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Response of 1st order system to an impulse function

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Fig. Response of first order system to impulse input

Response of 1st order system to rectangular pulse:

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Response of 1st order system to ramp function

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Response of 1st order system to sinusoidal input:

Fig. Response of thermometer to sinusoidal input

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Pure Time Delay system
3-3Translation of function
Time Delay The most commonly used model to describe the dynamics of chemical
process is First-Order Plus Model Delay Model. By proper choice τd , this model can be
represent the dynamics of many industrial processes.
Time delays occur due to
1. Fluid flow in a pipe
2. Transport of solid material (e.g., conveyor belt)
3. Chemical analysis
Sampling line delay
Time required to do the analysis (e.g., on-line gas chromatograph
The Transportation Lag
The transportation lag is the delay between the time an input signal is applied to a system
and the time the system reacts to that input signal. Transportation lags are common in
industrial applications. They are often called “dead time”.

Dead-Time Approximations:-

q i (t) = Input to dead-time element. q o (t) = Output from dead-time element. The simplest
R R R R

dead-time approximation can be obtained graphically or by physical representation.

The accuracy of this approximation depends on the dead time being sufficiently small
relative to the rate of the change of the slope of q i (t). If q i (t) were a ramp (constant slope),
R R R R

the approximation would be perfect for any value of τ d . When the slope of q i (t) varies
R R R R

rapidly, only small τ d ’s will give a good approximation. If the variation in x(t) were some
R R

arbitrary function, as shown in figure below, the response y(t) at the end of the pipe would
be identical with x(t) but again delayed by t

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Figure Response of transportation lag to various inputs.

3-3-1Polynomial Approximations to
For purposes of analysis using analytical solutions to transfer functions, polynomial
approximations for are commonly used. Example: simulation software such as
MATLAB and MatrixX
Two widely used approximations are;
1. Taylor Series Expansion:

The approximation is obtained by truncating after only a few terms.

2. Padé Approximations:

Many are available. For example, the 1/1 approximation is,

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Example: Thermal system

Example: Mixing tank with time delay.

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3-4 Basic Element In Process Control System

1-System with only resistance
Resistance element = proportional element
( Zero order element )
( )
G (s) = =K
( )
˳ ( ) ( )
K:constant
1- Laminar flow in capillary tube
(Hagun Poiseull eqn. )

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2-Turbulent Flow

Laminar Flow

Turbulent Flow

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2-System with only Capacity
G(s)
Where : ( A ) is the Capacitance
1. Liquid Capacitance
If the flows of liquid into tank is independent of the level in the tank. Assumptions
1- The flow is independent of the liquid level
2- No flow resistance
3- at t<0 the tank is empty
4- at t=0 open the valve and the level of liquid increase

Mass balance : Mass flow rate in –mass flow out =rate of accumulation in the tank Steady
state mass balance :

Transient state mass balance

subtracting Eq. 1 from Eq.2:

Laplace transform:

A: cross section area =vessel capacitance

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Discharge of Capacitance through the positive displacement pump t<0 :the pump is
turn off t=0

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CHAPTER4
Response of 1st order systems in series
Many physical systems can be represented by several first-order processes connected in
series as shown in figure:-

Figure 4-1Two-tank liquid-level system: (a) Non-interacting; (b) interacting

In fig (4-1 a) variation of h2 does not effect on q1then.

In fig (4-1 b) variation of h2 does effect on q1then
1-Non Interacting System

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Example 4.1.
Two non-interacting tanks are connected in series as shown in Fig. 4-1 a. The time
constants are τ2 =1 and τ1 =0.5; R 2=1. Sketch the response of the level in tank 2 if a unit-
step change is made in the inlet flow rate to tank 1.
Solution: The transfer function for this system is found directly from Equation above thus

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2. Interacting System

Material balance on second tank

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Interacting system
If the tanks are interacting, the overall transfer function, according to Equation of
interacting system (assuming further that A1=A2)

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Figure4–7Effect of interaction on step response of twotank system

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CHAPTER 5
5-1 Second order system Sources of second order dynamics in the chemical industries
come from a series of first-order systems, or a processing system with a controller.

The order of a
differential equation is the highest degree of derivative present in that equation. A system
whose input-output equation is a second order differential equation is called Second Order
System.
*We set order n = 2 for a second-order system. The ODE reduces to

*Dividing each term by a0, we get

*K is again called the static

sensitivity of the measuring system, as
defined previously.
*Two new constants have been introduced, defined as follows
1-The undamped natural frequency is defined as
and ωn represents the angular frequency at which the system would oscillate
if there were no damping.

2-The damping ratio (identified by the Greek letter zeta) is defined as

Whereas a first-order system requires only one parameter (the first-order
time constant τ) to describe its time response, a second-order system requires two
parameters to describe its time response, namely the undamped natural frequency ωn
and the damping ratio ϛ.
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5-2 Typical 2nd order oscillatory system
simple manometer

Fig. Manometer system

Fp: pressure force

Fp= P.A =P (t) .
Fg: Gravity forces
Fg = h .A ρg
Ff: friction forces
Ff=Δpf .A =ρ g Δ hf .A
momentum balance
Balance of forces on the system=mass of system ×acceleration

Since acceleration =
(Force due to pressure p on lag1 )–(force due to pressure p2on lag2) – ( force due to liquid
level difference in the two lags)-( force due to fluid friction) =(mass of liquid in the
tube)×(acceleration)

Put eq.(2) and (3)in eq.(1)

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5-3Spring –damper system
1. The force exerted by the spring (toward the left)of –ky where k is a positive constant
,called Hooke's constant.
2. The viscous friction force (acting to the left )of –c dy/dt ,where c is positive constant
called the damping coefficient.
3. The external force F(t) (acting toward the right)

Fig. Spring –damper system

Force balance :
F(t) - Fs – Fd = (mass ×acceleration)

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5-4Analysis of Second order system

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5-5Response of second order

1-Case : for 0<ζ<1

Solving by convolution integral:

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5-6Definitions of transient-response specifications.

The performance of the control system can be expressed in the term of transient response
to a unit step input function because it is easy to generate. Let us consider a second-order
control system in which a unit step input signal is given and it is also considered that the
system is initially at rest. That is all initial conditions of the system are zero. The time
response characteristics of the system at underdamped condition is drawn below.

Fig. characteristics of second-order under-damped response

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1-Angular frequency
From eq. of the response y(t)

2- Cycle period Td

3-Delay time (td) is the time required to reach at 50% of its final value by a time response
signal during its first cycle of oscillation.
4-Time of first peak,( tp)
The maximum value of response occur at minimum time at t>0 and sine function =0 .this
is called the peak time. is simply the time required by response to reach its first peak i.e.
the peak of first cycle of oscillation, or first overshoot On differentiating the expression of
y(t) we can obtain the expression for peak time. dy(t)/ dt = 0 we have expression for peak
time

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5- Subsidence ratio (SR)

6-Decay ratio(DR)

7-Over Shoot (OS)

is straight way difference between the magnitude of the highest peak of time response and
magnitude of its steady state. Maximum overshoot is expressed in term of percentage of
steady state value of the response. As the first peak of response is normally maximum in
magnitude, maximum overshoot is simply normalized difference between first peak and
steady-state value of a response.
t= tp:

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8. Rise time (tr) is the time required to reach at final value by a under damped time
response signal during its first cycle of oscillation. If the signal is over damped, then rise
time is counted as the time required by the response to rise from 10% to 90% of its final
value.
In order to derive the expression for the rise time we have to equate the expression for y(t)
= 1. From the above we have:

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9-Settling time (ts) is the time required for a response to become steady
It is defined as the time required by the response to reach and steady
within specified range of 2% to 5% of its final value. Settling time is given by the
expression :

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Angular frequency

Cycle period Td

Time of first peak, tp

Overshoot

Rise time,(tr)

Decay ratio(DR)

Subsidence ratio (SR)

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Example :A control system having transfer function is expressed as :

The radian frequency for the control system is 1.9 rad/min .The time constant is 0.5 min,
The control system is subject to a change of the magnitude 2 .
Calculate i) Rise time ii ) Decay ratio
iii)Maximum value of Y (t) iv) Response time
Solution :

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